D907

MILK HYGIENE
AND
MILK QUALITY
1
Table of contents

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2 THE QUANTITATIVE 2

3 THE QUALITY OF MILK 3

4 MICRO-ORGANISMS 4
4.1 Bacteria 4
4.1.1 Appearance of bacteria 4
4.1.2 Size of bacteria 5
4.1.3 Structure of bacteria 5
4.1.4 Mobility of bacteria 5
4.1.5 Spore formation 6
4.1.6 Conditions for growth of bacteria 6
4.1.7 Reproduction of bacteria 8
4.1.8 Growth curve of bacteria 9
4.1.9 Bacteria in fresh milk 10
4.1.10 Main sources of infection 11
4.1.11 Principal bacteria in milk 12
4.1.12 Effect of temperature and number of bacteria contaminating the milk on
the growth rate. 13
4.2 Fungi 14
4.2.1 Yeast 14
4.2.2 Moulds 15
4.3 Bacteriophages 16

5 NON- MILK- SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOUR IN FRESH MILK 18

5.1 Impurities 18
5.2 Antibiotics 18
5.3 Pesticides 18
5.4 Oxydantiae and Detergents 18
5.5 Off-Flavours 18

6 QUALITY OF FRESH MILK 20

6.1 On the farm 20
6.2 Before milking 20
6.2.1 Utensils 20
6.2.2 During milking 21
6.2.3 After milking 21
6.3 Milk collection 21
6.3.1 Collection of milk 21
 6.3.2 Collection centers 22
6.3.3 Determination of quantity and quality 23

7 PAYMENT OF MILK 24
7.1 Payment on quantity 24
7.2 Payment on hygienic quality 24
7.3 Adulteration 24
7.4 Payment of milk on hygienic quality in the Netherlands 25

8 TESTS 26
8.1 Taking a sample of milk 26
8.2 Smell, taste, colour (as platform test) 26
8.3 Alcohol test (platform test) 26
8.4 Clot on boiling test 27
8.5 Density 27
8.6 Refractive index (refraction) 29
8.7 Temperatures 29
8.8 Purity 30
8.9 Reduction test (Methylene Blue Reduction test) 30
8.10 Fat content using the Gerber test 32
8.11 Total solids 34
8.12 Solids non- fat 36

Document5
1. INTRODUCTION
Good milk handling on the farm and during transport of the milk to the dairy plant, high
quality milk and high quality dairy product are closely linked. Milk is an extremely
perishable product. Micro-organisms capable of spoiling the milk are present
everywhere, e.g. on the udder, on the milker’s hands, on airborne dust particles and
water droplets, on straw, on cow hair, in the soil and on the milking utensils. The
presence of other substances in milk like antibiotics and off-flavour also reduce the
market value of milk. Everything possible must be done to prevent the contamination of
milk. Despite all precautions it is impossible to exclude bacteria completely. Milk should
therefore be chilled to about 4°C immediately after it leaves the cow or it should be
taken to the collection point/dairy plant for immediately chilling or processing. Time
between milking and cooling or processing should not be more than two hours under
tropical and sub-tropical conditions. The main sources of contamination are usually
found on the farm. Therefore first of all it is the farmer who should learn and realise the
importance of good milk handling practices.
The milk processor should give the producer an incentive to produce high quality milk by
including freshness, hygienic quality and composition in the final price.

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2 THE QUANTITATIVE

Table 1. Representative values for some major constituents of good quality milk
different species.

Besides the major constituents fat, protein, lactose and water milk, it also contains
vitamins and minerals. The composition of milk and the pH of about 6.6 make it an
excellent medium for numerous micro-organisms.

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3 THE QUALITY OF MILK
When a cow is healthy, particularly, as far as its udder is concerned, it produces milk of
good quality. In that case, everything possible must be done to MAINTAIN that quality
after the milk has been removed from the udder. This is not only important for drinking
milk, but also for milk that is processed into various dairy products.

Milk factories will normally set some quality standards for milk that is delivered to
factory. The following aspects may be included in quality tests:
 the number of bacteria;
 the presence of dirt;
 the smell;
 the number of somatic cells in milk (mastitis);
 the presence of antibiotics;
 the presence of residues of detergents and disinfectants
(or other substances which may purposely have added
to the milk, by the seller);
 the presence of pesticides.

Not every factory will check all above-mentioned aspects and it goes without saying that
a quality test of the milk of every individual farmer cannot be carried out on a daily basis.
Normally (partial) tests are done every two, or three or four weeks.
If the milk does not pass the test in one way or another, many factories will pay a lower
price for that milk, over the entire test period (two to four weeks). This will affect the
farmer in his income and it will presumably stimulate him to try to deliver good quality
milk. Moreover, the milk factory (also interested in obtaining good quality milk) might
send someone to check the farmer’s way of milking and cleaning and to advise him to
improve his techniques.

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 4 MICRO-ORGANISMS
Micro-organisms is a collective term for all the microscopically small living organisms
which occupy an intermediate position between the vegetable and animal kingdoms.
Some of them are classed as plants and some as animals. They are found wherever life
can exist-in the air, in water and in the soil. Wherever nourishment, moisture and
congenial temperatures are available, they multiply sometimes very rapidly.
Micro-organisms have a very important effect on human life through their ability to cause
infectious diseases. Such diseases are responsible for an enormous amount of human
suffering, although only a very few of the thousands of different types of micro-
organisms cause them. Micro-organisms play a crucial part in the life of our planet. They
serve as food for fish in the sea and they occur abundantly in the soil, where they form
nutrients that can be utilized by plants. The decomposition of dead plants and animals -
an essential part of the grand life cycle- is a breakdown process caused by micro-
organisms. Some micro-organisms are beneficial to dairying, others are of no practical
significance, while others again are harmful. We need to be able to know how they live
and function in order not only to be able to guide their development to suit our own
wishes, but also to be able to combat those micro-organisms which are undesirable in
milk and dairy products.

4.1 Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled organisms that multiply for the most part by fission. The
simplest method of classifying bacteria is according to their appearance. But to be able
to see bacteria they must first be stained and then studied under a microscope at a
magnification of about 1.000. The most widely used method of staining bacteria was
introduced by the Danish bacteriologist Gram and named Gram after him. Bacteria are
divided into two main groups according to their Gram stain characteristics: red Gram
negative and blue Gram positive.

4.1.1 Appearance of bacteria

Bacteria of several different shapes can be distinguished: spherical, rod-shaped and
spiral.

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4.1.2 Size of bacteria
Cocci vary in size between 0,4 and 1.5 mm (1 mm=0,001 mm). The length of bacilli and
spiral bacteria can vary between 2 and 30 mm. Some specie, however, are larger or
smaller than this.

4.1.3 Structure of bacteria

Schematic illustration of bacterial structure.

4.1.4 Mobility of bacteria

Some cocci and many bacilli and spiral bacteria are capable of locomotion in a liquid
nutrient medium. They propel themselves with the help of flagella, the length and

5 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 number of which vary from one type of bacteria to another .The bacteria generally move
at speeds between 1 and 10 times own length per second. The cholera bacterium can
travel 30 times its length per second.
Flagella may be distributed all over the bacterium, or located at one both ends.

4.1.5 Spore formation

Some bacilli can form spores (endospores) in their cytoplasm. Spores are highly
resistant to external influence. If a spore-forming bacterium finds itself in a hostile
environment, e.g. one that lacks the nutrients and moisture needed for growth, the body
of the bacterium generally dissolves, leaving only the spore. It metamorphoses from the
vegetative to the spore state.
Fig.5 shows various kinds of endospore formations.

When the parent cell forms a spore it may retain its original shape, or it may swell in the
middle or at one end, depending on where the endospore is located. Eventually the cell
dissolves and the spore is released. Spores have practically nothing to do with
reproduction of bacteria; they are simply a minimum survival state. When the
environment is favourable once more, the spore germinates and the bacterium is re-
formed. Spores have no metabolism. They can survive for years in dry air and they are
more resistant than bacteria to disinfectants and ultra violet light. They are also resistant
to heat; it takes 20 minutes at 120°C to kill them with 100% certainty. Spore-forming
bacteria in the vegetative state, like all other bacteria, are killed in a few minutes by
boiling at 100°C.

4.1.6 Conditions for growth of bacteria

4.1.6.1 Nutrients
Bacteria need certain nutrients for their growth. Most bacteria need an energy source

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 like lactose, a nitrogen source like protein as well as a source for various salts and
vitamins. Outside the bacterium cell the food is broken down into small water-soluble
substances that can pass through the semi-permeable cytoplasmic membrane. The
bacterium therefore needs access to water. The food outside the cell is broken down
either by enzymes from the bacterium itself or by other organisms (symbiosis).

4.1.6.2 Temperature
Bacteria can only develop within certain temperature limits, which vary from one species
to another. In principle, bacteria can grow at temperatures between the freezing point of
water and the temperature at which the protein in the protoplasm coagulates.
Somewhere between the maximum and minimum temperature lies the optimum. This is
the temperature at which the bacterial strain propagates most vigorously. Temperatures
below the minimum cause growth to stop but do not kill the bacteria. The life functions of
bacteria cease almost completely at a temperature close to the freezing point of water.
Above the maximum temperature the bacteria are soon killed by heat. Most cells die
within a few seconds of being exposed to 70°C, but some bacteria can survive heating
to 85°C for 15 minutes, even though they do not form spores. It takes much more to
heat to kill spores. Treatment with steam at 120°C for 30 minutes ensure the destruction
of all spores, but in dry heat the bacteria must be kept at 160°C for two hours to
guarantee 100% destruction of spores.

Classification by temperature

Bacteria can be divided into the following categories according to their preferred
temperature range:
Psychrophilic (cold-loving) bacteria have an optimum (growth
temperature
below 20°C).
Psychrotrophic (cold-tolerant) bacteria are psychrophilic strains that can
reproduce at a temperature of 7°C or below regardless of
optimum temperature.

Mesophyllic (lovers of the happy medium) have optimum growth

temperature between 20°C and 44°C.
Thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria have their optimum growth
temperature between 45° and 60°C.

The psychrotrophic bacteria are of particular interest to the dairy industry because
microbiological activity in farm milk and market milk usually takes place at a temperature
of 7°C or below.

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4.1.6.3 Moisture
Bacteria cannot grow in the absence of moisture. Many bacteria are quickly killed by
desiccation while others can tolerate dry periods of several months. Bacterial spores can
survive desiccation for periods of years.

4.1.6.4 Oxygen
Some bacteria cannot live without oxygen. They are called aerobic bacteria. For some
bacteria oxygen is a poison. These bacteria are called anaerobic. Other bacteria
consume free oxygen when it is present but they can also grow in the absence of
oxygen. This last group of bacteria is called facultatively anaerobic.

4.1.6.5 Acidity of the environment

The acidity of a nutrient substrate is most simply expressed as its pH value. The growth
rate of bacteria depends on the pH of the environment. We distinguish a minimum, a
maximum and an optimum pH. Sensitivity to changes in pH varies from one bacterium to
another.

4.1.6.6 Salt concentration of the environment

Salt has important influence on the growth rate of bacteria. Generally the higher the
concentration, the more it inhibits the growth of micro-organisms.

4.1.7 Reproduction of bacteria

Bacteria normally reproduce asexually by fission .In favourable conditions of bacteria
can occur at intervals of 20 – 30 minutes.
Theoretically the pattern of reproduction is then as follows:

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 In reality, however, lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic, metabolic waste products,
unfavourable temperature conditions and desiccation soon inhibit the growth rate.
Reproduction finally stops and a large number of bacteria die.

4.1.8 Growth curve of bacteria

THERE ARE 4 STAGES:

1. Lag-phase
It takes some time before the bacteria start to reproduce (grow). The bacteria have to
acclimatize to the new environment and/or may have dormant, e.g. kept at a low
temperature before inoculation. The length of the lag-phase is very important and
depends on:
1. number of bacteria;
2. species of bacteria;
3. temperature of the environment;
4. viability of the bacteria at the time of inoculation;
5. substrate (water, pH, oxygen, carbohydrates, vitamins, etc.).

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 2. Log-phase
During a couple of hours the bacteria reproduce quickly. Reproduction proceeds
logarithmically.

3. Stationary-phase
The number of cells dying, equals the number of new cells produced. Reproduction has
slowed down because of the growing amount of metabolic waste products and, perhaps,
lack of nutrients.

4. Mortality-phase
Formation of new cells ceases entirely and the existing cells gradually die off.

Growth curve of bacteria

The shape of the curve varies with temperature, food supply and other growth
parameters.

4.1.9 Bacteria in fresh milk

Fresh milk contains 1.000 to 500.000 (or more) bacteria per ml. The number and
species of bacteria depends on the milking practice, e.g. the cleanliness of the cow’s
environment and the cleanliness of the new surfaces with which the milk comes into
contact, e.g. the pail, the strainer, the churn, etc.
When milk is secreted in the udder it is virtually sterile. But even before it leaves the
udder bacteria that enter through the teat channel infect it. These bacteria are normally
harmless and few in number, only a few tens or hundreds per ml. Moreover, they don’t
grow well in milk. However, in cases of bacterial udder inflammation (mastitis), milk is
heavily contaminated with bacteria and may even be unfit for consumption. There are
always concentrations of bacteria in the teat channel, but most of them are flushed out

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 at the beginning of milking. It is advisable to collect the first bacteria-rich jets of milk from
each teat in a separate vessel with a black cover. Flocculated milk from diseased
animals shows up readily against the black background.

Table: bacterial count in farm milk

Fresh milk of healthy cows milked under clean conditions can be kept for a few hours at
ambient temperatures without affecting the microbiological quality too seriously. After a
few hours, however, even this high quality milk must be chilled to 4°C. Milk from cows
that are not healthy should not be consumed as this milk may contain pathogens, e.g.
Brucella abortus,
Salmonella paratyphosa, Bacillus anthraces, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and
Clostridium perfringens.

4.1.10 Main sources of infection

1. The cow
The dust on the skin and the hair of the cow may contain up to 5 billion bacteria per
gram. It is very important to keep the cow clean and to cut the hair near the udder. (Coli-
bacteria, Butyric acid bacteria and Putrefaction bacteria).

2. The milking shed (place)

The soil and the floor of the milking shed are important sources of Butyric acid and coli-
bacteria.

3. Cattle feed/ fodder

If cattle feed is mixed with milk obviously all the bacteria in the feed will contaminate the

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 milk. If cattle are fed food that causes Diarrhoea, bacteria may reach the milk via the
dung (usually spore-forming bacteria).

4. The cow shed

The cow shed must be kept clean, cool and dust-free. It must be constructed in such a
way that cleaning is very easy.

5. Milking utensils
Infection by contact: this is the most important source of contamination. One milliliter
spoiled milk may contain 5 billion bacteria, bacteria that usually grow very well in milk. If
one milliliter of spoiled milk is diluted by
10 l of fresh milk then will increase the bacteria count of the milk by 500.000 per ml. One
ml of milk is not much and may easily be neglected when the utensil.

6. Strainers
Straining may increase the bacteria count if not carried out properly.

7. The milker
The milker is responsible for clean animals, a clean milking shed and clean and
disinfected utensils. He must wash his hands before he starts milking and he should be
dressed properly with clean clothes. He should be healthy and he should not cough over
the milk.

4.1.11 Principal bacteria in milk

4.1.11.1 Lactic acid bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria are found almost everywhere in nature, but they occur especially in
large numbers in places where there is milk. They ferment lactose to lactic acid. Heating
to 70°C kills most of them, though the lethal temperature for some is as high as 80°C.

4.1.11.2 Coli bacteria

Coli bacteria are facultatively anaerobic bacilli with optimum temperature of 37°C.They
are found in the intestines, in manure, in soil, in contaminated water and on plants. They
ferment lactose to lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen and they break down milk
protein, giving rise to an unclean flavour and smell. Coli bacteria are killed by HTST
pasteurisation. They are used as test organisms for routine bacteriological control.

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4.1.11.3 Butyric acid bacteria
Butyric acid bacteria are very common in nature. They are found in soil, on plants, in
manure etc. and easily find their way into milk. Badly stowed silage and fodder
contaminated with soil may have extremely high counts of butyric-acid bacteria with the
result that milk becomes heavily infected with these organisms of their spores. Butyric
acid bacteria are anaerobic spore forming bacilli with an optimum temperature of 37°C.
They do not grow well in milk, which contains oxygen but thrive in cheese, where more
anaerobic conditions prevail.

4.1.11.4 Putrefaction bacteria

Putrefaction bacteria produce protein-splitting enzymes. They can therefore break down
proteins all the way down to ammonia. This type of break down is called putrefaction.
This group of bacteria is especially found in water and in soil.

4.1.12 Effect of temperature and number of bacteria contaminating the milk on the
growth rate.

Table 4 shows that the growth rate at 4.5°C is rather slow. At 10°C the growth rate has
increased considerably and at 16°C the growth rate is very fast indeed. Comparing table
4 and 5 we see that the growth rate is higher when the contamination is higher.
However, the temperature has much more effect on the bacterial growth than the initial
contamination.

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 4.2 Fungi
Fungi are a group of micro-organisms which occur very widely in nature among plants,
animals and human beings. Different species of fungi vary a great deal in structure and
method of reproduction. Fungi may be round, oval or threadlike. The threads may form a
network visible to the naked eye in the form of mould on food, for example. Fungi are
divided into yeasts and moulds.

4.2.1 Yeast
Yeasts are single-cell organisms of spherical elliptical or cylindrical shape. The size of
yeast cells varies very much. The yeast used to brew beer, Sacchromyces cerevisiae,
has a diameter in the order of 2-8 mm and a length of 3-15 mm. Some yeast cells of
species may be as much as 100 mm.

4.2.1.1 Conditions for growth of yeast

(a) Nutrients
As for bacteria: see 4.1.6.1.

(b) Temperature
Yeast cells do not normally grow at temperatures below the freezing point of water or
above 47°C. Optimum temperature: 20-0°C. Yeast is killed by a few minutes exposure to
60-62°C.

(c) Moisture
Yeast needs less water than bacteria. Some species can grow in media with a very low
water content such as honey or jam.

(d) Oxygen
Yeast is facultatively anaerobic. In the absence of oxygen yeast breaks down sugar to
alcohol and water, while in the presence of oxygen it breaks down sugar to carbon
dioxide and water.

(e) Acidity
Yeast can grow in media with pH values ranging from 3 to 7.5. The optimum pH is
usually 4.5-5.0.

4.2.1.2 Importance of yeast

Yeasts are generally undesirable organisms from the dairy point of view. They ferment

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 milk and cream and cause certain defects in cheese and butter .On the other hand, in
the brewing, baking and distillation industries, they are valuable co-workers .The yeast
used in those industries reproduce by budding, but also form spores.

4.2.2 Moulds
The mould fungus has a many-branched body called the mycelium, which may be
microscopically small or large enough to be seen by the naked eye. The mycelium
consists of individual threads called hyphae. In some species of moulds the hyphae are
long, hose like cells containing many nuclei, while in others the hyphae are divided into
mononuclear cells by partition walls. The mould absorbs nourishment through the
hyphae that also attach it to the substrate. The hyphae constitute the vegetative part of
the fungus. The part responsible for reproduction consists of hyphae that often grow
straight up and carry spores. Mould fungi metabolise in the same way as bacteria and
yeasts. The action of moulds on fat and protein is important for the dairy industry.

4.2.2.1 Conditions for growth of moulds

(a) Nutrients
As for bacteria: see 4.1.6.1.

(b)Temperatures
Optimum temperatures: 20 – 30°C.

(c) Moisture
Moulds need water but often less than yeasts.

(d) Oxygen
Moulds normally grow in the presence of oxygen.

(e) Acidity
Mould fungi can grow in substrate with pH values from 2 to 8.5. Many species, however,
prefer an acid nutrient.

(f) Salt concentrations

Moulds are sensitive to salts. A common salt (NaCl) solution begins to inhibit their
growth at a concentration of 3%. Maximum salt concentration is 8 – 10%.

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4.2.2.2 Importance of moulds
Moulds do not survive HTST pasteurisation. Two species are quite important.

(a) Penicillium
The penicillium family is one of the commonest types of mould. The spore forming
hyphae of this family are branched at the tip, resembling a brush. Green mould, which
occurs very widely in nature, belongs to this family. Some species of penicillia play an
important part in dairy processes. Their powerful protein and fat splitting properties
make them the chief agents in the ripening of Blue cheese, Camembert, etc. The Blue
cheese mould is called Penicillium roquefort and the Camembert mould Penicillium
camembert.

(b) Oospora lactis

The milk mould Oospora lactis is on the borderline between yeasts and moulds. It
occurs on the surface of cultured milk as a fine white velvety coating. This mould
contributes to the ripening of semi-soft and soft cheeses. In butter, it may cause
rancidity. Moulds on the surface of cheese and butter can give rise to discoloration and
also give the product an off flavour. A mould colony on the surface of cheese, for
example, may easily cause “mould penetration” and “rot holes”. Strict hygiene is
necessary in the dairy to prevent products from being affected by moulds during
processing. Walls and ceiling must for example be kept scrupulously clean to prevent
moulds from setting there.

4.3 Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages belong to the group of micro-organisms called viruses. A virus is a very
small organism (0.01-0.1 mm). They feed on living cells of plants and animals. Viruses
like foot and mouth disease cause several serious diseases. Bacteriophages are viruses
that feed on bacteria. They are round or oval and usually have a short tail. The
bacteriophage uses this tail to attach itself to the surface of a bacterium, penetrate the
cell wall and injects its nuclear substance into interior of the bacterium. This substance
from the bacteriophage begins to control the bacterium so that the cell produces new
bacteriophages (20-200 per bacterium). Within 25-90 minutes the bacterium cell is
destroyed on temperature and pH. The growth rate of bacteriophages is much higher
than that of bacteria.

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Bacterial count in farm milk

A culture attached by bacteriophages is destroyed very rapidly. Bacteriophages are

highly specific. Bacteriophages occur in a large number in manure, soil and surface
water. In fact they are found everywhere in nature where there is a plentiful supply of
bacteria. Phages grow at temperatures between 10 and 45°C. They are killed by 30
minutes’ exposure to temperatures between 63 and 88°C. They can tolerate pH levels
as high as 11 and as low as 3 without being inactivated. Phages generally enter the
dairy with the farm milk. If the reception department is not screened off from the rest of
the dairy, the risk of infection is especially great. The microscopic droplets of milk that
splash up during weighing-in are thrown into the air, dry and quickly spread all over the
place. When this happens, it is very difficult to avoid infection of kettle milk and cream.
Chemical disinfectants, especially chlorine preparations, have proved very effective
against bacteriophages. A sodium hypochlorite solution in a concentration of 0.05% free
chlorine can kill them completely in less than 1 minute. Surfaces that are difficult to
disinfect, such as the walls and tools in cheese vats, can be rendered phage-free by
rising or spraying with a 0.1 sodium hypochlorite solution.

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 5 NON- MILK- SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOUR IN FRESH MILK

5.1 Impurities
1. Soil, straw, dung, fodder, etc. should not be present in milk for three
reasons: it shows that milking and milk-collection was not done under
hygienic circumstances;
2. soil, straw and especially dung may contain huge numbers of bacteria that
may spoil the milk very rapidly;
3. they may also contain toxic substances and off-flavours.

5.2 Antibiotics
Cows with mastitis are usually treated with penicillin. People should not take in penicillin
accidentally by drinking milk. Penicillin also has an adverse effect on starter cultures in
the processing plant. Therefore, fresh milk sent to the plant or sold directly to the
consumer should not contain penicillin.

5.3 Pesticides
Pesticides can enter the milk directly or via the cow’s blood system. Pesticides should
not be present in the milk.

5.4 Oxydantiae and Detergents

Detergents and disinfectants containing oxidants are used to clean utensils and to kill
micro-organisms. Oxydantiae also affect milk: oxidation of fats is leading to rancidity and
other off-flavours especially in fatty products like butter and ghee. After cleaning the
milking equipment with detergents and disinfectants it should be rinsed thoroughly with
fresh, clean water.

5.5 Off-Flavours
Milk absorbs substances that cause off-flavour in milk and milk-product very easily. This
off-flavour enters the milk either directly or indirectly.

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If a cow eats strong smelling fodder within two hours before milking, the smell and taste
will develop in the milk. Milk stored near strong smelling silage, petrol or paint will
absorb the flavours of these products. Waste products of bacteria may also cause a bad
taste and/or smell.

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 6 QUALITY OF FRESH MILK

Quality could be divided into:

1. hygienic quality
 -microbiological quality (keeping quality);
 -physical quality (presence of non-milk-substances);
2. compositional quality
 fat content;
 protein content;
 adulteration.

6.1 On the farm

Milk is the most important raw material for the dairy industry and therefore the dairy
industry is interested in milk of the best possible quality. In generally the industry will pay
a milk price according to the quality of the milk: the higher quality, the higher price. This
is important for the farmer, as he is the first person responsible for the quality of the milk.
Moreover, the farmer can do a lot to improve the quality of the milk via hygienic milk
handling practices before, during and after milking.

6.2 Before milking

The places where the animals (cows, sheep, buffaloes, etc.) are going to be milked must
be clean, dustfree and cool. The animals must also be clean, dustfree and with short
hair around the udder. Before one starts with milking, the udder should be cleaned with
a damp towel followed by a dry cloth. The first milk should be put aside. Check this milk
for milk for visible abnormalities (blood, cells, viscosity, colour and small hard pieces).

6.2.1 Utensils
A fundamental requirement in handling milk and milk products is the cleanliness of
utensils.
This is not always easily accomplished: goat skins, calabashes and locally made
containers of wood and other materials are still widely used. The sanitation of these is
rather doubtful.
In this light the use of old oil drums and kerosene containers, properly cleaned, is a step
forward. The best utensils, however, are metal ones. Prior to starting with milking all
equipment should be cleaned and disinfected with hot water, soap and disinfectant.
Rinse the equipment afterwards with fresh clean water. If a strainer is used the cotton
wad should be renewed.

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6.2.2 During milking
 Prevent dust, dung etc. entering the milk. Separate good and poor milk, e.g.
colostrum, milk that is red or too yellow. (N.B. colostrum is not really poor milk,
but it is difficult to process in the plant because of its abnormal composition).
 Do not cough over the milk.
 Strain the milk but use a proper strainer with a single service cotton wad or clean
cloth.
 Collect the milk in closed-topped cans standing in a dust free, clean, cool place.

6.2.3 After milking

Keep the milk in a can with a lid. Either chill the milk fast or as soon as possible or take it
to the collection point (plant) immediately. Again, use closed topped cans. Do not use
open pails with a block of wood or a bundle of straw to be placed on top of the milk to
minimize slopping and loss. The time between milking and delivery at a collection point
(where the milk should be chilled or processed immediately) should not be more than
two hours. The milking utensils must be cleaned immediately after use and kept in a dry,
dust free, cool place. Do not use the milking utensils for any other purpose.

6.3 Milk collection

As milk is very perishable the collection of milk is a very critical operation for the dairy
industry. There are no general solutions on how to organize milk collection. Each
situation asks for its own solution.

6.3.1 Collection of milk

Milk collection costs money, up to 10% of the milk price. Milk collection cannot prevent,
even under most favourable conditions, deterioration of milk. A system should be
developed that minimizes deterioration, is appropriate to the local conditions and is
economically viable. Within the traditional milk marketing system, collection is usually
done without refrigeration or at least without using artificially produced cold. Whereas
with the modern milk marketing systems the use of chilling centres for milk collection is a
common feature. Maintaining, repairing and replacing chilling equipment is a difficult
problem either because of lack of foreign currency or lack of skilled labour or both. The
containers used for delivery to collection centres or processors are often unsuitable.
Anything from glass and plastic bottles, calabashes, wooden containers, burnt out
kerosene tins to any type of metal buckets and pails are in use. In addition, they are
often not well cleaned. A good, all-weather road system is seldom available. Poor roads
together with frequent breakdowns of transport and irregularities in collection are some
of the major obstacles for milk collection.

21 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 Milk can be taken to the dairy plant:
a. by the farmers themselves;
b. by the dairy plant;
c. by third parties on contract basic.

In the first two cases there is direct contact between farmer and plant. This is important
for building and maintaining a good relationship of mutual trust and understanding. In
the event the farmer takes the milk to the plant he may expect a higher price, as the
plant has no collection expenditure. Contracting third parties may be cheaper for the
plant than organizing its own collection system.

There are, however, disadvantages:

a. there is no direct contact between plant and farmer;
b. there may not be sufficient guarantees that contractor will run the collection
time;
c. the third party may have a contract with another plant and may deliver to the
plant that pays more. The farmers will not object, as they do not really know
where the milk is going after collection. (Or are not interested as long as they
are getting paid);
d. it is not likely that the efforts of the plant to improve the quality of the milk by
paying for quality will have results if the plant does not pay the farmers
directly.

6.3.2 Collection centers

Often it is not possible to take milk directly from the individual farmers to the plant.
Especially if there are many small suppliers, it is better to take the milk to one central
point first. From this point the milk will be transported to the plant. Such a point could be
an open spot along the roadside or a regular collection centre. The latter exists of a
building with collection equipment. Part time or permanent staff can supervise it.
Generally milk produced under tropical and subtropical conditions should be cooled to
4°C within two hours after milking.
The time available, however, depends on:
a. hygienic quality of the milk (e.g. bacteria/ml);
b. holding temperature;
c. time between cooling and processing;
d. danger of temporary increases of temperature between cooling and processing;
e. cleanliness of equipment used between milking and processing;
f. milk handling between milking and processing.
Cooling at the farm is usually uneconomic. The number and outfit of the collection
centres depend on the present and expected future availability of milk. Start with a
modest centre with simple equipment and extend the centre as the intake increases.

22  PTC+
6.3.3 Determination of quantity and quality
The village collection station or roadside pick-up point should also be the focus of quality
control and quantity measurements since it is very important that the supplier sees
evidence that the quality of his milk is fairly judged. Only tests that take little time, the so-
called “platform” tests, can be used. The more important ones are those for:
(a) appearance: colour, smell, taste, dirt;
(b) acidity: alcohol test, clot on boiling test, smell, taste;
(c) density: the density test is often used as an indicator for adulteration with
water. However, the density varies already considerably with the fat content
of the milk with the result that only serious adulteration can be spotted;
(d) refractive index: a test that can be used for the same purpose as the
(e) density test. It also varies with individual animals;
(f) temperature: in case the milk should have a certain temperature.

The quantity of the milk must be measured after the “platform” tests have been carried
out. One can measure the quantity by volume or by weight. Measuring sticks in
combination with a corresponding vessel, vessels with known volumes and vessels with
attached measuring tubes (communicating vessels). The latter allows measuring small
quantities of milk fairly accurately but is very difficult to clean. A main obstacle to
accurate volumetric is the foam forming property of milk and the resulting inaccuracy
and time consuming already. The determination of the milk quantity by weight is quicker,
but needs accurate and more expensive equipment if one has to do with small
quantities.

23 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 7 PAYMENT OF MILK
Common sense tells us that the payment of milk should be based on hygienic quality as
well as quantity. The plant is interested in high quality milk to be able to produce high
quality products. However, especially when starting a new collection scheme with new
suppliers it may be necessary to accept all the milk delivered in order to get sufficient
milk and to prevent that farmers sell rejected milk to third parties like middlemen or
directly to consumers. Actually before the scheme starts the farmers should be taught
good milk handling practices. The result of the platform test is not used for the payment
of milk. Milk that passes the platform test is not necessarily milk of hygienic quality. To
determine the hygienic quality more elaborate time consuming test must be done.

The system of payment must be such that:

(a) the farmer gets a fair price for the quantity of milk supplied and a reward for
his effort to produce high quality milk;
(b) adulteration of milk is prevented and/or punished.

7.1 Payment on quantity

Different systems are being used be the dairy industry:
(a) payment based on quantity only;
(b) payment based on quantity and fat content;
(c) payment based on quantity, fat and protein content;
(d) payment based on fat content only;
(e) payment based on fat and protein content.

Note: Samples are taken after every delivery, preserved with sodium bichromate or
formalin and tested once a week or fortnight. (Composite samples).

7.2 Payment on hygienic quality

Major tests are:
(a) purity test )
(b) reduction test ) e.g. every 2 weeks
(c) cell count )
(d) antibiotics )
(e) oydanticiea ) e.g. every 3 months
(f) pesticides )

7.3 Adulteration
Milk can be adulterated by various means:
(a) Addition of water. This can be tested with the density test or the refractometer test.

24  PTC+
 Both are not very accurate. Determination of the freezing point would be the
method;
(b) Extraction of fat. This cannot be detected.
(c) Addition of reconstituted skimmed milk. This is very hard to detect.
(d) Neutralisation of sour milk. This is very hard to detect.

7.4 Payment of milk on hygienic quality in the Netherlands

Table: Payment of milk on hygienic quality in the Netherlands since January 2010
(Foqus system of Friesland Campina) SEE Manual D908.

25 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 8 TESTS

8.1 Taking a sample of milk

Equipment
1. Sample bottle (sterile if necessary).
2. Stainless steel sampling spoon.
3. Agitator (stainless steel) = plunger.
4. Disinfectant e.g. ethanol 70% or hypochlorite
5. Burner (gas, spirit).

Procedure.
1. Mix the milk properly with the agitator so that the milk becomes
homogeneous
2. Disinfect the clean sampling spoon and agitator by immersion in a
disinfecting solution for at least 5 minutes or by immersion in ethanol 70%
passing them through a flame.
3. Do not use them before excess liquid has drained away.
4. Take a sample with the spoon and fill the sample bottle so that the
contents can be mixed thoroughly

Note: If the sample is needed for bacteriological tests the procedure must be
adapted.

8.2 Smell, taste, colour (as platform test)

Procedure
1. Remove the lid of the churn.
2. Smell immediately. Milk with an abnormal colour should be rejected.
Examine the milk. Dirt, blood, flies, coagulation and colostrums can be
recognized.
3. Taste the milk. Sugar, flour, or salts that may have been added to mask
adulteration with water may be detected.
4. Record the results.

8.3 Alcohol test (platform test)

Equipment
1. Test tube
2. Ethanol 70% (neutral towards phenolphthalein).

Procedure
1. Put a certain quantity of milk into the test tube (take a sample as described in 8.1).

26  PTC+
 2. Add the same quantity of ethanol 70%.
3. Mix the two liquids and check for any precipitate especially on the glass wall of the
test tube.

The alcohol test is meant to sort out all milk with an increased acidity.

Disadvantages are:
(a) colostrum, bad mastitis milk and milk with an abnormal salt balance may also
curdle, even if the acidity is normal;
(b) buffalo milk with a slightly increased acidity will give a positive alcohol test. In this
case one should change the strength of the ethanol solution.

8.4 Clot on boiling test

Equipment
1. Test tube, ca. 20 ml.
2. Test tube plus clothes peg.
3. Burner (gas, paraffin).

Procedure
1. Put ca. 5 ml. of milk into the test tube.
2. Boil the milk while swinging the test tube round.
3. After boiling check for coagulated milk.
4. Remove the milk from the test tube carefully and check if any precipitation
can be seen on the glass tube.

Milk with a sufficiently increased acidity will clot on boiling. If the result of the test is
positive the milk is unfit for pasteurisation. Milk of different mammals shows different
acidities on clot-on-boiling. In general the clot-on-boiling test is less stringent than the
alcohol test.

8.5 Density
Equipment
1. Cylindrical lactodensimeter jar.
2. Two water baths: one is 40-50°C and the other one is 20°C.
3. Lactodensimeter (or lactometer).
4. Thermometer.

Procedure
1. Heat the milk 40°C and keep it at this temperature for 5 minutes. Swing round
carefully so that the milk is not mixed with air

27 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 2. Cool slowly to 30°C and remove the air if necessary.
3. Cool quickly to 20 (+/-) 2°C.
4. Poor the milk carefully into a lactodensimeter jar. The inclusion of air should be
avoided as this will decrease the density reading.
5. Fill the jar to overflowing and remove any air bubbles.
6. Insert the lactodensimeter gently into the milk and release it at the approximate
point of equilibrium thus avoiding wetting more than a very short length of the
stem above the milk surface.
7. Read the lactodensimeter as soon as it comes to rest.
8. Take down the reading.
9. Read the temperature of the milk. This should be between 18°C and 22°C; how
closer to 20°C, how better.
10. If the temperature of the milk is not 20°C exactly make a correction for the
reading of the lactodensimeter. Add 0.0001 each 0.5°C more than 20°C.
Subtract 0.0001 for each 0.5°C less than 20°C.
11. The figure calculated according to point 10 is the density of milk at 20°C.
(Note: Usually a correction has to be made depending on the particular lactodensimeter.
This is done before point 10).

Note:
1. The difference between two duple samples carried out by the same person
may not be more than 0.0002 g/ml.
2. This method may not be used if the acidity of the milk is more than 22°N.

The density van be calculated as follows.

28  PTC+
 d 20 = 1 + g g/ml
1000
d 20 is the density at 20°C
g is the reading of the lactodensimeter after correction for the meter and the
temperature.
Example: if g = 28.8; d 20 = 1 + 28.8 = 1.0288 g/ml.
1000

8.6 Refractive index (refraction)

Equipment
1. Refractometer calibrated for milk.
2. Water bath 40°C.

Procedure
1. Heat milk to 40°C.
2. Put one drop of milk on the refractometer and read the refraction.

Note:
The refraction depends on the total dissolved solid content. The refraction index may be
used to detect adulteration with water. Additional decreases the concentration of soluble
substances and thus the refractive index. Addition of sugar or salt increases the
refraction. Moreover, the refractive index depends on the species and individual
animals.

The refraction of bulk milk from many different suppliers could be more or less constant.
cow : n = 1.3450 – 1.3472
buffalo : n = 1.3460 – 1.3490

8.7 Temperatures
Equipment
1. Alcohol thermometer.
2. Plunger.

Procedure
1. Mix the milk with the plunger.
2. Disinfect the thermometer.
3. Immerse the lower part of the thermometer in the milk.
4. Read the temperature when the column of alcohol does not move any more.

29 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 Note:
Especially when you expect chilled milk to be supplied the temperature not be checked
on delivery.

8.8 Purity
Equipment
1. Apparatus for purity test (standardized).
2. Cotton wad filter (standardized).
3. Petroleum either (boiling range 40-60°C) DANGER
4. Water bath 37°C.

Procedure
1. Heat the milk to 37°C (+/-) 2°C. Swing round.
2. Filter ca. 150 ml. through the cotton wad.
3. Dry the cotton wad at 60-80°C for not more than two hours.
4. Immerse the cotton wads that are more or less yellow in petroleum either for
2.5 minutes.
5. Compare the result with standard colours. The value of this is not uniformly
accepted. Farmers may be careless in milking and remove dirt by straining
the milk. Since bacteria can pass the filter, the bacteriological quality of the
milk will not improve. It may even become worse because dirt collected on
the filter from a previous quantity of milk will be “washed out “ by the
following quantity, thus dispersing the bacteria in the milk. This can be
avoided by replacing the filter regularly.

8.9 Reduction test (Methylene Blue Reduction test)

Equipment
1. Reductase test tubes.
2. Rubber stoppers.
3. Water bath 37 (+/-)°C with lid
4. Pipettes, 0.5 ml.
5. Methylene blue tablets.

Preparation
1. Clean the glassware and rubber stoppers in hot water with a suitable
detergent. Rinse with hot water.
2. Heat glass ware and rubber stoppers in boiling water for at least 10 minutes
(glassware may be sterilized).
3. Put test tubes upside down to remove all water.
4. Rinse after cleaning with 70% ethanol and then with boiled, still warm water.

30  PTC+
 5. Dissolve 1 methylene blue tablet in some boiled, still warm water, and up to
200 ml at 20°C.

Procedure
1. Write down the sequence of the test tubes.
2. Pour 0.5 ml methylene blue solution in the test tubes.
3. Add 20 ml of the milk samples.
4. Close the test tubes aseptically.
5. Put the test tubes in the water bath. The water level should be a little higher
than the level in the tubes. Write down the time.
6. Within 10 minutes the milking methylene blue collection should be at 37°C.
7. Cover the water bath with the lid.
8. Turn the tubes upside down two an hour.
9. Check the tubes at regular intervals.
10. Take down the time it took the milk sample to change its colour (blue white).

Disadvantages:
(a) Not all bacteria have same reducing capacity.
(b) Bacteria in milk that has been stored over longer periods at low
temperatures are in a “dormant” state and will not develop in the period
normally set for this test.
(c) Milk with a high cell count will show a short reduction time, even if the
bacteriological quality is good. For these the determination of the
germination number is sometimes preferred.

31 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

8.10 Fat content using the Gerber test
Equipment
1. Water baths 40-50°C and 20(+/-) 2°C.
2. Pipettes 10.77 ml (at 20°C).
3. Gerber butyrometers.
4. Apparatus for adding sulphuric acid automatically.
5. Sulphuric acid (d20 = 1.816 +/- 0.003 g/ml).
6. Apparatus for adding amylalcohol automatically.
7. Amylalcohol.
8. Rubber stoppers for butyrometers.
9. Apparatus to shake the butyrometers.
10. Centrifuge.

Procedure
1. Check the sequence of the samples and take care that this remains the same
throughout.
2. Heat the samples to 35-40°C in water of not more than 50°C while swinging them
round. Remove the air, if necessary, when the milk is 30°C.
3. Cool the samples quickly to 20 +/- 2°C while swinging them round. Prevent the
milk mixing with air.
4. Put 10 ml sulphuric acid in the butyrometers.
5. Add 10.77 ml of milk.
6. Add 1.05 ml. amylacolhol.
7. Seal the butyrometers with rubber stoppers. The stoppers should touch the liquid
in the butyrometers.
8. Shake the butyrometers until it’s contents are thoroughly mixed and no white
particle can be seen (at least 30 seconds). Turn the butyrometers a few times
and shake again. (Use safety glasses!).
9. Put the butyrometers with the stem upward in a water bath of 65°C +/- 2°C for 5
minutes. The level of the fat column in the butyrometer should be below the
water level in the water bath.
10. Adjust the level of the fat column in the butyrometer if necessary.
11. Put the butyrometer in the centrifuge.
12. Within two minutes the centrifuge should reach 1100 r.p,m.
13. Return the butyrometers to the water bath of 65°C +/- 2°C. All milk fat should be
below the water level of water bath.
14. After 5 minutes start reading the results.
15. Before reading make the stem of the butyrometer dry. Hold the butyrometer
vertically and apply, if necessary, pressure to the rubber stopper to bring the
column of fat on the scale. Fat percentages are calculated by subtracting the
lower reading from the higher one. The result is then checked by taking another

32  PTC+
 reading after a further three minutes immersion in the water bath.
16. Read with an accuracy of 0.01%.
17. Correct for deviations according to the following table.

33 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

 Cleaning of glassware
Clean the butyrometer immediately after use by shaking and rinsing with a suitable
detergent (use hot water).
1. Remove the water and leave the butyrometer with the stem upwards for drying.
2. Clean the rubber stoppers in hot water with a suitable detergent and rinse with
cold water.
3. Dry the rubber stoppers and keep them in dry, cool place. Do not use old rubber
stoppers with cracks.

8.11 Total solids

Using the fat content and the density of the same milk one can calculate the dry matter
content of that milk.

TS = (1.23 F + 2.6) x 100 (d 20- 0.9982)

d 20
In which
TS = Total Solids content ( percentage in weight ).
F = Fat content (percentage in weight) using a pipette of 10.77 ml.
d 20 = density at 20°C (gram/ml).

34  PTC+
For easily calculations the following tables be used:

2.6 x 100 ( d 20 – 0.9982 )

d 20

35 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

8.12 Solids non- fat
The solids-non-fat content of milk is found by deducting the milk fat content from the
total solids content. Generally the solids-non-fat content is not used for the payment of
milk.

36  PTC+