Final Dairy Note

D905
COMPOSITION OF
MILK
Content
1 COMPOSITION OF MILK 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Comparison of milk of various mammals 3
1.3 Colostrum 3
1.4 Some factors that affect the composition of milk 4
2 STRUCTURE OF MILK 9
3 MILK FAT 11
3.1 Milk fat globules 11
3.2 Fatty acids of milk fat 11
3.3 Minor components of milk fat 15
4 PROTEINS 16
4.1 Milk: a buffer solution 16
4.2 Denatured proteins 17
4.3 Iso-electric point of proteins 18
4.4 Casein 18
4.4.1 -s1-casein 18
4.4.2 ß-casein 18
4.4.3 κ-casein 19
4.4.4 Precipitation of casein by acid 19
4.4.5 Precipitation of casein by enzymes 19
4.4.6 Precipitation of casein by salts 19
4.4.7 Precipitation of casein by alcohol 20
4.5 Albumin 20
4.6 Globulin 20
4.7 Membrane proteins 20
5 ENZYMES 21
5.1 Phosphatase 21
5.2 Peroxidase 21
5.3 Lipase 22
5.4 Xanthine oxidase 22
6 LACTOSE 23
7 VITAMINS 25
8 MINERALS 26
9 MINOR CONSTITUENTS OF MILK 27

9.1 Agglutinin 27
9.2 Lactenine 27
9.3 Gas 27
9.4 Body cells 27
10 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK 28

10.1 Appearance 28
10.2 Density 28
10.3 Freezing point 28
10.4 pH 29
11 NON-MILK SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOURS IN FRESH MILK 30

11.1 Impurities 30
11.2 Antibiotics 30
11.3 Pesticides 30
11.4 Detergents and disinfectants 30
11.5 Off-flavours 30
1 COMPOSITION OF MILK
1.1 Introduction
Milk has a very complex composition. This differs, not only among the various species
but it also may vary much within any species or individuals within that species. Some
of its constituents, such as milk fat, milk sugar, and casein are not found elsewhere,
either in the body or in nature. Milk is practically the only foodstuff that contains all of
the different substances known to be essential for human nutrition. Nevertheless, milk
alone is not a complete food for many animals after they have grown beyond the
suckling stage. Some of the essential nutrients such as iron, copper, and manganese,
and some of the vitamins, are not present in sufficient amount or in the proper
proportion to supply the requirements of complete nutrition. At birth, normal infants
have a sufficient reserve of the mentioned minerals to last them until their diet can
include foods which contain them, but certain vitamins, such as ascorbic acid and
vitamin D often must be added to the infants' diet.
1 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

Water % Protein % Fat % Lactose % Ash %
Cow See table 2.2.
Human 87.60 1.20 3.80 7.00 0.21
Ass 89.02 1.98 2.45 6.04 0.45
Buffalo 82.44 4.74 7.40 4.64 0.78
Camel 87.67 3.45 3.02 5.15 0.71
Cat 83.05 7.00 4.50 4.85 0.60
Dog 74.55 3.15 10.20 11.30 0.80
Elephant 85.63 3.20 3.12 7.42 0.63
Ewe 80.87 5.40 8.05 4.78 0.90
Goat 87.33 3.50 4.15 4.20 0.82
Llama 86.55 3.90 3.15 5.60 0.80
Mare 89.18 2.60 1.59 6.14 0.49
Porpoise 41.28 11.20 45.80 1.15 0.57
Rabbit 68.50 12.95 13.60 2.40 2.55
Reindeer 63.38 10.25 22.42 2.50 1.45
Seal 34.00 12.00 54.00 none 0.53
Sow 80.63 6.15 7.60 4.70 0.92
Vixen 81.86 6.35 6.25 4.23 1.31
Whale 69.80 9.43 19.40 ? 0.99
Zebu 86.20 3.00 4.80 5.30 0.70

Table 1.1. Average composition of the milk of certain mammals
Breed Water Fat% Protein Lactose Ash% Total Solids not

% % % Solids% fat%
Ayrshire 87.42 3.85 3.32 4.70 0.58 0.71 8.73
Brown 86.93 3.95 3.43 5.00 0.73 13.07 9.16

Swiss
Guernsey 85.89 4.70 3.75 4.86 0.75 14.16 9.36
Holstein 88.12 3.52 3.30 4.70 0.86 12.21 8.69
Jersey 85.60 5.05 3.75 4.84 0.82 14.40 9.35
Short Horn 87.42 3.70 3.32 4.82 0.74 12.58 8.88

Table 1.2. Average % composition of milk of different breeds of cows
2  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

1.2 Comparison of milk of various mammals
The average composition of cow's milk, as well as the composition of that of other
mammals, based upon a study of over 300,000 chemical analyses published by various
authorities, is given in tables 2.1 and 2.2.
The variation in the composition of milk of different kinds of animals seems to be
related to differences in the stage of development of their young at the time of birth.
Some animals, such as cows, goats, horses, and sheep, are comparatively well
developed and practically able to take care of themselves within a short time after
birth. Others, such as rabbits, pigs, dogs, and cats, are comparatively helpless at
birth and much bodily development is needed before they are capable of caring of
themselves. The milk must furnish to the second group more bodybuilding nutrients,
such as protein and minerals, whereas animals of the first group need substances
that supply more energy, such as fat and carbohydrate (lactose). Human milk
cannot be classified in this manner, but its composition is nearest to that of the
equine animals. The human child grows more slowly than the young of animals used
for milking.
1.3 Colostrum
Colostrum is the secretion of the mammary glands during the first few days of lactation
after giving birth. It differs from normal milk in composition, flavour, and odour. The
odour is strong and the flavour bitter. A temporary increase in fat occurs shortly after
calving. For about the first three days the colostral secretion will coagulate upon the
application of heat. Normal composition of the milk occurs about five days after
parturition. This gradual change apparently accustoms the suckling animals to the use
of normal milk. Colostrum contains more solids than the subsequent milk.
Colostrum is very rich in globulins, which serve as the carrier of antibodies that protect
the suckling animal against disease-producing organisms. The composition of colostrum
is given in table 1.3.

1.3.1.1 Time
1.3.1.2 1.3.1.3
Casein Globulins
1.3.1.4 1.3.1.5
Fat % 1.3.1.6
Lactose1.3.1.7
Ash % 1.3.1.8
Chloride Total solids
after % % % %
calving
1.3.1.9 At
1.3.1.10
once 1.3.1.11
5.00 1.3.1.12
11.07 1.3.1.13
6.55 1.3.1.14
2.90 1.3.1.15
1.22 0.152
1.3.1.16 26.74
1.3.1.17 1.3.1.18
6 hours 1.3.1.19
3.50 1.3.1.20
6.60 1.3.1.21
7.82 1.3.1.22
3.29 1.3.1.23
0.97 0.150
1.3.1.24 22.18
1.3.1.25 12
1.3.1.26
hours 1.3.1.27
3.12 1.3.1.28
2.86 1.3.1.29
4.10 1.3.1.30
3.88 1.3.1.31
0.88 0.148
1.3.1.32 14.84
1.3.1.33 18
1.3.1.34
hours 1.3.1.35
3.00 1.3.1.36
2.14 1.3.1.37
4.00 1.3.1.38
3.75 1.3.1.39
0.85 0.122
1.3.1.40 13.74
1.3.1.41 24
1.3.1.42
hours 1.3.1.43
2.61 1.3.1.44
1.91 1.3.1.45
3.64 1.3.1.46
3.82 1.3.1.47
0.85 0.120
1.3.1.48 12.83
1.3.1.49 36
1.3.1.50
hours 1.3.1.51
2.86 1.3.1.52
1.32 1.3.1.53
3.58 1.3.1.54
3.68 1.3.1.55
0.84 0.118
1.3.1.56 12.10
1.3.1.57 72
1.3.1.58
hours 1.3.1.59
2.77 1.3.1.60
1.10 1.3.1.61
3.52 1.3.1.62
4.41 1.3.1.63
0.84 0.120
1.3.1.64 12.64
1.3.1.65 51.3.1.66
days 1.3.1.67
2.74 1.3.1.68
1.00 1.3.1.69
3.55 1.3.1.70
4.79 1.3.1.71
0.83 0.130
1.3.1.72 12.91
1.3.1.73 10
1.3.1.74
days 1.3.1.75
2.62 1.3.1.76
0.68 1.3.1.77
3.57 1.3.1.78
4.92 1.3.1.79
0.82 0.128
1.3.1.80 12.60
Table 1.3. Transition from colostrum to normal milk
1.4 Some factors that affect the composition of milk

A number of factors may influence the composition of milk.
Among these are the breed and individuality of the cow, time of milking, season of the
year, and the cow's feed and living conditions.
Each quarter of the cow's udder may produce milk of somewhat different composition.
It has been noted that the milk from the quarters first milked has the highest fat
content, and that drawn from the last quarter has the lowest. As the milking proceeds,
the fat content of the milk increases slightly, so that the stripping, the last portions
drawn are highest in fat. The first portion obtained may contain about 1% of fat while
the stripping may have over 7%.
Fig.1.1. Increase of fat percentage of milk during milking (one cow)

In addition to a variation in fat content during milking, it also has been observed that
there is an increase in the solids-not-fat during the milking period. For example, the fat
and solids-not-fat in the first-drawn milk was 2,4 and 8,3 % respectively.
Breed
The breed of the cow has a great influence upon the composition of her milk. The
greatest difference is found in the fat content. Guernsey and Jersey cows yield milk of
high fat content whereas that of the Holstein and Ayrshire breeds is relatively low in
fat. The lactose and ash content show less variation. Table 2.2. shows the average
composition of milk from different breeds of cows.
The breed has also an influence on the colour of the milk.
Time of milking
The time of milking has some effect upon the composition. If an equal length of time
elapses between the morning and evening milking there is no consistent difference, but
if the cow is milked in the morning and then late in the evening, the morning milk may
contain from 0,5 to 2,0 % more fat. If the cow is milked three times a day, the noon
milking usually shows the highest fat content. The amounts of protein and lactose in
the milk of an individual cow vary but little from one regular milking to the next.
Seasonal variation
The dairy farmer often notes that the fat content of his herd's milk begins to decline in
the late spring and generally rises again in the fall. This usually has been attributed to
the change in feed from grain in winter to green pastures in the spring. Although this
change may have some influence, the principal reason appears to be the temperature
of the environment. The fat content of the milk decreases as the weather becomes
warmer and increases again with the approach of winter.
The fat content also tends to increase towards the end of the lactation period. If this
comes in the fall or winter, the rise in fat content of the milk may be very noticeable.
The solids-not-fat content of the milk generally follows the variation for the fat content.

Fig.1.2. Variation in percentage of fat during lactation
Disease
The milk from a diseased cow may vary greatly from normal milk. Generally there is an
increase in the content of fat and salt and the lactose content is diminished. Milk from a
diseased udder tends to approach the composition of cow's blood serum, especially in
that its albumin content is increased.
Fig.1.3. Variation in the percentage of protein during lactation
Fig. 1.4. Four-weekly variation in percentage of protein. Milk delivered to plant.

Age
The age of the cow has a slight but definite effect on the composition of her milk. Table
2.4.
Age (year) Yield (ratio) Fat percentage (ratio)
2–3 72 101,5
3–4 85 100,3
4–5 98 99,9
5–6 106 99,5
6–7 110 99,6
7–8 114 99,5
8–9 114 99,3

Table 1.4. Correlation between age, milk yield and fat percentage
Feed
The yield and composition of milk are affected by the amount and kind of feed
consumed by the cow. This is to be expected since the constituents of the milk
ultimately are derived from the feed. Milk fat is the most variable component of milk. If
the cow is fed a high-energy, low-fibre diet, the milk fat content may drop from its
normal amount to as little as 1 %.
When the cow's diet contains many concentrates and is low in roughage or if the diet is
high in ground, pelted roughage, the feed is fermented more rapidly in the rumen than
is a conventional diet. During fermentation in the rumen, a conventional diet yields
about three times as much acetic acid as propionic acid. A diet, such as first
mentioned, favours the production of propionic acid rather than acetic acid. Acetic acid
is important in the synthesis of milk fat while propionic acid is used in the formation of
blood sugar. The change in fermentation end products therefore affects the metabolism
of the cow, resulting in a reduced fat content of the milk and increase in the
body-weight of the cow.
Overfeeding does not increase the normal flow of milk, but underfeeding has a
pronounced effect. A great decrease from the normal ration will cause a rise in the fat
content but the quantity of milk produced is materially decreased. Considerable
variation may occur in the protein and carbohydrate content of the cow's feed without
having much effect upon the composition of the milk, but the total output will be
reduced if these components of the feed are reduced materially and thereby effect the
cow's well-being.
Fat-rich feed or the inclusion of various fats or oils in the cow's diet has a definite effect
upon yield, composition, and properties of milk fat. Some fatty acids that are not

normal constituents of milk fat may appear in it if they are present in the feed. The
presence of certain fish oils, such as cod liver oil, in the feed will cause the fat content
of the milk to decrease markedly. In general, the feeding of fat-rich foods is not a
practical way to increase the fat content of the milk.
The inclusion in the feed of compounds such as thyro-protein or iodated casein may
result in a small increase in fat production, but this is a temporary condition. Prolonged
use of these preparations is dangerous, especially during warm weather, or for cows in
advanced gestation because they cause changes in the animal's metabolism.

2 STRUCTURE OF MILK
Fresh milk seems to be a homogeneous fluid consisting for about 87.5 percent of
water. Actually, milk is a dispersion of a rather complicated nature. The continuous
phase, that is the water, contains the other components, partly in the form of dispersed
particles, the so-called structural elements, partly in a dissolved form.
By using a microscope, it is evident that milk is not homogeneous. It seems to contain
globules, these are suspended in a fluid. Milk plasma seems to be homogeneous again,
but by using a higher microscopic magnification, e.g. an electronic microscope, it is
obvious that the milk plasma is inhomogeneous as well, because particles much smaller
than fat globules can be seen. These are protein aceous particles, the casein micelles,
which are suspended in a fluid called milk serum. This is a little bit opalescent, so it
must contain some other particles. Chemical analysis of the milk serum shows that it
contains dissolved molecules and ions, as lactose, and mineral constituents and very
small structural elements as globular proteins and lipoprotein particles.
The diameter of the fat globules is approximately 0.1-10 micrometer (average 3

micrometer).
The diameter of the casein micelles is approximately 0.01- 0.3 micrometer.
The diameter of the globular serum proteins is approximately 0.003-0.006 micrometer.
The size of the sugar molecules is less than 0.001 micrometer.

Fig. 2.1. Milk viewed at different magnifications. The picture indicates the
relative size of structural elements.

3 MILK FAT
The popular definition for fat is a greasy or oily substance.

To the chemist, the terms fat and oil are nearly synonymous, but ordinarily the fats are
solid and the oil liquid at room temperature. They are widespread in Nature and are
found in practically all-vegetable and animal matter. The more technical term lipid may
be used for the fats as well as for the associated fat-like substances such as lecithin
and cholesterol. The term butterfat often is used incorrectly for milk fat, but true butter
fat, i.e., the fat obtained from butter, differs in composition from the fat as it exists in
milk. Fat is the most variable constituent of milk.
3.1 Milk fat globules
Milk fat and the associated lipid material are present in milk in the form of myriads of
small, individual globules predominantly in a liquid state at 37 degrees Celsius. About
3000 billion or more may be found in one litre of milk. It is evident that the globules of
fat are very small; smaller, in fact, than some bacteria. The globules vary from about
one- tenth to twenty microns in diameter, and average about three microns in
diameter. Bacteria often are from two to five microns long.
Milk of high fat content usually contains globules that are larger than average in size.
The milk from Jersey and Guernsey cows contains more of the larger-sized globules
than does milk from the other dairy breeds. Toward the end of the lactation period,
there is a tendency for the fat globules to decrease in size.
Attached to the surface of each fat globule is a layer of protein and phospholipid
material, the so-called milk fat membrane. This adsorbed layer protects each globule,
so that it maintains its identity and does not combine or coalesce with others to form a
larger globule or mass of fat. The membrane appears to have two layers; the outer one
contains enzymes originating in the mammary gland, the inner layer consists of a
phospholipid-protein complex. The approximate amount of phospholipid material in the
membrane is about 35% lecithin, 30% cephalin, and 30% sphingomyelin. There is
evidence to show that vitamin A and carotenoid pigments as well as enzymes, such as
phosphatase, are not dissolved in the fat itself, but probably are associated with the
surface membrane of the fat globule.
When milk or cream is churned, the mechanical agitation to which the fat globules are
subjected causes the enclosing film to break. This enables the fat in the individual
globules to combine to form a mass of butter, which separates from the buttermilk.
The membrane material of the fat globule is retained in most part in the buttermilk, but
a portion of it, especially that part rich in phospholipid material, rather than protein,
passes into the butter. The disruption of the milk fat membrane is associated with
certain flavour defects, which may occur in milk and other dairy products.
3.2 Fatty acids of milk fat

Milk fat is made of about 12.5% of glycerol and about 85.5% of fatty acids, by weight.

In most of the fatty acids, the carbon atoms are linked to one another in the form of a
chain, at the end of which is the acidic or carboxyl group (-COOH) which characterizes
the organic acids. Each of the principal fatty acids contains an even number of carbon
atoms, and this is typical of the natural fats and oils. Very small amounts of fatty acids
with an odd number of carbon atoms have been found in milk fat. One-half of the fat in
milk arises from the fat in the cow's diet, the balance is synthesized in the mammary
gland. Acetates and derivatives of butyric and other acids in the blood stream are the
source of the fatty acids and glycerol synthesized in the mammary gland. Bacterial
fermentation of the cow's feed that occurs in the rumen produces these fatty acids. It is
from these fatty acids that milk fat contains the lower fatty acids, which are not found
in human milk.
Milk fat probably contains a greater number of different fatty acids than any other food
fat; at least 100 have been identified. These are combined with glycerol in units of
three fatty acid molecules to each one of glycerol, forming tri-glyceride. There are
thousands of possible ways in which the fatty acids may be combined, but in most
instances, these combinations appear to be definitely directed rather than randomly
distributed. The tri-glyceride form about 98-99% of the milk fat.
Di- and mono-glyceride, which contain one or two molecules of the same fatty acid
linked to the glycerol, are present in milk fat. Up to about 0.5% of the di-glyceride and
only about 0.04% of the monoglyceride may be present.
In the saturated fatty acids, each carbon atom is attached to the neighbouring carbon
atom by a single bond. Thus, butyric acid is a saturated, 4-carbon compound.
H H H
| | |
H-C-C-C-COOH
| | |
H H H
Stearic acid has a similar structure with a chain of 18 carbon atoms. Oleic, linoleic, and
linolenic acids also have 18 carbon atoms each, but they have one, two, and three
double bonds, respectively.
When two adjacent carbon atoms in the chain each lacks a hydrogen atom they are
said to be unsaturated. The chemical bonding is then made by a double link between
the carbon atoms, forming an unsaturated fatty acid.
H H
| |
C=C
These usually are liquid at room temperature.

Fatty Coconut Maize Soy Cottonsee Safflower Peanut
acid bean d
Caproic 0.4 - - - - -
Caprylic 8.0 - - - - -
Capric 7.0 - - - - -
Lauric 53.0 - - trace - trace
Myristic 16.9 trace 0.5 1.1 0.3 1.4
Palmitic 8.5 11.8 12.2 21.1 4.0 8.3
Stearic 2.0 1.9 1.2 2.3 2.0 3.1
Oleic 4.2 30.4 22.3 22.8 17.0 52.0
Linoleic 1-3 40-50 60.5 45-48 70-74 20-28
Linolenic trace 1.2 3.1 3.4 2.7 2.8

Table 3.1. Fatty acid content of some vegetable oils.
Fatty Carbon Cow Goat Buffalo Mare Human

acid atoms
Butyric 4 3.57 3.0 5.8 0.4 0.4
Caproic 6 2.22 2.5 0.6 0.9 0.1
Caprylic 8 1.06 2.8 0.9 2.6 0.3
Capric 10 1.88 10.0 1.0 5.5 1.7
Lauric 12 2.96 6.0 1.6 5.6 5.8
Myristic 14 11.20 12.3 9.0 7.0 8.6
Palmitic 16 25.24 27.9 35.2 16.1 22.6
Stearic 18 11.90 6.0 15.3 2.9 7.7
Arachidic 20 0.22 0.6 0.1 0.3 1.0
Oleic 18 30.0 21.1 20.5 42.4 36.4
Linoleic 18 2.8 3.6 1.5 - 8.3
Linolenic 18 0.5 - - - -
Table 3.2. Fatty acid content of milk fat.
When fats that contain polyunsaturated fatty acids, are heated, as may occur when
foods are heated or deep-fried in the fat, the polyunsaturated fatty acids may become
saturated.
Butyric acid is found in no natural food fat other than milk fat. This fatty acid, as well as
the 6-, 8-, and 10-carbon fatty acids have a strong, characteristic flavour developed in

cheese made from goat's milk, as well as that made from ewe's milk, is related to their
high content of these fatty acids.
Of the fatty acids in milk fat, from 60 to 70% are saturated, 25 to 35% are
unsaturated, and about 4% are polyunsaturated.
The saturated fatty acids present in large amount are myristic, palmitic, and stearic.
The chief unsaturated fatty acids are oleic, linoleic and linolenic. Arachidonic acid, which
has four double bonds, is present up to 0.14%
The fats of plant origin in the cow's diet contain large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty
acids. These fats are hydrolyzed in the cow's rumen. The liberated fatty acids are then
converted into saturated fatty acids by the action of the organisms in the rumen.
Experiments have been made to increase the degree of unsaturation in milkfat. In
Australia, investigators homogenized safflower seed oil with sodium caseinate solution,
followed by a treatment with a 37% solution of formaldehyde and then spray drying.
The resulting coated oil drops pass through the rumen unchanged. The caseinate
coating is digested in the acidic environment of the abomasum or fourth stomach. Here
the unchanged polyunsaturated fatty acids are absorbed. An increase of up to ten
times the amount of unsaturated fatty acid normally present occurs in the milk fat.
The milk of cows given this type of feed develops an objectionable oxidized flavour. The
cream produces a light-coloured butter, which tends to be soft and sticky.
Traces of free fatty acids, in widely varied amounts, are present in milk. Generally, in a
complete milking, the first milk drawn contains the larger amount, and this decreases,
so that the last drawn from the udder has the lowest. As stated previously, the fat
content of the milk as it is drawn from the udder, changes in the reverse order.
The analytical chemistry for the detection of foreign fats in butter makes use of the fact
that the proportion of fatty acids of low molecular weight in milk fat is fairly constant.
Other fats and margarine contain little or none of these fatty acids, so a deficiency of
them is an indication that the butter is adulterated with foreign fat.
Milk fat is not a pure substance but a mixture of different fats. Therefore, milk fat has
not a melting point, but a melting range: 19-36 degrees Celsius. The melting point of
fat is determined by the length of the chain of carbon atoms and the degree of
saturation of the fat.
When chilling the milk, the fat in the fat globules crystallizes slowly; many fats remain
liquid even below their melting point.
Reichert-Meissl-number: ml 0,1 n NaOH to neutralize water-soluble fatty acids present

in 5 g of butter fat (distilled under prescribed conditions) 24-34.
Polenske number: ml 0,1 n NaOH to neutralize water-insoluble fatty acids present in 5
g of butter fat (distilled under prescribed conditions) 1.5-3.5.
Iodine- (addition)-number: grams of Iodine that can be adsorbed by 100 g of fat,
25-49 g.

3.3 Minor components of milk fat
Phospholipids
Phospholipids or phosphatides are glycerides in which one of the alcoholic groups is
linked with phosphoric acid and an organic base group instead of a fatty acid. They are
rich in unsaturated fatty acids, which easily oxidize, giving rise to off flavours.
Most of the phospholipids are concentrated in the fat globule membranes acting as an
emulsifying agent, helping to keep the fat globules dispersed. Lecithine is a well-known
phospholipid.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a sterol found in the milk fat as well as in the membranes. Some
investigators believed that it was related to the occurrence of arteriosclerosis and it
was sometimes even recommended not to eat butter and other products with a high
milk fat content.
At present it is obvious that this thought was incorrect. A human being produces much
more cholesterol in his body than he takes up with his food.
Vitamins
Milk fat is an important source of vitamins A (nightblindness and eye diseases) and D
(racchitis). Ruminants and non- ruminants need for the vitamin A supply carotenoids in
their food. Carotene is the pro-vitamin A in the body of the animal. Since the
conversion is not very efficient in the body of the cow, carotene is found in the milk fat
giving it a yellowish colour. The milk fat in buffaloes', goats' and sheep milk hardly
contains carotene, therefore it is not yellowish.
Milk of Jersey cows contains a relatively high content of carotene.

4 PROTEINS
Proteins are an essential part of our diet. The proteins we eat are broken down into
simpler compounds in the digestive system and in the liver, and these compounds
are then conveyed to the cells of the body where they are used as construction
material for the body's own proteins. Proteins control the great majority of the
chemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
Proteins are giant molecules built up of smaller units called amino acids. A protein
molecule consists of a chain containing, in some cases, thousands of amino acids linked
together in a specific order. Fig. 5.1 shows a model of a protein molecule and a model
of an amino acid. The characteristic feature of amino acids is that they contain both a
weakly basic amino group (NH2) and a weakly acid carboxyl group (COOH). Both these
groups are connected to a hydrocarbon chain, which varies from one amino acid to
another.
Fig 4.1. Model of part of a protein molecule and model of an amino acid
The hydrocarbon chain in certain amino acids may also contain other atoms, e.g. of
oxygen or sulphur. A score of different amino acids are known to occur in milk; they
are the building blocks of the various proteins. Any change in the order or number of
amino acids in the protein molecule chain results in a different kind of protein. Some
proteins contain only two, three or four amino acids, while others are made up of
thousands of amino- acids. The combinations and permutations of amino acids in
protein molecules are virtually endless.
Some 28 different amino acids are known to occur in milk proteins. Among them are all
the essential amino acids that the human body must have in order to function. Milk
proteins are generally divided into two main classes: casein and whey proteins.
4.1 Milk: a buffer solution
Milk is a buffer solution. To change the pH of milk it is necessary to add fairly large

amounts of acid or base. At first no change in pH is obtained in response to dosage;
only after a certain amount has been added does the change occur. This buffering
effect is a result of the electrical properties of substances such as proteins, phosphates,
carbon dioxide and citrates. We can take proteins as an example to explain the effect.
Each of the amino acids in a protein contains a basic amino group (NH2) and an acid
carboxyl group (COOH). If the protein is present in sour (acid) milk with a pH of less
than 6.7, the solution contains an excess of hydrogen ions (H+), or protons as they are
also called. These combine with the amino groups in the amino acids to form the group
NH3+. The number of free hydrogen ions in the milk therefore does not increase, the pH
remains constant.
If the protein is present in basic milk instead, the COOH groups will release hydrogen
ions, forming COO groups in the protein. Here again, the pH of the milk remains
constant. The more base is added, the more COOH groups release hydrogen ions.
Other substances in the milk have the same property of being able to absorb or release
ions, thereby counteracting changes in the pH of the milk.
4.2 Denatured proteins
As long as proteins exist in an environment with a temperature and pH within their

limits of tolerance, they retain their biological functions. But if they are heated to
temperatures above a certain maximum their structure is altered, and they are said to
be denatured. The same thing happens if proteins are exposed to acids or bases, to
radiation or to violent agitation. The proteins are denatured and lose their original
solubility.
When proteins are denatured, their biological activity ceases.
Enzymes, a class of proteins whose function is to catalyze reactions, lose this ability
when denatured. The reason is that certain bonds in the molecule are broken, changing
the structure of the protein. In some cases proteins can revert to their original state,
with restoration of their biological functions.
In many cases, however, denaturation is irreversible. The proteins in a boiled egg, for
example, cannot be restored to the raw state. Irreversible denaturation is called
coagulation.
Native state Denatured state
Fig 4.2. Part of a protein molecule: native and denatured state

4.3 Iso-electric point of proteins
The amino acids in milk proteins carry an electric charge that is determined by the pH
of the milk. At neutral pH (=7)
some amino-acids like aspargic and glutamic acid are negatively charged, while others
like lysine and arginine are positively charged. If a protein contains more acid than
basic amino acids at neutral pH it is negatively charged, and vice versa.
When the pH of milk is changed by the addition of an acid, the charge distribution of
the proteins is also changed.
At a value of pH where the positive charge on a protein is exactly equal to the negative
charge, i.e. where the numbers of NH3+ and COO- groups are exactly equal, the net
total charge on the protein is zero. This pH is called the iso-electric point of the protein.
4.4 Casein
Casein is that part of raw skim milk that precipitates at pH= 4,6-4,7. Casein constitutes
about 80% of the protein in milk. It is only found in milk. Casein in the pure state is
white in colour and insoluble in water. It is, however, soluble in bases and strong acid
solutions because, like all proteins, it has both acid and basic properties and can
therefore form soluble salts with both.
In fresh milk, where the pH is about 6,7, casein occurs mainly as the calcium salt,
calcium caseinate. Casein molecules are fairly large. In milk they occur in particles of
varying size up to 0.4 micro-meter which are bound together by calcium, phosphorus
and other elements forming the so called micelles.
Micelles are smaller than fat globules, and are visible only under an electron
microscope.
4.4.1 -s1-casein
Casein-micelles consist of a number of components. One of them is -s1-casein with a
molecular mass of 23616.
-s1-casein constitutes 40% of the casein. It is sensitive to calcium ions.
4.4.2 ß-casein
ß-casein has a molecular mass of 23982. It contains a number of bitter peptides.
ß-casein constitutes 30% of the casein. Below 18 degrees Celsius it is not sensitive to
calcium ions; at higher temperatures it is.

4.4.3 κ-casein
κappa-casein has a molecular mass of 20023. The macro-peptide has a molecular mass
of 6754 and consists of 64 amino acids. The whole molecule consists of 169 amino
acids. Para-κ-casein consists of 105 amino acids and has a molecular mass of 12269.
κ-casein is not sensitive to calcium.
In the presence of chymosine κ-casein is broken down to para- κ-casein and
wheyproteose (macro-peptide).
Para-κ-casein is sensitive to calcium.
4.4.4 Precipitation of casein by acid

If an acid is added to milk, or if acid-producing bacteria are allowed to grow in milk, the
pH will fall. The iso-electric point of casein is pH 4.6, so when the pH has fallen to that
point the casein is precipitated as a cohesive mass: a coagulum. That is how cultured
milk products like yoghurt are made; lactic acid bacteria are added to the milk and
ferment the lactose to lactic acid so that the pH falls and the casein is precipitated. If
an acid such as sulphuric acid is added to the milk instead, the pH will fall even lower;
the coagulum flocs then redissolves and the casein is obtained in the form of casein
sulphate.
The technique of lowering the pH of milk to the iso-electric point of casein by adding
acid is used in the industrial manufacture of casein.
4.4.5 Precipitation of casein by enzymes

Another way to make calcium caseinate particles flocculate and coagulate is to remove
the emulsifying agent kappa-casein (κ-casein). This is done by adding an enzyme
called chymosine, which is found in rennet. It attacks and destroys the kappa-casein.
Without the protective shield that keeps the casein particles apart, they will react with
the calcium in the milk. The calcium makes bridges between the particles, turning them
into a coagulum called calcium-paracaseinate. This type of casein precipitation occurs
at the normal pH of milk.
When cheese curd ripens in storage, the calcium-paracaseinate is broken down into
smaller protein fragments called peptides, which in turn may be broken down into
amino acids. Even the latter can be broken down to ammonia and other reaction
products. The successive breakdown process is due to protein-splitting enzymes
present in rennet. Lactic acid bacteria and mould fungi also produce such enzymes.
4.4.6 Precipitation of casein by salts

By adding a sufficient quantity of salt casein can be precipitated.

4.4.7 Precipitation of casein by alcohol
Alcohol destabilizes casein. In the presence of another destabilizing agent, like an
acid, the casein easily precipitates. This principle is used in the so-called alcohol test.
A 70 % alcohol solution can precipitate the casein in the same volume of slightly
sour milk while in good quality milk no precipitation occurs.
4.5 Albumin
Apart from casein milk contains three different main groups of proteins:
 albumin;
 globulin;
 membrane proteins.
Between 10 and 15% of the protein in milk consists of albumin. Like casein, the
albumin occurs in colloid form, but the particles are smaller. In cheesemaking, the
albumin remains dissolved in the whey. Albumin is therefore called whey protein.
If milk is heated to above 60oC, albumin begins to precipitate and sticks to the heat
transfer surface- e.g. the bottom of the saucepan.
4.6 Globulin
Globulin occurs in very small amounts in normal milk. It coagulates when the milk is
heated to about 75oC. Colostrum (the milk which cows produce during the first three
days after calving) contains large amounts of albumin and globulin. Colostrum cannot
be pasteurized, because it coagulates when heated.
4.7 Membrane proteins
Membrane proteins are proteins present in the skins of the fat globules. They consist
mainly of lipoprotein compounds, i.e. protein combined with fatty substances.
Membrane proteins make up about 5% of the total protein content of milk.

5 ENZYMES
Enzymes are a group of proteins produced by lining organisms. They have the ability to
trigger chemical reactions and to influence the course and speed of such reactions.
Enzymes do this without themselves being consumed (biocatalysts).
The action of enzymes is specific: each type of enzyme catalyzes one type of reaction
only. Temperature and pH affect the activity of enzymes.
The optimum temperature for most enzymes is between 25oC and 50oC. At higher
temperature the activity decreases and it ceases altogether somewhere between 50oC
and 120oC. At these temperatures the enzymes are more or less completely destroyed.
Each enzyme has its own optimum, maximum and minimum temperature. This fact is
used for the purpose of determining the degree of pasteurization of milk.
Enzymes also have their optimum pH range: some function best in acid solutions,
others in an alkaline environment.
The enzymes in the milk come either from the cow's udder or from bacteria. The
formers are called original enzymes, while the latter are called bacterial enzymes. The
bacterial enzymes in milk vary according to the nature and size of the bacterial
population present in the milk. Some of the enzymes in milk are used as test enzymes
in the quality control of milk and milk products. Some of the more important enzymes
in milk are: phosphatase, lipase, peroxidase and xanthine-oxidase.
5.1 Phosphatase
Phosphatase can split certain phosphoric acid esters into phosphoric acid and the
corresponding alcohol. The presence of phosphatase can be detected by adding di-
sodium-phenyl-phosphate to the milk. The milk is incubated at 30-35oC for 1 hour. The
enzyme phosphatase liberates phenol from the ester. Phenol reacts with an added
agent and turns the colour of the milk blue. In case phosphatase is absent the colour of
the milk stays white after addition of the reagent.
Phosphatase is destroyed by HTST pasteurization, so the phosphatase test (see lab.
manual) can be used to determine whether pasteurization temperature has actually
been attained.
5.2 Peroxidase
Peroxidase transfers oxygen from hydrogen peroxide to other readily oxidizable

substances. The presence or absence of peroxidase can be shown with the peroxidase
test=reaction of Storch (see lab. manual). Peroxidase is destroyed when the milk is
heated at 85oC for 20 seconds, so the reaction of Storch can be used to determine

whether the correct temperature has been attained.
5.3 Lipase
Lipase splits fats into glycerol and free fatty acids. Excess free fatty acids in milk and
milk products cause a rancid taste. Milk contains original as well as bacterial lipase. The
milk lipase is destroyed by HTST pasteurization, the bacterial lipase, however, survives
this treatment.
(Fat in the original fat globules is protected from lipase by the membrane of the fat
globule)
5.4 Xanthine oxidase
This enzyme activates the chemical change of nitrate into nitrite. This is especially
important in the production of semi-hard and hard cheese.

6 LACTOSE
Lactose is a sugar and, therefore, belongs to the group of organic chemical compounds
called carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are a very important source of energy in our diet.
Some carbohydrates consist of small molecules, like glucose, while others consist of
very large molecules, like glycogen in the liver and muscles and starch and cellulose in
plants.
Some of the smallest carbohydrates are glucose and galactose. These are called
monosaccharides, as, if you break these molecules into smaller parts, the resulting
molecules are not longer carbohydrates but, for instance, acids or alcohol.
Glucose and galactose together form a new carbohydrate called lactose = milk sugar.
So lactose consists of two mono-saccharides: glucose and galactose and is, therefore, a
di-saccharide. Another example of a di-saccharide is saccharose or sucrose. This is the
ordinary sugar extracted from sugar cane and sugar beets. Saccharose consists of
glucose and fructose.
Lactose is only found in milk. The lactose concentration in milk is fairly constant: 4.6%
in cows milk (HF).
Lactose can serve as a source of energy for many different micro-organisms. An
enzyme called lactase can split lactose in glucose and galactose. These two mono-
saccharides are broken down by other enzymes into various acids, alcohols, aroma
compounds, carbondioxide, etc. However, generally lactic acid is quantitatively the
main product produced turning milk and milk-products sour.
At higher temperatures (> 75oC) lactose can react with certain amino acids turning the
milk brown. This type of chemical change is called Maillard-reaction. The results of
Maillard reactions are a change in colour and, after some time, a metallic taste may
develop as well.
At very high temperatures (> 160 oC) milk may acquire a burnt sugar taste as well as
an intense brown colour because of caramelization of the sugar.
Lactose is soluble in water. In cheese making most of it is lost with the whey.
Milkpowder consists for 40-50% of milk sugar.
Lactose is not as sweet as saccharose (70%).
Lactose intolerance
Lactose is a di-saccharide. Since no di-saccharide can be absorbed from the gut,
lactose has to be hydrolized or split into glucose and galactose before the energy of
these mono-saccharides can be used by the body. The hydrolysis is affected by the
enzyme lactase, normally found in the lining of the small intestine. For a certain period
after birth all mammals are solely fed with milk. The ability to digest the only
carbohydrate in this food is, therefore, of the utmost importance. After the weaning
period, milk is replaced by other food and the lactase activity gradually disappears.
If lactose is not available in the diet after the weaning period, people become deficient

in lactase. It can be expected that today's societies traditionally having cattle will
demonstrate a lower incidence of lactase deficiency than traditionally hunting societies.
Indeed, populations such as Chinese, Japanese, etc. do show a high frequency of
lactose intolerance and the Caucasion, North-European race do have a rather low
frequency of lactose intolerance.
If lactose is not absorbed in the small intestine, bacteria in the large intestine and colon
will break down the lactose producing large amount of lactic acid as their waste
product. This lactic acid causes (sometimes severe) diarrhoea.

7 VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic substances, which occur, in very small concentrations in both
plants and animals. They are essential to normal life processes. The various vitamins
are indicated by capital letters, sometimes followed by numerical subscripts, e.g. A, B1,
B12, etc.
Whole milk is a good source of vitamins. Some are soluble in fat (A, D), others in water
(C, B1, B2).
Lack of vitamins can result in deficiency diseases:

vitamin A : night blindness, impaired resistance to infectious diseases;
vitamin B1 : stuted growth, beri beri (paralysis);
vitamin B2 : loss of appetite, indigestion;
vitamin C : fatigue, susceptibility to infection (scurvy);
vitamin D : skeletal deformation (rickets).

8 MINERALS
Milk contains a number of minerals, in a total of less than 1%. Mineral salts occur in
solution in milk serum or in casein compounds. The most important salts are those of
calcium, potassium and magnesium, which occur as phosphatates, chlorides, citrates
and caseinates. Potassium and calcium salts are most abundant in normal milk. The
amount of salts present is not constant. Towards the end of the lactation, and even
more so in case of udder disease, the sodium chloride content increases and gives the
milk a salty taste, while the amounts of the other salts are correspondingly reduced.
The minerals play a very important part in the stability of evaporated milk during
sterilization. The calcium ions are very important in the process of renneting (cheese
making).

9 MINOR CONSTITUENTS OF MILK
9.1 Agglutinin
Agglutinin is a protein that supports the separation of skim milk and cream. Agglutinin
acts as a kind of glue between several individual fat globules making one large "ball" of
these fat globules. The larger the "balls" the faster the separation process. Without
agglutinin natural creaming is very slow. Agglutinin is destroyed at pasteurization
temperature.
9.2 Lactenine
Milk contains several compounds that inhibit the growth of certain bacteria. See
chapter: The LP-system.
9.3 Gas
Milk usually contains dissolved gases (5-9% by volume). These consist mainly of
carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen.
If the quantity of milk is determined by volume the result includes the gases present.
Some useful bacteria do not grow well in the presence of oxygen.
Generally air should be excluded from milk and milk-products.
9.4 Body cells
Milk always contains leukocytes. The content is low in milk from a healthy udder, but
increases if the udder is diseased, usually in proportion to the severity of the
disease.

10 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK
10.1 Appearance
The natural colour of milk varies from a bluish white to a brownish yellow, depending
upon the amount of fat and solids-not-fat present. The white or milky appearance is
due to the colloidal dispersion of the fat globules, calcium caseinate, and calcium
phosphate in milk. The size of the fat globules also somewhat influences the colour, as
does the breed and the feed of the cow.
The principal substances that actually impart a yellowish colour to milk are the
pigments carotene and riboflavin (vitamin B2). The greenish-yellow colour of whey is
due to the presence of riboflavin; in milk the other constituents present mask this
colour. Green feed increases the carotene content of the milk and its colour. It is not
practical from the commercial standpoint to influence the colour of milk by altering the
cow's feed. For example, feeding up to forty pounds of carrots per day to a cow was
found to give but a slight increase in the colour of her milk.
Guernsey and Jersey breeds can transfer more carotene from their feed to the milk-fat
than can Holstein, Ayrshire, and other breeds. The increased content of carotene and
fat, and larger fat globules in milk from Guernsey and Jersey cows, are responsible for
the deeper colour of their milk compared with other breeds. Goat milk and buffalo milk
have little colour; the carotene content varies from 0.25 to 0.48 microgram per gram,
compared to up to 30 micrograms for cow's milk.
High heat-treatment, such as may occur in the manufacture of evaporated milk,
imparts a brownish coloration to the product (Maillard reaction).
Skim milk is more transparent, with a slight bluish tinge.
10.2 Density
The density of milk (gr./ml or kg/m3) is an important characteristic of milk. Normal milk
has a density of 1.028 to 1.034 gr./ml at 20oC. When water is added to the milk the
density will decrease. The density of milk varies with fat content, SNF values and the
temperature of the milk checked. If the density test is used as a platform test one has
to keep in mind that the density of milk varies per cow, per region and per season.
10.3 Freezing point
The freezing point of milk varies. In the Netherlands the freezing point must be < -.
520. The freezing point depends largely on the content of lactose, proteins and
minerals. The presence of these substances in water lowers the freezing point. A higher
concentration would make the freezing point even lower.
Adulteration of milk with water can be determined accurately by testing the freezing

point, as it is less depended on fat and protein content and the individuality of the
cow than the density.
10.4 pH
Normal milk is very slightly acid with a pH of 6.6-6.7.

Phenolphthalein is used as an indicator to determine the titratable acidity of milk.
Phenolphthalein changes colour at pH 8.8. As milk is a buffer solution (see 5.1) it takes
quite a lot of alkaline to raise the pH from 6.6 to 8.8.
The acidity of milk is defined (in the Netherlands) as the number of millilitres of 0.1
molar sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required for the titration of 100 ml of milk. Acidity
measured by this method is expressed in Normal degrees (oN).
Normal, healthy milk has an acidity of 16-18oN.
Acidity is higher in milk where lactic acid bacteria have been allowed to develop: 90 oN
(or higher) in cultured milk like yoghurt.
Acidity can also be expressed in degrees Thorner, degrees Soxleth-Henkel, degrees

Dornic or in percentage of lactic acid: 1 oD = 1.11 oT = 1.11 oN = 0.44 ºSH = 0.01 %
lactic acid.

11 NON-MILK SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOURS IN FRESH MILK
11.1 Impurities
Soil, straw, dung, fodder, etc. should not be present in milk for three reasons:
1. it shows that milking and milk-collection was not done under hygienic conditions;
2. soil, straw and especially dung may contain huge numbers of bacteria that may
spoil the milk very rapidly;
3. they may also contain toxic substances and off-flavours.
11.2 Antibiotics
Cows with mastitis are usually treated with penicillin. People should not take in
penicillin accidentally by drinking milk. Penicillin also has an adverse effect on starter
cultures in the processing plant. Therefore, fresh milk should not contain penicillin or
antibiotics in general.
11.3 Pesticides
Pesticides can enter the milk either directly or via the cow's blood system. Pesticides
should not be present in milk.
11.4 Detergents and disinfectants
Detergents and disinfectants containing oxydantiae are used to clean and disinfect
utensils and to kill micro-organisms. Oxidantiae also affect milk: oxydation of fats
leading to rancidity and other off-flavours especially in fatty products like butter and
ghee. After cleaning the milking equipment with detergents and disinfectants it should
be rinsed with fresh, clean water thoroughly.
11.5 Off-flavours
Milk absorbs substances that cause off-flavours in milk and milk-products very easily.
These off-flavours enter the milk either directly or indirectly:
cow
fodder
milk
air

If a cow eats strong smelling fodder within two hours before milking the smell and
taste will develop in the milk. Milk stored near strong smelling silage, petrol or paint
will absorb the flavours of these products.
Waste products of bacteria may also cause a bad taste and/or smell.

D907
MILK HYGIENE
AND
MILK QUALITY
1
Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2 THE QUANTITATIVE 2
3 THE QUALITY OF MILK 3
4 MICRO-ORGANISMS 4
4.1 Bacteria 4
4.1.1 Appearance of bacteria 4
4.1.2 Size of bacteria 5
4.1.3 Structure of bacteria 5
4.1.4 Mobility of bacteria 5
4.1.5 Spore formation 6
4.1.6 Conditions for growth of bacteria 6
4.1.7 Reproduction of bacteria 8
4.1.8 Growth curve of bacteria 9
4.1.9 Bacteria in fresh milk 10
4.1.10 Main sources of infection 11
4.1.11 Principal bacteria in milk 12
4.1.12 Effect of temperature and number of bacteria contaminating the milk on
the growth rate. 13
4.2 Fungi 14
4.2.1 Yeast 14
4.2.2 Moulds 15
4.3 Bacteriophages 16
5 NON- MILK- SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOUR IN FRESH MILK 18

5.1 Impurities 18
5.2 Antibiotics 18
5.3 Pesticides 18
5.4 Oxydantiae and Detergents 18
5.5 Off-Flavours 18
6 QUALITY OF FRESH MILK 20

6.1 On the farm 20
6.2 Before milking 20
6.2.1 Utensils 20
6.2.2 During milking 21
6.2.3 After milking 21
6.3 Milk collection 21
6.3.1 Collection of milk 21
6.3.2 Collection centers 22
6.3.3 Determination of quantity and quality 23
7 PAYMENT OF MILK 24
7.1 Payment on quantity 24
7.2 Payment on hygienic quality 24
7.3 Adulteration 24
7.4 Payment of milk on hygienic quality in the Netherlands 25
8 TESTS 26
8.1 Taking a sample of milk 26
8.2 Smell, taste, colour (as platform test) 26
8.3 Alcohol test (platform test) 26
8.4 Clot on boiling test 27
8.5 Density 27
8.6 Refractive index (refraction) 29
8.7 Temperatures 29
8.8 Purity 30
8.9 Reduction test (Methylene Blue Reduction test) 30
8.10 Fat content using the Gerber test 32
8.11 Total solids 34
8.12 Solids non- fat 36
Document5
1. INTRODUCTION
Good milk handling on the farm and during transport of the milk to the dairy plant, high
quality milk and high quality dairy product are closely linked. Milk is an extremely
perishable product. Micro-organisms capable of spoiling the milk are present
everywhere, e.g. on the udder, on the milker’s hands, on airborne dust particles and
water droplets, on straw, on cow hair, in the soil and on the milking utensils. The
presence of other substances in milk like antibiotics and off-flavour also reduce the
market value of milk. Everything possible must be done to prevent the contamination of
milk. Despite all precautions it is impossible to exclude bacteria completely. Milk should
therefore be chilled to about 4°C immediately after it leaves the cow or it should be
taken to the collection point/dairy plant for immediately chilling or processing. Time
between milking and cooling or processing should not be more than two hours under
tropical and sub-tropical conditions. The main sources of contamination are usually
found on the farm. Therefore first of all it is the farmer who should learn and realise the
importance of good milk handling practices.
The milk processor should give the producer an incentive to produce high quality milk by
including freshness, hygienic quality and composition in the final price.
1 D902 MILKSTORAGE AND COOLING

2 THE QUANTITATIVE
Table 1. Representative values for some major constituents of good quality milk
different species.
Besides the major constituents fat, protein, lactose and water milk, it also contains
vitamins and minerals. The composition of milk and the pH of about 6.6 make it an
excellent medium for numerous micro-organisms.
2  PTC+
3 THE QUALITY OF MILK
When a cow is healthy, particularly, as far as its udder is concerned, it produces milk of
good quality. In that case, everything possible must be done to MAINTAIN that quality
after the milk has been removed from the udder. This is not only important for drinking
milk, but also for milk that is processed into various dairy products.
Milk factories will normally set some quality standards for milk that is delivered to
factory. The following aspects may be included in quality tests:
 the number of bacteria;
 the presence of dirt;
 the smell;
 the number of somatic cells in milk (mastitis);
 the presence of antibiotics;
 the presence of residues of detergents and disinfectants
(or other substances which may purposely have added
to the milk, by the seller);
 the presence of pesticides.
Not every factory will check all above-mentioned aspects and it goes without saying that
a quality test of the milk of every individual farmer cannot be carried out on a daily basis.
Normally (partial) tests are done every two, or three or four weeks.
If the milk does not pass the test in one way or another, many factories will pay a lower
price for that milk, over the entire test period (two to four weeks). This will affect the
farmer in his income and it will presumably stimulate him to try to deliver good quality
milk. Moreover, the milk factory (also interested in obtaining good quality milk) might
send someone to check the farmer’s way of milking and cleaning and to advise him to
improve his techniques.

4 MICRO-ORGANISMS
Micro-organisms is a collective term for all the microscopically small living organisms
which occupy an intermediate position between the vegetable and animal kingdoms.
Some of them are classed as plants and some as animals. They are found wherever life
can exist-in the air, in water and in the soil. Wherever nourishment, moisture and
congenial temperatures are available, they multiply sometimes very rapidly.
Micro-organisms have a very important effect on human life through their ability to cause
infectious diseases. Such diseases are responsible for an enormous amount of human
suffering, although only a very few of the thousands of different types of micro-
organisms cause them. Micro-organisms play a crucial part in the life of our planet. They
serve as food for fish in the sea and they occur abundantly in the soil, where they form
nutrients that can be utilized by plants. The decomposition of dead plants and animals -
an essential part of the grand life cycle- is a breakdown process caused by micro-
organisms. Some micro-organisms are beneficial to dairying, others are of no practical
significance, while others again are harmful. We need to be able to know how they live
and function in order not only to be able to guide their development to suit our own
wishes, but also to be able to combat those micro-organisms which are undesirable in
milk and dairy products.
4.1 Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled organisms that multiply for the most part by fission. The
simplest method of classifying bacteria is according to their appearance. But to be able
to see bacteria they must first be stained and then studied under a microscope at a
magnification of about 1.000. The most widely used method of staining bacteria was
introduced by the Danish bacteriologist Gram and named Gram after him. Bacteria are
divided into two main groups according to their Gram stain characteristics: red Gram
negative and blue Gram positive.
4.1.1 Appearance of bacteria

Bacteria of several different shapes can be distinguished: spherical, rod-shaped and
spiral.
4  PTC+
4.1.2 Size of bacteria
Cocci vary in size between 0,4 and 1.5 mm (1 mm=0,001 mm). The length of bacilli and
spiral bacteria can vary between 2 and 30 mm. Some specie, however, are larger or
smaller than this.
4.1.3 Structure of bacteria

Schematic illustration of bacterial structure.
4.1.4 Mobility of bacteria

Some cocci and many bacilli and spiral bacteria are capable of locomotion in a liquid
nutrient medium. They propel themselves with the help of flagella, the length and

number of which vary from one type of bacteria to another .The bacteria generally move
at speeds between 1 and 10 times own length per second. The cholera bacterium can
travel 30 times its length per second.
Flagella may be distributed all over the bacterium, or located at one both ends.
4.1.5 Spore formation

Some bacilli can form spores (endospores) in their cytoplasm. Spores are highly
resistant to external influence. If a spore-forming bacterium finds itself in a hostile
environment, e.g. one that lacks the nutrients and moisture needed for growth, the body
of the bacterium generally dissolves, leaving only the spore. It metamorphoses from the
vegetative to the spore state.
Fig.5 shows various kinds of endospore formations.
When the parent cell forms a spore it may retain its original shape, or it may swell in the
middle or at one end, depending on where the endospore is located. Eventually the cell
dissolves and the spore is released. Spores have practically nothing to do with
reproduction of bacteria; they are simply a minimum survival state. When the
environment is favourable once more, the spore germinates and the bacterium is re-
formed. Spores have no metabolism. They can survive for years in dry air and they are
more resistant than bacteria to disinfectants and ultra violet light. They are also resistant
to heat; it takes 20 minutes at 120°C to kill them with 100% certainty. Spore-forming
bacteria in the vegetative state, like all other bacteria, are killed in a few minutes by
boiling at 100°C.
4.1.6 Conditions for growth of bacteria
4.1.6.1 Nutrients
Bacteria need certain nutrients for their growth. Most bacteria need an energy source
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like lactose, a nitrogen source like protein as well as a source for various salts and
vitamins. Outside the bacterium cell the food is broken down into small water-soluble
substances that can pass through the semi-permeable cytoplasmic membrane. The
bacterium therefore needs access to water. The food outside the cell is broken down
either by enzymes from the bacterium itself or by other organisms (symbiosis).
4.1.6.2 Temperature
Bacteria can only develop within certain temperature limits, which vary from one species
to another. In principle, bacteria can grow at temperatures between the freezing point of
water and the temperature at which the protein in the protoplasm coagulates.
Somewhere between the maximum and minimum temperature lies the optimum. This is
the temperature at which the bacterial strain propagates most vigorously. Temperatures
below the minimum cause growth to stop but do not kill the bacteria. The life functions of
bacteria cease almost completely at a temperature close to the freezing point of water.
Above the maximum temperature the bacteria are soon killed by heat. Most cells die
within a few seconds of being exposed to 70°C, but some bacteria can survive heating
to 85°C for 15 minutes, even though they do not form spores. It takes much more to
heat to kill spores. Treatment with steam at 120°C for 30 minutes ensure the destruction
of all spores, but in dry heat the bacteria must be kept at 160°C for two hours to
guarantee 100% destruction of spores.
Classification by temperature
Bacteria can be divided into the following categories according to their preferred
temperature range:
Psychrophilic (cold-loving) bacteria have an optimum (growth
temperature
below 20°C).
Psychrotrophic (cold-tolerant) bacteria are psychrophilic strains that can
reproduce at a temperature of 7°C or below regardless of
optimum temperature.
Mesophyllic (lovers of the happy medium) have optimum growth

temperature between 20°C and 44°C.
Thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria have their optimum growth
temperature between 45° and 60°C.
The psychrotrophic bacteria are of particular interest to the dairy industry because
microbiological activity in farm milk and market milk usually takes place at a temperature
of 7°C or below.

4.1.6.3 Moisture
Bacteria cannot grow in the absence of moisture. Many bacteria are quickly killed by
desiccation while others can tolerate dry periods of several months. Bacterial spores can
survive desiccation for periods of years.
4.1.6.4 Oxygen
Some bacteria cannot live without oxygen. They are called aerobic bacteria. For some
bacteria oxygen is a poison. These bacteria are called anaerobic. Other bacteria
consume free oxygen when it is present but they can also grow in the absence of
oxygen. This last group of bacteria is called facultatively anaerobic.
4.1.6.5 Acidity of the environment

The acidity of a nutrient substrate is most simply expressed as its pH value. The growth
rate of bacteria depends on the pH of the environment. We distinguish a minimum, a
maximum and an optimum pH. Sensitivity to changes in pH varies from one bacterium to
another.
4.1.6.6 Salt concentration of the environment

Salt has important influence on the growth rate of bacteria. Generally the higher the
concentration, the more it inhibits the growth of micro-organisms.
4.1.7 Reproduction of bacteria

Bacteria normally reproduce asexually by fission .In favourable conditions of bacteria
can occur at intervals of 20 – 30 minutes.
Theoretically the pattern of reproduction is then as follows:
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In reality, however, lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic, metabolic waste products,
unfavourable temperature conditions and desiccation soon inhibit the growth rate.
Reproduction finally stops and a large number of bacteria die.
4.1.8 Growth curve of bacteria
THERE ARE 4 STAGES:
1. Lag-phase
It takes some time before the bacteria start to reproduce (grow). The bacteria have to
acclimatize to the new environment and/or may have dormant, e.g. kept at a low
temperature before inoculation. The length of the lag-phase is very important and
depends on:
1. number of bacteria;
2. species of bacteria;
3. temperature of the environment;
4. viability of the bacteria at the time of inoculation;
5. substrate (water, pH, oxygen, carbohydrates, vitamins, etc.).

2. Log-phase
During a couple of hours the bacteria reproduce quickly. Reproduction proceeds
logarithmically.
3. Stationary-phase
The number of cells dying, equals the number of new cells produced. Reproduction has
slowed down because of the growing amount of metabolic waste products and, perhaps,
lack of nutrients.
4. Mortality-phase
Formation of new cells ceases entirely and the existing cells gradually die off.
Growth curve of bacteria
The shape of the curve varies with temperature, food supply and other growth
parameters.
4.1.9 Bacteria in fresh milk

Fresh milk contains 1.000 to 500.000 (or more) bacteria per ml. The number and
species of bacteria depends on the milking practice, e.g. the cleanliness of the cow’s
environment and the cleanliness of the new surfaces with which the milk comes into
contact, e.g. the pail, the strainer, the churn, etc.
When milk is secreted in the udder it is virtually sterile. But even before it leaves the
udder bacteria that enter through the teat channel infect it. These bacteria are normally
harmless and few in number, only a few tens or hundreds per ml. Moreover, they don’t
grow well in milk. However, in cases of bacterial udder inflammation (mastitis), milk is
heavily contaminated with bacteria and may even be unfit for consumption. There are
always concentrations of bacteria in the teat channel, but most of them are flushed out
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at the beginning of milking. It is advisable to collect the first bacteria-rich jets of milk from
each teat in a separate vessel with a black cover. Flocculated milk from diseased
animals shows up readily against the black background.
Table: bacterial count in farm milk
Fresh milk of healthy cows milked under clean conditions can be kept for a few hours at
ambient temperatures without affecting the microbiological quality too seriously. After a
few hours, however, even this high quality milk must be chilled to 4°C. Milk from cows
that are not healthy should not be consumed as this milk may contain pathogens, e.g.
Brucella abortus,
Salmonella paratyphosa, Bacillus anthraces, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and
Clostridium perfringens.
4.1.10 Main sources of infection
1. The cow
The dust on the skin and the hair of the cow may contain up to 5 billion bacteria per
gram. It is very important to keep the cow clean and to cut the hair near the udder. (Coli-
bacteria, Butyric acid bacteria and Putrefaction bacteria).
2. The milking shed (place)

The soil and the floor of the milking shed are important sources of Butyric acid and coli-
bacteria.
3. Cattle feed/ fodder

If cattle feed is mixed with milk obviously all the bacteria in the feed will contaminate the

milk. If cattle are fed food that causes Diarrhoea, bacteria may reach the milk via the
dung (usually spore-forming bacteria).
4. The cow shed

The cow shed must be kept clean, cool and dust-free. It must be constructed in such a
way that cleaning is very easy.
5. Milking utensils
Infection by contact: this is the most important source of contamination. One milliliter
spoiled milk may contain 5 billion bacteria, bacteria that usually grow very well in milk. If
one milliliter of spoiled milk is diluted by
10 l of fresh milk then will increase the bacteria count of the milk by 500.000 per ml. One
ml of milk is not much and may easily be neglected when the utensil.
6. Strainers
Straining may increase the bacteria count if not carried out properly.
7. The milker
The milker is responsible for clean animals, a clean milking shed and clean and
disinfected utensils. He must wash his hands before he starts milking and he should be
dressed properly with clean clothes. He should be healthy and he should not cough over
the milk.
4.1.11 Principal bacteria in milk
4.1.11.1 Lactic acid bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria are found almost everywhere in nature, but they occur especially in
large numbers in places where there is milk. They ferment lactose to lactic acid. Heating
to 70°C kills most of them, though the lethal temperature for some is as high as 80°C.
4.1.11.2 Coli bacteria

Coli bacteria are facultatively anaerobic bacilli with optimum temperature of 37°C.They
are found in the intestines, in manure, in soil, in contaminated water and on plants. They
ferment lactose to lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen and they break down milk
protein, giving rise to an unclean flavour and smell. Coli bacteria are killed by HTST
pasteurisation. They are used as test organisms for routine bacteriological control.
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4.1.11.3 Butyric acid bacteria
Butyric acid bacteria are very common in nature. They are found in soil, on plants, in
manure etc. and easily find their way into milk. Badly stowed silage and fodder
contaminated with soil may have extremely high counts of butyric-acid bacteria with the
result that milk becomes heavily infected with these organisms of their spores. Butyric
acid bacteria are anaerobic spore forming bacilli with an optimum temperature of 37°C.
They do not grow well in milk, which contains oxygen but thrive in cheese, where more
anaerobic conditions prevail.
4.1.11.4 Putrefaction bacteria

Putrefaction bacteria produce protein-splitting enzymes. They can therefore break down
proteins all the way down to ammonia. This type of break down is called putrefaction.
This group of bacteria is especially found in water and in soil.
4.1.12 Effect of temperature and number of bacteria contaminating the milk on the
growth rate.
Table 4 shows that the growth rate at 4.5°C is rather slow. At 10°C the growth rate has
increased considerably and at 16°C the growth rate is very fast indeed. Comparing table
4 and 5 we see that the growth rate is higher when the contamination is higher.
However, the temperature has much more effect on the bacterial growth than the initial
contamination.

4.2 Fungi
Fungi are a group of micro-organisms which occur very widely in nature among plants,
animals and human beings. Different species of fungi vary a great deal in structure and
method of reproduction. Fungi may be round, oval or threadlike. The threads may form a
network visible to the naked eye in the form of mould on food, for example. Fungi are
divided into yeasts and moulds.
4.2.1 Yeast
Yeasts are single-cell organisms of spherical elliptical or cylindrical shape. The size of
yeast cells varies very much. The yeast used to brew beer, Sacchromyces cerevisiae,
has a diameter in the order of 2-8 mm and a length of 3-15 mm. Some yeast cells of
species may be as much as 100 mm.
4.2.1.1 Conditions for growth of yeast
(a) Nutrients
As for bacteria: see 4.1.6.1.
(b) Temperature
Yeast cells do not normally grow at temperatures below the freezing point of water or
above 47°C. Optimum temperature: 20-0°C. Yeast is killed by a few minutes exposure to
60-62°C.
(c) Moisture
Yeast needs less water than bacteria. Some species can grow in media with a very low
water content such as honey or jam.
(d) Oxygen
Yeast is facultatively anaerobic. In the absence of oxygen yeast breaks down sugar to
alcohol and water, while in the presence of oxygen it breaks down sugar to carbon
dioxide and water.
(e) Acidity
Yeast can grow in media with pH values ranging from 3 to 7.5. The optimum pH is
usually 4.5-5.0.
4.2.1.2 Importance of yeast

Yeasts are generally undesirable organisms from the dairy point of view. They ferment
14  PTC+
milk and cream and cause certain defects in cheese and butter .On the other hand, in
the brewing, baking and distillation industries, they are valuable co-workers .The yeast
used in those industries reproduce by budding, but also form spores.
4.2.2 Moulds
The mould fungus has a many-branched body called the mycelium, which may be
microscopically small or large enough to be seen by the naked eye. The mycelium
consists of individual threads called hyphae. In some species of moulds the hyphae are
long, hose like cells containing many nuclei, while in others the hyphae are divided into
mononuclear cells by partition walls. The mould absorbs nourishment through the
hyphae that also attach it to the substrate. The hyphae constitute the vegetative part of
the fungus. The part responsible for reproduction consists of hyphae that often grow
straight up and carry spores. Mould fungi metabolise in the same way as bacteria and
yeasts. The action of moulds on fat and protein is important for the dairy industry.
4.2.2.1 Conditions for growth of moulds
(a) Nutrients
As for bacteria: see 4.1.6.1.
(b)Temperatures
Optimum temperatures: 20 – 30°C.
(c) Moisture
Moulds need water but often less than yeasts.
(d) Oxygen
Moulds normally grow in the presence of oxygen.
(e) Acidity
Mould fungi can grow in substrate with pH values from 2 to 8.5. Many species, however,
prefer an acid nutrient.
(f) Salt concentrations

Moulds are sensitive to salts. A common salt (NaCl) solution begins to inhibit their
growth at a concentration of 3%. Maximum salt concentration is 8 – 10%.

4.2.2.2 Importance of moulds
Moulds do not survive HTST pasteurisation. Two species are quite important.
(a) Penicillium
The penicillium family is one of the commonest types of mould. The spore forming
hyphae of this family are branched at the tip, resembling a brush. Green mould, which
occurs very widely in nature, belongs to this family. Some species of penicillia play an
important part in dairy processes. Their powerful protein and fat splitting properties
make them the chief agents in the ripening of Blue cheese, Camembert, etc. The Blue
cheese mould is called Penicillium roquefort and the Camembert mould Penicillium
camembert.
(b) Oospora lactis

The milk mould Oospora lactis is on the borderline between yeasts and moulds. It
occurs on the surface of cultured milk as a fine white velvety coating. This mould
contributes to the ripening of semi-soft and soft cheeses. In butter, it may cause
rancidity. Moulds on the surface of cheese and butter can give rise to discoloration and
also give the product an off flavour. A mould colony on the surface of cheese, for
example, may easily cause “mould penetration” and “rot holes”. Strict hygiene is
necessary in the dairy to prevent products from being affected by moulds during
processing. Walls and ceiling must for example be kept scrupulously clean to prevent
moulds from setting there.
4.3 Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages belong to the group of micro-organisms called viruses. A virus is a very
small organism (0.01-0.1 mm). They feed on living cells of plants and animals. Viruses
like foot and mouth disease cause several serious diseases. Bacteriophages are viruses
that feed on bacteria. They are round or oval and usually have a short tail. The
bacteriophage uses this tail to attach itself to the surface of a bacterium, penetrate the
cell wall and injects its nuclear substance into interior of the bacterium. This substance
from the bacteriophage begins to control the bacterium so that the cell produces new
bacteriophages (20-200 per bacterium). Within 25-90 minutes the bacterium cell is
destroyed on temperature and pH. The growth rate of bacteriophages is much higher
than that of bacteria.
16  PTC+
Bacterial count in farm milk
A culture attached by bacteriophages is destroyed very rapidly. Bacteriophages are

highly specific. Bacteriophages occur in a large number in manure, soil and surface
water. In fact they are found everywhere in nature where there is a plentiful supply of
bacteria. Phages grow at temperatures between 10 and 45°C. They are killed by 30
minutes’ exposure to temperatures between 63 and 88°C. They can tolerate pH levels
as high as 11 and as low as 3 without being inactivated. Phages generally enter the
dairy with the farm milk. If the reception department is not screened off from the rest of
the dairy, the risk of infection is especially great. The microscopic droplets of milk that
splash up during weighing-in are thrown into the air, dry and quickly spread all over the
place. When this happens, it is very difficult to avoid infection of kettle milk and cream.
Chemical disinfectants, especially chlorine preparations, have proved very effective
against bacteriophages. A sodium hypochlorite solution in a concentration of 0.05% free
chlorine can kill them completely in less than 1 minute. Surfaces that are difficult to
disinfect, such as the walls and tools in cheese vats, can be rendered phage-free by
rising or spraying with a 0.1 sodium hypochlorite solution.

5 NON- MILK- SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOUR IN FRESH MILK
5.1 Impurities
1. Soil, straw, dung, fodder, etc. should not be present in milk for three
reasons: it shows that milking and milk-collection was not done under
hygienic circumstances;
2. soil, straw and especially dung may contain huge numbers of bacteria that
may spoil the milk very rapidly;
3. they may also contain toxic substances and off-flavours.
5.2 Antibiotics
Cows with mastitis are usually treated with penicillin. People should not take in penicillin
accidentally by drinking milk. Penicillin also has an adverse effect on starter cultures in
the processing plant. Therefore, fresh milk sent to the plant or sold directly to the
consumer should not contain penicillin.
5.3 Pesticides
Pesticides can enter the milk directly or via the cow’s blood system. Pesticides should
not be present in the milk.
5.4 Oxydantiae and Detergents

Detergents and disinfectants containing oxidants are used to clean utensils and to kill
micro-organisms. Oxydantiae also affect milk: oxidation of fats is leading to rancidity and
other off-flavours especially in fatty products like butter and ghee. After cleaning the
milking equipment with detergents and disinfectants it should be rinsed thoroughly with
fresh, clean water.
5.5 Off-Flavours
Milk absorbs substances that cause off-flavour in milk and milk-product very easily. This
off-flavour enters the milk either directly or indirectly.
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If a cow eats strong smelling fodder within two hours before milking, the smell and taste
will develop in the milk. Milk stored near strong smelling silage, petrol or paint will
absorb the flavours of these products. Waste products of bacteria may also cause a bad
taste and/or smell.

6 QUALITY OF FRESH MILK
Quality could be divided into:

1. hygienic quality
 -microbiological quality (keeping quality);
 -physical quality (presence of non-milk-substances);
2. compositional quality
 fat content;
 protein content;
 adulteration.
6.1 On the farm

Milk is the most important raw material for the dairy industry and therefore the dairy
industry is interested in milk of the best possible quality. In generally the industry will pay
a milk price according to the quality of the milk: the higher quality, the higher price. This
is important for the farmer, as he is the first person responsible for the quality of the milk.
Moreover, the farmer can do a lot to improve the quality of the milk via hygienic milk
handling practices before, during and after milking.
6.2 Before milking

The places where the animals (cows, sheep, buffaloes, etc.) are going to be milked must
be clean, dustfree and cool. The animals must also be clean, dustfree and with short
hair around the udder. Before one starts with milking, the udder should be cleaned with
a damp towel followed by a dry cloth. The first milk should be put aside. Check this milk
for milk for visible abnormalities (blood, cells, viscosity, colour and small hard pieces).
6.2.1 Utensils
A fundamental requirement in handling milk and milk products is the cleanliness of
utensils.
This is not always easily accomplished: goat skins, calabashes and locally made
containers of wood and other materials are still widely used. The sanitation of these is
rather doubtful.
In this light the use of old oil drums and kerosene containers, properly cleaned, is a step
forward. The best utensils, however, are metal ones. Prior to starting with milking all
equipment should be cleaned and disinfected with hot water, soap and disinfectant.
Rinse the equipment afterwards with fresh clean water. If a strainer is used the cotton
wad should be renewed.
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6.2.2 During milking
 Prevent dust, dung etc. entering the milk. Separate good and poor milk, e.g.
colostrum, milk that is red or too yellow. (N.B. colostrum is not really poor milk,
but it is difficult to process in the plant because of its abnormal composition).
 Do not cough over the milk.
 Strain the milk but use a proper strainer with a single service cotton wad or clean
cloth.
 Collect the milk in closed-topped cans standing in a dust free, clean, cool place.
6.2.3 After milking

Keep the milk in a can with a lid. Either chill the milk fast or as soon as possible or take it
to the collection point (plant) immediately. Again, use closed topped cans. Do not use
open pails with a block of wood or a bundle of straw to be placed on top of the milk to
minimize slopping and loss. The time between milking and delivery at a collection point
(where the milk should be chilled or processed immediately) should not be more than
two hours. The milking utensils must be cleaned immediately after use and kept in a dry,
dust free, cool place. Do not use the milking utensils for any other purpose.
6.3 Milk collection

As milk is very perishable the collection of milk is a very critical operation for the dairy
industry. There are no general solutions on how to organize milk collection. Each
situation asks for its own solution.
6.3.1 Collection of milk

Milk collection costs money, up to 10% of the milk price. Milk collection cannot prevent,
even under most favourable conditions, deterioration of milk. A system should be
developed that minimizes deterioration, is appropriate to the local conditions and is
economically viable. Within the traditional milk marketing system, collection is usually
done without refrigeration or at least without using artificially produced cold. Whereas
with the modern milk marketing systems the use of chilling centres for milk collection is a
common feature. Maintaining, repairing and replacing chilling equipment is a difficult
problem either because of lack of foreign currency or lack of skilled labour or both. The
containers used for delivery to collection centres or processors are often unsuitable.
Anything from glass and plastic bottles, calabashes, wooden containers, burnt out
kerosene tins to any type of metal buckets and pails are in use. In addition, they are
often not well cleaned. A good, all-weather road system is seldom available. Poor roads
together with frequent breakdowns of transport and irregularities in collection are some
of the major obstacles for milk collection.

Milk can be taken to the dairy plant:
a. by the farmers themselves;
b. by the dairy plant;
c. by third parties on contract basic.
In the first two cases there is direct contact between farmer and plant. This is important
for building and maintaining a good relationship of mutual trust and understanding. In
the event the farmer takes the milk to the plant he may expect a higher price, as the
plant has no collection expenditure. Contracting third parties may be cheaper for the
plant than organizing its own collection system.
There are, however, disadvantages:

a. there is no direct contact between plant and farmer;
b. there may not be sufficient guarantees that contractor will run the collection
time;
c. the third party may have a contract with another plant and may deliver to the
plant that pays more. The farmers will not object, as they do not really know
where the milk is going after collection. (Or are not interested as long as they
are getting paid);
d. it is not likely that the efforts of the plant to improve the quality of the milk by
paying for quality will have results if the plant does not pay the farmers
directly.
6.3.2 Collection centers

Often it is not possible to take milk directly from the individual farmers to the plant.
Especially if there are many small suppliers, it is better to take the milk to one central
point first. From this point the milk will be transported to the plant. Such a point could be
an open spot along the roadside or a regular collection centre. The latter exists of a
building with collection equipment. Part time or permanent staff can supervise it.
Generally milk produced under tropical and subtropical conditions should be cooled to
4°C within two hours after milking.
The time available, however, depends on:
a. hygienic quality of the milk (e.g. bacteria/ml);
b. holding temperature;
c. time between cooling and processing;
d. danger of temporary increases of temperature between cooling and processing;
e. cleanliness of equipment used between milking and processing;
f. milk handling between milking and processing.
Cooling at the farm is usually uneconomic. The number and outfit of the collection
centres depend on the present and expected future availability of milk. Start with a
modest centre with simple equipment and extend the centre as the intake increases.
22  PTC+
6.3.3 Determination of quantity and quality
The village collection station or roadside pick-up point should also be the focus of quality
control and quantity measurements since it is very important that the supplier sees
evidence that the quality of his milk is fairly judged. Only tests that take little time, the so-
called “platform” tests, can be used. The more important ones are those for:
(a) appearance: colour, smell, taste, dirt;
(b) acidity: alcohol test, clot on boiling test, smell, taste;
(c) density: the density test is often used as an indicator for adulteration with
water. However, the density varies already considerably with the fat content
of the milk with the result that only serious adulteration can be spotted;
(d) refractive index: a test that can be used for the same purpose as the
(e) density test. It also varies with individual animals;
(f) temperature: in case the milk should have a certain temperature.
The quantity of the milk must be measured after the “platform” tests have been carried
out. One can measure the quantity by volume or by weight. Measuring sticks in
combination with a corresponding vessel, vessels with known volumes and vessels with
attached measuring tubes (communicating vessels). The latter allows measuring small
quantities of milk fairly accurately but is very difficult to clean. A main obstacle to
accurate volumetric is the foam forming property of milk and the resulting inaccuracy
and time consuming already. The determination of the milk quantity by weight is quicker,
but needs accurate and more expensive equipment if one has to do with small
quantities.

7 PAYMENT OF MILK
Common sense tells us that the payment of milk should be based on hygienic quality as
well as quantity. The plant is interested in high quality milk to be able to produce high
quality products. However, especially when starting a new collection scheme with new
suppliers it may be necessary to accept all the milk delivered in order to get sufficient
milk and to prevent that farmers sell rejected milk to third parties like middlemen or
directly to consumers. Actually before the scheme starts the farmers should be taught
good milk handling practices. The result of the platform test is not used for the payment
of milk. Milk that passes the platform test is not necessarily milk of hygienic quality. To
determine the hygienic quality more elaborate time consuming test must be done.
The system of payment must be such that:

(a) the farmer gets a fair price for the quantity of milk supplied and a reward for
his effort to produce high quality milk;
(b) adulteration of milk is prevented and/or punished.
7.1 Payment on quantity

Different systems are being used be the dairy industry:
(a) payment based on quantity only;
(b) payment based on quantity and fat content;
(c) payment based on quantity, fat and protein content;
(d) payment based on fat content only;
(e) payment based on fat and protein content.
Note: Samples are taken after every delivery, preserved with sodium bichromate or
formalin and tested once a week or fortnight. (Composite samples).
7.2 Payment on hygienic quality

Major tests are:
(a) purity test )
(b) reduction test ) e.g. every 2 weeks
(c) cell count )
(d) antibiotics )
(e) oydanticiea ) e.g. every 3 months
(f) pesticides )
7.3 Adulteration
Milk can be adulterated by various means:
(a) Addition of water. This can be tested with the density test or the refractometer test.
24  PTC+
Both are not very accurate. Determination of the freezing point would be the
method;
(b) Extraction of fat. This cannot be detected.
(c) Addition of reconstituted skimmed milk. This is very hard to detect.
(d) Neutralisation of sour milk. This is very hard to detect.
7.4 Payment of milk on hygienic quality in the Netherlands

Table: Payment of milk on hygienic quality in the Netherlands since January 2010
(Foqus system of Friesland Campina) SEE Manual D908.

8 TESTS
8.1 Taking a sample of milk

Equipment
1. Sample bottle (sterile if necessary).
2. Stainless steel sampling spoon.
3. Agitator (stainless steel) = plunger.
4. Disinfectant e.g. ethanol 70% or hypochlorite
5. Burner (gas, spirit).
Procedure.
1. Mix the milk properly with the agitator so that the milk becomes
homogeneous
2. Disinfect the clean sampling spoon and agitator by immersion in a
disinfecting solution for at least 5 minutes or by immersion in ethanol 70%
passing them through a flame.
3. Do not use them before excess liquid has drained away.
4. Take a sample with the spoon and fill the sample bottle so that the
contents can be mixed thoroughly
Note: If the sample is needed for bacteriological tests the procedure must be
adapted.
8.2 Smell, taste, colour (as platform test)

Procedure
1. Remove the lid of the churn.
2. Smell immediately. Milk with an abnormal colour should be rejected.
Examine the milk. Dirt, blood, flies, coagulation and colostrums can be
recognized.
3. Taste the milk. Sugar, flour, or salts that may have been added to mask
adulteration with water may be detected.
4. Record the results.
8.3 Alcohol test (platform test)

Equipment
1. Test tube
2. Ethanol 70% (neutral towards phenolphthalein).
Procedure
1. Put a certain quantity of milk into the test tube (take a sample as described in 8.1).
26  PTC+
2. Add the same quantity of ethanol 70%.
3. Mix the two liquids and check for any precipitate especially on the glass wall of the
test tube.
The alcohol test is meant to sort out all milk with an increased acidity.
Disadvantages are:
(a) colostrum, bad mastitis milk and milk with an abnormal salt balance may also
curdle, even if the acidity is normal;
(b) buffalo milk with a slightly increased acidity will give a positive alcohol test. In this
case one should change the strength of the ethanol solution.
8.4 Clot on boiling test

Equipment
1. Test tube, ca. 20 ml.
2. Test tube plus clothes peg.
3. Burner (gas, paraffin).
Procedure
1. Put ca. 5 ml. of milk into the test tube.
2. Boil the milk while swinging the test tube round.
3. After boiling check for coagulated milk.
4. Remove the milk from the test tube carefully and check if any precipitation
can be seen on the glass tube.
Milk with a sufficiently increased acidity will clot on boiling. If the result of the test is
positive the milk is unfit for pasteurisation. Milk of different mammals shows different
acidities on clot-on-boiling. In general the clot-on-boiling test is less stringent than the
alcohol test.
8.5 Density
Equipment
1. Cylindrical lactodensimeter jar.
2. Two water baths: one is 40-50°C and the other one is 20°C.
3. Lactodensimeter (or lactometer).
4. Thermometer.
Procedure
1. Heat the milk 40°C and keep it at this temperature for 5 minutes. Swing round
carefully so that the milk is not mixed with air

2. Cool slowly to 30°C and remove the air if necessary.
3. Cool quickly to 20 (+/-) 2°C.
4. Poor the milk carefully into a lactodensimeter jar. The inclusion of air should be
avoided as this will decrease the density reading.
5. Fill the jar to overflowing and remove any air bubbles.
6. Insert the lactodensimeter gently into the milk and release it at the approximate
point of equilibrium thus avoiding wetting more than a very short length of the
stem above the milk surface.
7. Read the lactodensimeter as soon as it comes to rest.
8. Take down the reading.
9. Read the temperature of the milk. This should be between 18°C and 22°C; how
closer to 20°C, how better.
10. If the temperature of the milk is not 20°C exactly make a correction for the
reading of the lactodensimeter. Add 0.0001 each 0.5°C more than 20°C.
Subtract 0.0001 for each 0.5°C less than 20°C.
11. The figure calculated according to point 10 is the density of milk at 20°C.
(Note: Usually a correction has to be made depending on the particular lactodensimeter.
This is done before point 10).
Note:
1. The difference between two duple samples carried out by the same person
may not be more than 0.0002 g/ml.
2. This method may not be used if the acidity of the milk is more than 22°N.
The density van be calculated as follows.
28  PTC+
d 20 = 1 + g g/ml
1000
d 20 is the density at 20°C
g is the reading of the lactodensimeter after correction for the meter and the
temperature.
Example: if g = 28.8; d 20 = 1 + 28.8 = 1.0288 g/ml.
1000
8.6 Refractive index (refraction)

Equipment
1. Refractometer calibrated for milk.
2. Water bath 40°C.
Procedure
1. Heat milk to 40°C.
2. Put one drop of milk on the refractometer and read the refraction.
Note:
The refraction depends on the total dissolved solid content. The refraction index may be
used to detect adulteration with water. Additional decreases the concentration of soluble
substances and thus the refractive index. Addition of sugar or salt increases the
refraction. Moreover, the refractive index depends on the species and individual
animals.
The refraction of bulk milk from many different suppliers could be more or less constant.
cow : n = 1.3450 – 1.3472
buffalo : n = 1.3460 – 1.3490
8.7 Temperatures
Equipment
1. Alcohol thermometer.
2. Plunger.
Procedure
1. Mix the milk with the plunger.
2. Disinfect the thermometer.
3. Immerse the lower part of the thermometer in the milk.
4. Read the temperature when the column of alcohol does not move any more.

Note:
Especially when you expect chilled milk to be supplied the temperature not be checked
on delivery.
8.8 Purity
Equipment
1. Apparatus for purity test (standardized).
2. Cotton wad filter (standardized).
3. Petroleum either (boiling range 40-60°C) DANGER
4. Water bath 37°C.
Procedure
1. Heat the milk to 37°C (+/-) 2°C. Swing round.
2. Filter ca. 150 ml. through the cotton wad.
3. Dry the cotton wad at 60-80°C for not more than two hours.
4. Immerse the cotton wads that are more or less yellow in petroleum either for
2.5 minutes.
5. Compare the result with standard colours. The value of this is not uniformly
accepted. Farmers may be careless in milking and remove dirt by straining
the milk. Since bacteria can pass the filter, the bacteriological quality of the
milk will not improve. It may even become worse because dirt collected on
the filter from a previous quantity of milk will be “washed out “ by the
following quantity, thus dispersing the bacteria in the milk. This can be
avoided by replacing the filter regularly.
8.9 Reduction test (Methylene Blue Reduction test)

Equipment
1. Reductase test tubes.
2. Rubber stoppers.
3. Water bath 37 (+/-)°C with lid
4. Pipettes, 0.5 ml.
5. Methylene blue tablets.
Preparation
1. Clean the glassware and rubber stoppers in hot water with a suitable
detergent. Rinse with hot water.
2. Heat glass ware and rubber stoppers in boiling water for at least 10 minutes
(glassware may be sterilized).
3. Put test tubes upside down to remove all water.
4. Rinse after cleaning with 70% ethanol and then with boiled, still warm water.
30  PTC+
5. Dissolve 1 methylene blue tablet in some boiled, still warm water, and up to
200 ml at 20°C.
Procedure
1. Write down the sequence of the test tubes.
2. Pour 0.5 ml methylene blue solution in the test tubes.
3. Add 20 ml of the milk samples.
4. Close the test tubes aseptically.
5. Put the test tubes in the water bath. The water level should be a little higher
than the level in the tubes. Write down the time.
6. Within 10 minutes the milking methylene blue collection should be at 37°C.
7. Cover the water bath with the lid.
8. Turn the tubes upside down two an hour.
9. Check the tubes at regular intervals.
10. Take down the time it took the milk sample to change its colour (blue white).
Disadvantages:
(a) Not all bacteria have same reducing capacity.
(b) Bacteria in milk that has been stored over longer periods at low
temperatures are in a “dormant” state and will not develop in the period
normally set for this test.
(c) Milk with a high cell count will show a short reduction time, even if the
bacteriological quality is good. For these the determination of the
germination number is sometimes preferred.

8.10 Fat content using the Gerber test
Equipment
1. Water baths 40-50°C and 20(+/-) 2°C.
2. Pipettes 10.77 ml (at 20°C).
3. Gerber butyrometers.
4. Apparatus for adding sulphuric acid automatically.
5. Sulphuric acid (d20 = 1.816 +/- 0.003 g/ml).
6. Apparatus for adding amylalcohol automatically.
7. Amylalcohol.
8. Rubber stoppers for butyrometers.
9. Apparatus to shake the butyrometers.
10. Centrifuge.
Procedure
1. Check the sequence of the samples and take care that this remains the same
throughout.
2. Heat the samples to 35-40°C in water of not more than 50°C while swinging them
round. Remove the air, if necessary, when the milk is 30°C.
3. Cool the samples quickly to 20 +/- 2°C while swinging them round. Prevent the
milk mixing with air.
4. Put 10 ml sulphuric acid in the butyrometers.
5. Add 10.77 ml of milk.
6. Add 1.05 ml. amylacolhol.
7. Seal the butyrometers with rubber stoppers. The stoppers should touch the liquid
in the butyrometers.
8. Shake the butyrometers until it’s contents are thoroughly mixed and no white
particle can be seen (at least 30 seconds). Turn the butyrometers a few times
and shake again. (Use safety glasses!).
9. Put the butyrometers with the stem upward in a water bath of 65°C +/- 2°C for 5
minutes. The level of the fat column in the butyrometer should be below the
water level in the water bath.
10. Adjust the level of the fat column in the butyrometer if necessary.
11. Put the butyrometer in the centrifuge.
12. Within two minutes the centrifuge should reach 1100 r.p,m.
13. Return the butyrometers to the water bath of 65°C +/- 2°C. All milk fat should be
below the water level of water bath.
14. After 5 minutes start reading the results.
15. Before reading make the stem of the butyrometer dry. Hold the butyrometer
vertically and apply, if necessary, pressure to the rubber stopper to bring the
column of fat on the scale. Fat percentages are calculated by subtracting the
lower reading from the higher one. The result is then checked by taking another
32  PTC+
reading after a further three minutes immersion in the water bath.
16. Read with an accuracy of 0.01%.
17. Correct for deviations according to the following table.

Cleaning of glassware
Clean the butyrometer immediately after use by shaking and rinsing with a suitable
detergent (use hot water).
1. Remove the water and leave the butyrometer with the stem upwards for drying.
2. Clean the rubber stoppers in hot water with a suitable detergent and rinse with
cold water.
3. Dry the rubber stoppers and keep them in dry, cool place. Do not use old rubber
stoppers with cracks.
8.11 Total solids
Using the fat content and the density of the same milk one can calculate the dry matter
content of that milk.
TS = (1.23 F + 2.6) x 100 (d 20- 0.9982)

d 20
In which
TS = Total Solids content ( percentage in weight ).
F = Fat content (percentage in weight) using a pipette of 10.77 ml.
d 20 = density at 20°C (gram/ml).
34  PTC+
For easily calculations the following tables be used:
2.6 x 100 ( d 20 – 0.9982 )

d 20

8.12 Solids non- fat
The solids-non-fat content of milk is found by deducting the milk fat content from the
total solids content. Generally the solids-non-fat content is not used for the payment of
milk.
36  PTC+
GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF MILK
PRODUCTION IN DAIRY DEVELOPED AND
DEVELOPING COUNTRY
Introduction:
• Dairy animals play an important role in many ways. their vital role in
agriculture and human nutrition,
• They have been exploiting through implication of the scientific knowledge in
all aspects of genetics, breeding, management, health and sanitation.
• A joint effort of all these scientific tools employed to achieve maximum
output from dairy animals.
• The scientists, dairy producers and researcher are searching the ways through
which they can produce more amount of milk from dairy animals.
• Most of the dairy developed countries are using biotechnological tools to
improve the milk production up to the maximum potential level of animal.
• The current global concerns for animal production systems are focused not
only in the increasing the production but also towards the food safety,
human health, high utilization of natural resources and minimized level of
pollution of the environment.
• Ruminant livestock are a major component of agriculture system in
tropical countries.
• In small holders dairy farming system, ruminant are very important
because they produce much more than food crop, they provide direct
cash income, they are capital assets, they produce manure for use as
fertilizer and fuel and they may be the best source of power for the
transport and cultivation.
• The production of milk for the human nutrition, is often the primary
reason for keeping livestock also to fulfill their needs for small holder
farmer as source of income from milk sale.
Table:Per capita milk consumption, milk (milk equivalents)
1981 1990 2000 2007
Kg/capita
World 86 80 104 113
Developed 222 180 235 248
Developing 35 40 56 68
Asia 33 39 50 64
China 3 6 11 na
Mongolia 141 144 176 na
SE Asia 6 10 16 32
Thailand 8 14 26 na
Philippines 14 19 22 Na
Malaysia 48 41 52 Na
Viet Nam 1 1 8 Na
South Asia 43 66 84 93
India 50 63 79 Na
Pakistan 113 134 180 Na
Bangladesh 16 17 18 Na
Sri Lanka 24 28 33 Na
Nepal 49 50 50 Na
US 271 274 287 295
EU Na 363 496 382
Source: FAO estimates
• By contrast, dairy development in other South Asian countries has
lagged, such as in Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka, partly due to the
lack of government support for the dairy sector.
• In South Asia stand average per capita consumption 32 kg.
• While India and Pakistan have the highest per capita consumption
levels in Asia at 80 kg and 180 kg, respectively.
• Change in milk demand been as dramatic as in China, where
consumption has increased from 5 kg per capita in 1984 to estimates
of over 22 kg by 2007, growing on average of 9 percent per annum.
• Most of this growth has occurred since 2000 when technical advances
allowed integration between dairy markets.
• An investigation by the China Association of Dairy industry found that in
2003 there were some 381 dairy products sold in different supermarkets in
Beijing, much of which was produced in the grasslands of the North China
region.
• Despite lactose intolerance the availability of more processed products, such
as cheese and yoghurt, along with technological developments, such as UHT
milk processing, have overcome the challenges of long-distance travel.
• The new technology has allowed more shelf-stable dairy products to be
delivered to geographically and culturally diverse consumers.
• Government-invested milk promotion, in some cases through school milk
program, also has been a catalyst in the expansion of demand.
Overview of Asian Dairy Situation
• Changes in food habits and tradition has important implications for many
countries, such as those in South Asia where milk is only second to cereals
in terms of importance to overall per capita consumption.
• The importance of milk is evident within long historical traditions of both
urban and rural milk consumption
• largely influenced by cultural factors, such as those in Pakistan and India.
• These traditions have encouraged thus supporting growing trends in per
capita consumption in those countries.
• The new technology has allowed more shelf-stable dairy products to
be delivered to geographically and culturally diverse consumers.
• Government-invested milk promotion, in some cases through school
milk program, also has been a catalyst in the expansion of demand.
• In China where generic milk promotion and encouraged participation
of smallholders in milk production have been national and regional
policy.
• In addition, there have been significant incentives for processors who,
while regrouping producers, are driving the next stage of China’s dairy
development.
• Asian Production grows faster than in any other region
• This rising regional demand for milk and dairy products (Products
consumer consumption, PCC, From 76 million tons in the early 1980s to
247 million tons in 2008) has translated into opportunities for local
producers,
• majority of whom maintain between two and five cows and supply more
than 80 percent of milk in the region. Aggregate output gains for the
region, growing annually by 5 percent over the past decade, have doubled
the global average.
• Asia became by 2005 the largest milk-producing region in the world –
surpassing Europe. Income growth prompts increased milk consumption
over past decade.
% change in Products consumer consumption
• This has largely benefited smallholder dairy producers in a region
where milk production is an integral part of the small-farm economy
in many countries, providing cash, capital assets and nutritional
benefits to tens of millions of households.
• Asian milk output over the past decade has been exceeded only by
that of certain meats and vegetable crops.
• It also has likely served as a catalyst to overall rural development; FAO
estimates that every 10–20 litres of milk marketed in traditional
markets has created one non-farm job.
Growth of agricultural production in Asia
Table: Milk production per cow per lactation
S.No Countries Milk production /Lactation
(Kg)
1 E.U 5594
2 U.S 9284
3 India 1145
4 China 3988
5 Newzealand 3211
6 Argentina 4697
7 Austrelia 5491
8 Canada 8395
9 Japan 9269
10 Nepal 438
Trend of milk production in the world
• The challenge represented by the expanding demand for milk and dairy
products in tropical countries is great and resultant opportunities for
small holder farmers are large.
• The world human population is expected to increase from 5.4 billion in
1990’ to approx.7.2 billions in 2010.
• Human population shift from rural areas to urban areas with regarding
to food production marketing and consumption.
• According to dairy production statistics the total worldwide milk
productions is 579 million tones,
• out of which 490 million tones are cow milk, the balance (remaining)
of 89 million tones is from other dairy animals mainly from buffalo.
• Buffalo milk production is mainly concentrated in India, accounting
for 90% of the total world populations.
• Long term trend for sheep milk shows only the modest growth as
compared to stronger growth rate in case of goat milk production
• most of these animals are kept for milk and meat production for
small scale holder for immediately supply of needs of house hold.
• Large milk operation for the production of sheep and goat milk are
concentrated in Europe particularly in Netherlands, Germany, France
and Norway.
Milk production trend in tropical and
temperate Zones.
• If we see the milk production, trend in the world, the temperate
countries are found to be the maximum milk producers concentrated in
temperate zones, situated above 330 latitude towards south and the
north parts of the world e.g. USA, Finland, Ireland, France, Netherland,
Norway, Newzeland and Australia.
• In both north and south temperate regions, the milk production is very
high due to the low temperature that favors the high yielding rate,
quality of feeds and pastures availability for the proper nutrition and
practicing genetic improvement through selection and culling, AI and
MOET (multiple ovulation and embryo transfer technology).
• If we see the situation and geographical distribution of tropical
countries, they are located in between 30-33° N and 30-33°S of the
World map which are high temperature zones, not suitable for high
milk production.
• Most of the Asian countries and African countries are situated in these
regions in both north and south part from equator line e.g. Nepal,
India, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and African
countries.
other factors that are responsible for low production in
tropical countries.
• Genetic make-up, environmental stress, feeding system, heat stress
and fibrous grasses.
• Genetically tropical breeds have low potentiality, which leads to main
barrier in increasing production level beyond the potential value
• Due to the temperature and climatic condition, tropical grasses are
matured very fast and having more lignin content with less digestible
value as compared to the less lignin content of temperate grasses.
• Regarding feeding system tropical countries are living on roughage feeding
with limited concentrate which will just to meet their maintenance
requirement and to support their production level.
• With concern to breeding system, they are not practicing culling and
selection and high genetic improvement tools
• But in dairy developed countries, they are using MOET and biotechnology
at molecular level.
• Due to more temperature and environmental stress, the animals are facing
problem for their body and physiological adjustment which leads to lower
production in tropical countries,
• mainly due to “less energy’’ is utilized for milk production.
• If we see the world milk production data/ statistics, we have enough
milk to support the world human nutrition but per capita
consumption in dairy developing countries is very low.
• Why this situation is prevailing there?
• It is mainly due unevenly distribution of milk throughout the world.
• The main reasons for that situation are low and high purchasing
power of the people, poor and rich condition of the population mass.
• Most of the developing countries are lacking behind due to their low
purchasing power capacity.
• Now there is only way to improve their own herd condition to have
more amount of milk which is possible through the improvement in
genetic potential, pasture management, feeding system, overall
management of the herd and proper animal health care.
• Even in temperate, zone the milk production is varying.
• Milk production of USA is near about double than that of Finland and
New Zealand situated in north and south temperate zones.
• In USA, they are using high level of concentrate feeding system while
New Zealand and Finland having the pasture feeding system with
minimum concentrate level feeding.
Trend of milk production in USA
• Milk production is increasing and number of animals is decreasing
with stable milk supply in the market.
• With this trend of milk production cost that is good for availability of
milk and milk products to the consumer.
• Such trend milk is mainly due to implication of biotechnology tools,
efficient management, and efficient concentrate feeding and good
animal health care.
Trend of milk production in developing countries
• The opportunity for increasing milk production in a sustainable and

equitable manner lies with the majority of small holder farmers which
forms the back bone of the crop animal farming system.
• There are two kinds of dairy farms, large specialized dairy farm and
small traditional dairy farms.
• Both farms are very important futures sources of milk production.
• Therefore, they have to give an equal opportunity to improve their
productivity.
Intensive dairy farm
• It can only be successful where there is an organized market facility, a large
amount of capital investment, high level of investment, high level std.
management, skills and technical knowledge and productive livestock and a
regular supply of good quality of fodder.
• If any factor is lacking the intensive dairy concept will be failure.
• Only large scale dairying is possible in developing countries with the help of
practical local recourses.
• It has gradually increased their production by using suitable tropical techniques.
• In the other hand traditional dairying with subsistence milk producers and bred at
very low level of potentially and surviving on wasted vegetation, poor quality of
crop residues with minimum level of management and preventive health care.
• Their cost of milk production is low so they can provide cheap source of milk in
urban areas.
• They can only increase their production at a limited scale due to poor quality of
feed and low genetic potentialities
• There are numbers of factors responsible for low productivity
• such as low genetic potentiality, environmental stress, non-scientific feeding
system, fibrous grasses with high lignin content etc.
• Genetically the breeds available there are having non descriptive type
characters with low potentiality that tends to lower the productivity of
animals.
• Due to temperature and climatic condition, tropical grasses are matured
very fast having high lignin content with lower digestible values as compare
to the temperate grasses .
• Tropical animals are surviving on roughages feeding system with limited
concentrate that will not support the production level.
• Due to more temperature and environmental stress, feed intake will
decreases which leads to low productivity.
In addition, developing countries farms are lacking behind in the
following ways too.
✓Lack of technical know-how about the breed and technique of
breeding.
✓Lack of knowledge about the utilization of available feed resources.
✓Negligible in health care and hygienic condition of animal and barn.
✓Lack of taking risk for adopting new technology.
✓Lack of knowledge about environmental pollution and biodiversity
degradation.
✓Lack of descriptive breeds in their herds.
✓Therefore, it is essential to review the overall situation of dairy farms
and apply the suitable tools to improve the milk production.
Trend of milk production in developed countries
• In other hand dairy farming system in developed countries is very

competitive and financial management skill are important factors for
survival with business motive.
• In developed countries, generally they have larger herds with higher
average milk production.
• They have adopted more modern technology e.g. TMR feeding system,
the use of consultant, specialists, and utilization of more highly trained
manpower force for maximizing production.
• It seems to be more successful where grasses growing all round the
year.
• The volume of raw material purchasing reduces the average cost of per
unit volume of milk.
• Similarly the volume of sales increases the average price received by
selling per unit.
• They have suitable climate, low population density, viability and
availability of high quality feed and forage resources, high genetic
potentiality, assured market and high technology based management
system favors the long herd development with higher productivity.
• Trend of milk production is revealed that with decreasing the number
of animals, achieved significantly increase in milk production with
stable supply of milk round the year.
• If we analyze the geographical location of developed countries in dairy
sectors, they are located either on the north or South Temperate Zone
where climatic condition favors high productivity of animal.
• Improved feeding, breeding and management in milk production and high
level of genetic tools like AI, culling, MOET, use of probiotics in feeding,
extends the further increase of reproductive potentials of superior female
animals.
• Due to above facts, the developed countries will get the opportunity to
maximizes the production up to potentiality level.
• Now-a-days, they are thinking to increase the productivity beyond the
optimum level of milk production superior cow in some selected herd.
• Trend of milk production in dairy developed countries revealed that
• there is significant increase in milk production with stable supply of
milk in the market
• while number of animals is significantly decreased.
• Higher production with decreasing number of animals with stable
supply of milk favors in the reduction of production cost with
increasing consumers in the world market.
• In technological aspects, they are using genetic and breeding tools
like AI, selection and culling, MOET, GMO, probiotic and markers to
increase the reproduction potentiality of females.
• Now they are thinking to increase the productivity beyond the
optimum level of production of animal e.g. Super cow.
• Finally, demand for the milk and milk product is predicted more in
near future.
• Such opportunity lies in the potential to increase human health and
welfare, food security and develop new sustainable practice and
technologies.
• In developing countries, inter-connected problems can be solved by
developing skilled and trained manpower, establishing good relation
with line agencies and improve the prevailing milk production system
by providing awareness and motivation program at gross root level.
Chemistry of milk
MILK PROTEINS
Normal bovine milk roughly contains 30-35g
protein/lit.
It is synthesized from amino acids from blood.
Linear polymer of L-alpha amino acids.
150 number of amino acids are present in milk
protein
Milk protein is especially gluco-phospho protein.
Factor for the estimation of protein in milk is
6.38. (100g protein contains 16g nitrogen.)
Milk protein
• Casein
• Whey
CASEIN:
Major fraction of milk protein (80-85% of total
protein)
A portion that can be precipitated by the action of
enzymes or acids.
Acid: PH: 4.6, Rennet: PH: 6.7
Can be separated into fractions when electric
charge is applied.
Casein
Types:
• - Casein (s1 and s2): Also called calcium
sensitive casein because it can be ppt. by
calcuim under certain conditions.
• - Casein
• - Casein
• -casein (not ppt. by calcium and also called
calcium insensitive casein). It is the site for
rennin action.
Whey protein (Serum proteins)
• Minor fraction of milk protein (20% of total

protein)
• Water soluble protein not ppt. by acid or
enzymes.
Types:
• lacto- albumins: soluble in sat. soln of MgSO4
• Lactoglobulins: it is insoluble in half saturated
soln. of MgSO4
• Non-protein nitrogenous substances
• Protease and Peptone
• Immunoglobulins
- lactalbumin:
• Represents about 20% of the proteins of bovine whey.
• It is a small molecule with a molecular weight of about 14000
Da.
• The iso-electric point of α-lactalbumin is pH 4.8.
• Several minor components have been observed in
recrystallized preparations of α-lactalbumin from bovine milk.
These components have the same amino acid composition as
the major component but contain carbohydrates.
• - lactalbumin plays an important role in the
synthesis of lactose in the udder.
• Thermal denaturation of α-lactalbumin is
accompanied by a release of bound calcium,
and α-lactalbumin is stabilized against heat
denaturation and aggregation in the presence
of calcium.
• α-Lactalbumin has good emulsifying and
foaming properties.
-Lactoglubins
• β-Lactoglobulin is a major milk protein,
representing about 50% of the whey proteins or
about 12% of total milk proteins.
• The conformation of β-lactoglobulin depends on
the pH. At pH values between 6.7 and 5.2 (its
isoelectric point), β-lactoglobulin exists at room
temperature as a stable noncovalently linked
dimer.
• At high temperature sulphurous compds. such as
hydrogen sulphide are gradually released.
• These sulphurous compds. are responsible for
the “cooked” flavor of heat treated milk.
Non-protein nitrogen
• A large number of N-containing compounds of
low molecular weight occur in milk (250 - 350
mg of N per liter).
• The wide variations in concentrations have
been reported for these constituents
Immunoglobulins and related minor
proteins
• extremely heterogenous in nature and few of
its members have been studied in detail.
• Lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase are substance
of possible use in the pharmaceutical and
food industries and are now isolated from
whey.
Laboratory estimation of protein
• Acid digestion –Kjeldahl Method, 100ml milk
protein –15.65 gm and factor for conversion is
6.38.
• Color reaction – Biuret method, lowry method
• Sophisticated instrument- Fluorimetry,
polarography
Uses of Casein
Food or food ingredients
• Nutritional enhancement (ingredient in different
nutritious product)
• Whipping property (Ca-caseinate)
• Sodium caseinate in sausage as a binder.
• Minimizes shrinkage and improve overrun in ice-
cream making.
• Substitute of dairy products-imitation milk, coffee
whiteners.
Non-food use
• Coating of books and magazine

• Textile industry –fixing color
• Lather industry for glossiness to light leather
Lipids (Milk fat)
• It forms emulsion with water and air.
• Gives palatability and smoothness in milk
• Economic and nutritional significant
• Capacity of generating off –flavor in milk
(rancidity)
• Butyric acid present in milk has unique flavor
and high in buffalo milk.
▪ Milk fat is characterized by the presence of
relatively large amts. of butyric and caproic
acid.
▪ Milk fat ranges in dia. from 0.1 to 20µm.
▪ The avg. size is 3-4µm and there are some 15
billion globules per ml.
▪ Milk lipids contain triglycerides (98-99%),
phospholipids, carotene, FFA and vitamins.
Fatty acids of milk lipids contain 4-24 carbons.
Saturated fats are stable and play a significant
role in rancidity.
Saturated fats: 62% & unsaturated fatty acids:
37% in milk.
Unsaturated lipids in milk is unique and butyric
acid in milk contributes typical flavor.
Properties of milk fat
Melting point : 28-33 OC

Specific gravity: 0.936– 0.946 at 15OC
Refractive index: 1.457-1.462 at 15 OC
Solubility- Insoluble in water, soluble in organic
solvent and slightly soluble in alcohol
Iodine value: 26-35
Saponification value: 210-233
RM value: 17 to 35
Polenske value: 7-12
Nutritional and other significance of milk lipids
– Provides 9 Kcal energy per gram

– Rich in vitamins
– Lubrication properties
- Shortening power
Lactose
• Exist only in mammal milk (4.4 to 5.2 %) and high in
human milk 6.3% and in SMP: 50-52 %
• It is principal carbohydrate in milk and is a disaccharide
• It is 30 times less sweet than cane sugar.
• It may cause defect as sandiness in ice-cream and age
thickening is sweetened condensed milk
• When hydrolysed it forms glucose and galactose ( and 
form of lactose)
• It is fermented by bacteria (significance in fermented dairy
products like yoghurt)
• Lactose in milk enhance Ca and P absorption in the body
• Lactose can be hydrolyzed by mineral acid.
• Lactose intolerance is a phenomena in especially
Chinese origin people where lactose cannot be
utilized in the body due to lack of lactose
hydrolyzing enzyme (-galactosidase)
• Lactose count is high in milk when fed with
carbohydrate and low when animals suffer from
mastitis.
• Whey is the main source of manufacture of
lactose.
• Exists in two crystalline forms( alpha and beta),
common is alpha-hydrate form.
• Structure: it is disaccharide and is composed of
D- glucose and D- galactose.
• Blood D-glucose is principal precursor for the

formation of lactose in milk.
Properties of lactose
1) Found in two forms: -lactose monohydrate or  -hydrate

and  anhydrate.
Commercial lactose is - lactose monohydrate
 form of lactose has large crystal hence may have a
problem in ice cream processing as it forms sandiness
2) Crystalline nature
3) Hygroscopic in nature: lactose monohydrate (amorphous)
4) Solubility - ,  form vary
 Lactose –less soluble in water, 17.8 % soluble at 15OC
 Lactose –7 times soluble than  form
Sweetness: -form is sweeter than -form.
Uses of lactose
• Constituents of infant foods and medical products
• Manufacture of tablets, penicillium
• Bakeries for brown color formation
• Flavor development
• Used as a substitute for cream coffee in dry
mixture
• Several dairy products.
Non-food use
• As a filler in several medicines.

• Military use.
• Used as reducing agent and silvering mirror.
Minerals and salts in milk
• Minor component of milk.

• Residue left after milk has been incinerated at
low red heat.
• Less than 1 % salt content (chloride, phosphates,
citrate of K, Na, Ca and Mg)
• Salt is alkaline in nature.
• Salt influences heat stability of milk towards
alcohol coagulation.
• In processing, salt content in milk affects the
processing of milk products.
– Age thickening of sweetened condensed milk.
– Feathering of cream in coffee.
– Coagulation of milk by rennin.
– Churning of fat globules on homogenization.
• Minerals count varies in type of feed, breed,
season and stages of lactation.
• Season and stage of lactation are two
important factors contributing to salts and ash
content in milk.
Average milk composition
MILK CONSTITUENTS
Total Solids (around 12-14% in milk)
. Fat and Solid Not Fat (SNF)
Water
Fat
True fat (Fatty glycerides) and associated
substances
Associated substances
Phospolipids, Cholesterol, Vitamin (ADEK) and
Carotene
Solid Not Fat (SNF)
• Lactose (Milk Sugar), Minerals (Ca, Na, Mg, P,

Cl, SO4, HCO3) Nitrogen and other
constituents
• Nitrogen
• Protein and Non Protein nitrogen
• Protein
• Casein (,,,) calcium caseinate complex,
Globulin (-lacto albumin, - Lacto globulin,
Albumin, Several whey protein
• Non-Protein
• Free N2 and amino acids
• Other constituents
• Fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E, K)
• Water soluble vitamins (Vitamin – B and C),
Enzymes and bacteria, Dissolved Oxygen and
Pigments
Physico-chemical properties of milk
• Physical state
• Water is continuous phase where the milk
constituents is dissolved/ suspended
• Protein and other neutral salt is in colloidal
suspension
• Fat is in emulsion phase
• Lactose present on solution
Acidity and pH of milk
Titratable Acidity (TA): Estimated by titration.
acidity in milk is due to casein, acid
phosphates, and citrates
Developed acidity is lactic acid due to -
bacterial action
• Titrable Acidity= cow milk (0.13 to 0.14)and
0.14to 0.15 for buffalo milk and is expressed as
lactic acid
• TA=Natural acidity+ developed acidity
• pH of milk = 6.4 to 6.6 for cow, 6.7 to 6.8 for
buffalo
• If animals suffer from mastitis and turns to basic
pH
• Lower the pH, high bacterial contamination in
milk and indicates ageing of milk
Density and specific gravity
• Density of milk vary with temperature
• Determined by lactometer
• Specific gravity (60 F) for cow milk is (1.028-
1.030), for buffalo milk 1.030-1.032 and for skim
milk (1.035-1.037 )
• When fat increase the specific gravity becomes
low; even buffalo milk specific gravity high
because SNF is high in buffalo milk
• Specific gravity lowers when water is added in
milk
Freezing point (FP)
• Lower than water due to presence of lactose and
water-soluble salt
• In average FP (0.547 C for cow milk and 0.549 C
for buffalo, ( average milk (or bulk ) is 0.530 C
• Water addition FP depression
• Mastitis milk has normal freezing point
• FP test is highly sensitive as 3 % water addition
may be detected and hence for test for detection
of adulteration (water addition)
• Souring of milk results lowering of FP hence for
un-soured milk it should be determined
• Boiling and sterilization – increase value of FP
depression and pasteurization has no effect
• Fat and protein content of milk has no effect on
FP
• Drawbacks of FP determination : does not detect
the addition of skim milk or removal of fat from
milk
• Watered milk, which is subsequently soured may
pass the test
Color of milk
• Color is a blend of the effect produced by

• Colloidal casein particles and the dispersed fat
globules, both of which scatter light.
• The carotene (to some extent xanthophylls)
impact yellow tint
– Intensity of color depends on breed, feed, size of the
fat globules, fat percentage
– Certain breed of cow impact a deeper yellow tint to
milk
– Introduction of green feed increases deeper yellow
color of cow milk
– The larger the fat globules in milk and the higher the
fat percentage, the greater intensity of yellow color
– Skim milk has a bluish and in whey a greenish yellow
color (due to other constitutes in milk)
Flavor
• Flavor constitute both smell (odor) and taste

• Blend of sweet taste of lactose and salt of
minerals both of which are damped down by
protein
• Phospholipids, fatty acids, fat also contribute
flavor
• Change in flavor in milk is due to feed, season,
stages of lactation condition of udder, hygienic
and sanitation condition during milking
• Abnormal flavor of milk of any kind is due to
• Exessive bacterial growth and unusual feed,
• Absorbed chemical contaminants
• Processing and handling defects
• Chemical change
• Addition of foreign material
Factors affecting composition of milk
Species :
• Variation in species of milking animals, vary the
milk composition.
Individuality of the cow :
• Even within species, individuality vary the
composition.
Breed:
• Higher the fat, higher the SNF; higher the milk
yield lower the fat
• Milking interval:
• Longer interval –lower fat content (in 12 hours
interval 0.1 to 0.15 % low in fat count)
• Longer the interval, higher the yield.
• Milking Efficiency:
• It effect yield and fat percentage , foredrawn
(earlier milk) contains low fat and later it
becomes high 4- 5 %, hence complete milking
is necessary.
Lactation effects:
• This is physiological state/cycle, colostrums are
nutritionally very sound because it contain high
amount of protein, antibodies and vitamins.
Season:
• Fat percentage and SNF varies with seasons
• Fat is high in winter (November- January) and low
during summer (June to July)
• Fat depends on temperature change
• SNF is high in winter
• SNF is low in summer
• Feed containing fat (soya bean oil, palm oil)
increase fat
• Grass feeding changes the composition of fat
as milk becomes rich with unsaturated fatty
acids
• VitD increases as sun light exposure to animals
increases
• Age of the animals
• Fat and SNF decreases with age
• Hormones
• Prolactin –essential for lactation -increases
yield and fat.
• Thyroid gland –thyroxin increases yield and fat
• Oestrogen – stimulating and depression.
• Disease condition (in mastitis)
• Mastitis –low lactose and casein content in milk
• Chloride increase
• Percentage soluble nitrogen content increase
• Decrease acidity
• Excitement
• No generalization can be made on effect of
excitement to animals.
• MILK PROCESSING COST AND PRICE OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
• Introduction
• Manufacture of milk products depends on milk collection and
transportation, milk processing and storage, management
administration and quality, maintenance cost, distribution of milk
products and sale promotion.
Formula:
Processing cost =Transportation + Processing + Storage +
Administration + Distribution + Management /
Total quantity of milk received
• Further, costing of milk and milk products depends upon the products
manufactured. If only one product is to be made, the sum of cost of
all processing management has to be divided by total number of unit
of products produced to find out unit cost of processing of those
products.
In principle, we split these costs mainly into 2
groups i.e. fixed cost and variable cost.
• Fixed cost
• The cost of dairy plant which is constant and independent to processing cost is said to be
fixed cost. The most important fixed costs are related to initial investment on
establishment of a plant. It also includes authorization and interest on loan money and
maintenance.
• . It also includes the following costs:
• Planning and engineering cost.
• Land purchasing cost.
• Building construction cost.
• Pre-operational fixed cost.
• Working capital.
• Depreciating cost of machines
•
• It is difficult to make suggestions for depreciation cost of vehicles, buildings etc. because
it depends upon the local situation and depends upon the way of goods used for that
purpose.
Annual depreciation cost = Purchasing cost / Initial value / Estimated life (yrs)
If the productive life is negligible then the estimated life should be taken only as one year. The following are
depreciation periods suggested for calculation of fixed cost.
• All types of vehicle: 4 – 5 yrs.
• Equipment with movable parts: 8 – 10 yrs.
• Equipment without movable parts: 12.15 yrs.
• Buildings and other constructions: 25 – 35 yrs.
Variable cost
• The cost incurred on the proceeding of total amount of milk or

milk products is called variable cost. The most important
valuable costs are electricity vehicle fare, water and packaging
material costs.
• This varies with amount of milk processed. Therefore, they are
variable in nature. Eg. if more quantity of milk is processed, the
more electricity is required for cooling and heating operations,
and also more fuel is needed for more products to be packaged.
Production cost of milk products
• The production cost of milk products can be calculated by adding up

processing cost and raw material costs.
• The loss will decrease gradually when throughput (production
output) increases until the breakeven point, meaning plant running at
no loss or no gain.
• A dairy plant will usually be profitable after a couple of years and due
to various influences, the financial results differ yearly.
Factors influencing the price policy
• Consumers' consuming power or capacity.
• Protection of consumer interest.
• Protection of producer interest.
• Seasonal fluctuation of milk production.
• Change in processing, collection and transportation.
• Welfare of public and dairy industry.
Factors affecting the selling price of milk
• Kind of milk.
• Purpose for which milk will be sold.
• Distance between dairy plant and market.
• Intensity & elasticity of demand.
• Marketing situation of the city.
• Cost of production of milk.
• Fat and SNF price is given to farmer and T.S cost is given to
cooperative organization for their maintenance. In addition to that,
additional amount is given early as bonus.
Cost calculation for pasteurized milk
• Suppose, a dairy plant purchases 10,000 liters of milk, out of which 8,000
liters is allocated for pasteurized milk, 700 liters for dahi, 400 liters for
paneer and 900 liters for khoa.
• Pasteurized milk
• Quantity of pasteurized milk = 8,000 L
• Processing loss @ 2% = 160 L
• Remaining quantity = 7,840 L
Calculation for Cream separation
Available fat content (FC) = 7,840 0.05 = 392 kg.
Required FC = 7,840 0.03 = 235.2 kg.
Difference in FC = 392 – 235.2 = 156.8 kg
Quantity of milk to be separated = Difference in fat/Available fat = 156.8/0.05 = 3,136 L
Cream (8%) = 3,136 0.08 = 250.88 kg 251 kg
Milk quantity after creaming = 7,840 – 251 = 7,589 kg
Ghee production @ 51% of cream = 250.88 0.51 = 127.95 128 kg
Dahi production
Total quantity = 700 L
Loss @ 2% = 14 L
Remaining quantity = 686 L
Paneer production
Paneer production @ (20 – 25%) = 20% of milk quantity = 400 0.2 = 80 kg
Khoa production
Khoa production @ (20 – 25%) = 20% of milk quantity = 900 0.2 = 180 kg
Details of daily and yearly income
Product Quantity Rate Daily income Yearly income
(Rs) (Rs)
Milk(kg) 7,589.00 70.00 531,230.00 191,242,800.00

Dahi(kg) 686.00 110.00 75,460.00 27,165,600.00
Paneer(kg) 80.00 500.00 40,000.00 14,400,000.00
Khoa(kg) 180.00 550.00 99,000.00 35,640,000.00
Ghee 128.00 750.00 96,000.00 34,560,00.00
Total
841,690.00 303,008,400.00
Details of expenditure of dairy plant
A. Expenditure on raw materials
Package No. of
Description Quantity Rate Daily (Rs) Yearly (Rs)
unit units
Raw milk 10,000 L - 10,000 55.00 550,000.00 198,000,000.00
0.5 kg
Milk bag 50 kg 15,178 1.5 22,767.00 8,196,120.00
4.5 kg 0.5 kg
Dahi bag 1,372 1.5 2058.00 740,880.00
256 0.5 kg
Ghee pot 256 20.00 5,120.00 1,843,200.00
0.25 kg
Paneer packet 216 216 5.00 1080.00 388,800.00
Khoa packet 720 0.25 kg 720 5.00 3600.00 1,296,000.00

Fuel cost @ 0.10/ L 7589 7589 7,589 1.25 9,486.25 3,415,050.00
Total 594,111.25 213,880,050.00
• Assumption: 1 kg polyfilm (costing Rs.190/kg) and 1 kg = 305 packs of
half L (Milk 7589 /305=24.88x2=49.76 kg, Dahi; 686/305=2.25x2=4.5
kg polyfilm)
B. Details of expenditure on salary of staff
Post Number Rate/month Daily Yearly (Rs)
General manager 1 50,000.00 1666.67 600,000.00

Technical chief 1 42,000.00 1400.00 504,000.00
Management chief 1 42,000.00 1400.00 504,000.00
Accountant 1 35,000.00 1166.67 420,000.00
Asst accountant 1 25,000.00 833.33 300,000.00
Senior dairy technician 1 35,000.00 1166.67 420,000.00
Drivers 2 40,000.00 1333.33 480,000.00
Attendant 4 48,000.00 1600.00 576,000.00
Lab technician 1 25,000.00 833.33 300,000.00
Miscellaneous 30,000.00 1000.00 360,000.00
C. Details of other expenditure
Description Rate (Rs)/month Daily Yearly(Rs)

Building rent 80,000.00 2666.67 960,000.00
Telephone cost 7,000.00 233.33 84,000.00
Electricity 50,000.00 1666.67 600,000.00
Fuel\cost 120,000.00 4,000.00 1,440,000.00
Machinery 250,000.00 8,333.33 3,000,000.00
Total 507,000.00 16,900.00 6,084,000.00

• Assumptions
• Packaging materials : Rs. 0.05/pack.
• Building (rent) : Rs. 30,000/month.
• Phone cost : Rs. 5,000 / month.
• Cream/ milk : 8 – 10% (8%)
• Khoa/paneer : Rs. 20 – 25% (20%)
General milk treatment and processing induced changes in market milk
It includes treatments done to the milk before they are processed into different
products:
•Preheating: It refers to the heating of milk before any operation which follows
immediately.
•Milk is preheated for efficient filtration/ clarification. As the temperature increases,
milk viscosity decreases, and more efficient filtration results. Usually the preheating
temperature is 35 – 40 C.
Filtration/ Clarification: Removing extraneous materials and body cells from the milk
with improves the aesthetic quality of milk and supports milk processing techniques. It
separates the somatic cells also. Somatic cells affect the milk processing technology.
In general, a clarifier separates the particles as filtration does

•Cooling and storage of raw milk: To prevent microbial deterioration during storage,
milk is chilled to 5 C or less as soon as it is received in the milk plant. It is done to
delay microbiological and enzymatic changes.
Advantages of cooling:
•Prevention of microbial growth or vegetative growth of spores.
•Avoidance of exposure to air borne contamination.
•Prevention of evaporation losses.
Prevention of fat (cream) separation during storage due to difference in specific
gravity of fat and other constituents of milk.
Separation of cream is done by two methods:
• Gravity separation: It is based on difference in density of fat and non-fat milk
constituents. If the milk is left in a container for two days, a layer of cream
accumulates on the surface forming a fat-rich layer, and skim milk with higher
density remains at the bottom. It takes a minimum of forty eight hours for fat to
get separated with higher density substances.
• Mechanical centrifugation: Mechanical centrifugation method of cream
separation is based on the fact that milk fat is lighter than skim milk. Milk fat has
a specific gravity of 0.93 while the specific gravity of skim milk is 1.036. When
milk enters the revolving bowl of the cream separator, it is immediately
subjected to centrifugal force at 3,000 to 6,000 times greater that of
gravitational force. Hence, when milk is subjected to centrifugal separation, the
heavier particles (skim milk) are thrown towards the periphery and lighter
particles (cream) get accumulated in the centre. Difference in density affects the
heavier portion more intensely the than the lighter portion.
• Standardization: It is the process by which fat and SNF content of the
milk and milk products is adjusted to the desired level. It provides
product with uniform fat and SNF content. It is done by 3 methods:
• partial removal of fat
• addition of skim milk
• adjusting fat and SNF
Pasteurization:
It refers to the process of heating of each and every particles of milk to
at any temperature-time combination which improves the keeping quality
of milk by destroying almost all (85 – 99%) spoilage organisms and
ensures milk safe for human consumption by destroying all pathogenic
microorganisms.
Milk is pasteurized by heating it to at least 63 C (145 F) for 30 minutes or
72 C (161 F) for 15 seconds.
The bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis is considered the most heat
resistant among pathogenic bacteria. So this bacterium is taken as an
index organism and the time-temperature required to destroy it as an
index for pasteurization. The other basis is the complete destruction of
phosphatase enzyme.
Various methods of pasteurization other
than the common methods are:
•Bottle pasteurization: The bottle is filled with raw milk and tightly sealed with
special caps and held at 63-66 C for 30 min and gradually cooled down.
•Electric pasteurization: In this method milk is pasteurized with electric current.
•Vacuum pasteurization: It refers to the pasteurization of milk under reduced
pressure by direct steam.
•Ultra high temperature pasteurization: Pasteurization is done by heating milk to
135-150 C for a second or theoretically without any holding time. Far success of
UHT depends upon immediate aseptic packaging.
•Uperization: It refers to a process of ultra-pasteurization in which milk is heated
with direct steam at 150 C for a fraction of second.
• Processing induced changes: It deals with the physicochemical
changes in fluid milk as a result of processing procedures, such as:
• Chemical constituents of milk and their relationship to processing,
• nutritional changes during processing and storage, and
• Change affecting the structure of milk constituents and their quality.
a Effect of cooling, agitation and pumping
• Due to these processing procedures about 65 – 70% milk fat is

crystallized. Fat globulins absorb immunoglobulin, promoting
clustering and creaming during cooling of milk. Excessive agitation
results in partially denaturing of fat globules. Pumping, agitation and
blending may result development of off flavour due to chemical,
biochemical and microbial deterioration.
• Cooling also causes alteration of casein micelle, releasing
proteolytic enzymes that increase foaming. Cooling also
increases the solubility of -casein at low temperatures.
Effect of fore warming:
•Fore warming is done at 71 – 88 C for 10 – 30 minutes or 149 C for 1 – 2 seconds. It
increases the acidity and lowers the pH of milk. Denaturing of whey protein takes place. The
purpose of forewarning is to stabilize protein against milk coagulation. There are 3 types of
casein: -casein, -casein and -casein while whey protein are -lactoglobulin and -lactalbumin.
Effect of homogenization:
•Passing of milk through a small orifice under high pressure e.g. 140-210
kg/cm2 at 50 – 60 C at a high velocity results in to the breakdown of fat
globules. After homogenization, milk fat is reduced to smaller equal diameter
globules, which imparts physical stability to milk fat but lowers heat stability.
Due to smaller particles and having no covering (fat globule membrane), it
becomes susceptible to lypolytic action and increases acidity of milk.
Homogenization leads to increased viscosity due to breaking of fat globules. It
helps equal distribution of fat globules and checks the movement of fat
globules towards the surface of milk.
• Mineral adjustment process: In this case Calcium chloride, Sodium
citrate, Disodium phosphate etc. are added to adjust the mineral
content. It prevents the precipitation of protein and mineral during
the process of sterilization. For example, calcium and phosphorus are
added to milk in proper ratio to make adjustment for stabilization and
inhibition of deterioration or denaturation of protein so as to prevent
rennin coagulation.
•Sterilization process: Sterilization is done at 115 C for 15 – 20 minutes. The effects of
sterilization process are:
•decrease in pH value,
•adjusts the Ca-phosphate ratio
•denaturation of whey protein and interaction with casein.
Heat treatment of milk results in denaturation of whey protein and increases with
higher heat of treatment. The protein of milk has greater stability. Denaturation of
whey protein plays vital role in the development of cooked flavors which is
significant in UHT milk.
It results into Mallard reaction e.g. reaction between lactose and protein. In mild heat of sterilization
early Mallard reaction occurs. The flavoring compounds from advanced Mallard reaction are
acetaldehyde, puruvaldehyde, diacetyl and acetic acid. These compounds tend to produce bitter
and acid flavour in milk.
•Effect of freezing of liquid milk: Freezing point of milk is – 0.540 to 0.545 C. Milk
processing techniques do not allow freezing of milk. The following changes are
observed during freezing process:
•Water of milk gets concentrated with milk solid and alters the physical condition of
milk.
•Breaking of fat globules occurs and prevents clumping together.
•Calcium caseinate (milk protein of casein) is precipitated as flakes during freezing.
•Freezing leads to immobilization of casein micelle and increases the concentration of
colloidal calcium caseinate.
•It provides frozen milk and gives thawing appearance, which is not desirable.
Watery flavor is observed, that is also not desirable. Therefore, freezing of milk is not
allowed from technological point of vie
PRESENT SITUATION OF MARKET
MILK INDUSTRY IN NEPAL AND
ABROAD
• Nepal is least developed country having population density about 29
million. It has a gross domestic product ( GDP) per capita of US$729.The
population is growing by 2.7% per year which leads to the overall
population, mass poverty and low agricultural productivity in the country,
contributing 31.2% of GDP and employing more than 65 % of working
population. The agriculture output is derived from crop production (60%),
livestock production (30%) and forestry (10%).
• Annual milk production is about 1854247 MT (Cow milk 643806 MT and
Buffalo milk 1210441 MT in 2015/16), price of which is about US$155
million at world market, corresponding to the 8% of GDP in Nepal.
• Dairy sector has high weight in livestock sector GDP and contributing about
two third. The national average of the per farm family livestock holdings is
3.8 cattle, 2.4 buffaloes will, 4.1% goats and 8.8 poultry.
• The yearly milk productivity is low as 397kg per milch cow and 830 kg per
milch buffaloes which 10-15 times lesser productivity than developed
countries.
• The growth in national milk production over the last decade averages
about 2.6% per year.
• Milk production in Nepal (MT)/ Agriculture statistics year book
2015/2016
• Total milk: 18, 54,247 (100%)
• Buffalo milk: 12, 10,441 (65.27 %)
• Cow milk: 6, 43,806 (34.73 %)
Table 1: Livestock population in Nepal
Livestock Numbers Livestock Numbers
Cattle 7302808 Goat 10986114
Buffalo 5168809 Milking cow 1026135
Sheep 800658 Milking buffalo 1355384
Source: Source: Statistical information on Nepalese Agriculture,

2015/2016
Table 2: Number and distribution of farm animals in
Asian countries of tropic. (In million)
Countries Buffalo Cattle Sheep Goat
World 148.8 1288,6 1086.6 609.4
Africa 3.2 192.1 208.8 176.0
Asia 143.6 410.1 340.1 373.0
Bangladesh 0.9 24.1 1.0 28.0
Cambodia 0.8 2.5 - -

China 22.4 90.9 111.6 105.6
Indonesia 3.5 11.6 6.4 12.2
Laos 1.3 1.1 - -
Myanmar 2.1 9.6 - -
Nepal 3.1 6.5 0.9 5.5
Pakistan 18.8 18.1 26.2 41.3
South Africa 1.4 179.6 94.0 22.8
Thailand 4.2 7.5 - 0.1

Turkey 0.3 11.9 18.7 10.1
Vietnam 3.0 3.4 - 0.3
• Of the total milk production of Nepal, cattle produce 30% of the national
milk production and buffalo produces about 70% of the national milk
production.
• The major part of the milk is produced in the eastern, central and western
development regions.
• The milk production of local cattle is limited about 300 kg/ lactation and
milk production of improved cattle is in between 1000 – 4000 kg / lactation.
• The milk production is about 500 – 1000 kg/lactation of local buffalo and
900-2000 kg/lactation for improved buffalo.
• The performance indicator shows that improved animals are better
managed than local animals.
• The major part of milk supply in urban area is consumed by medium to high
income households. In urban areas the milk supply is insufficient.
Problems that are commonly cited by farmer are:
• Lack of market facilities

• Lack of green fodder and raw material of feeds
• Lack of credits and,
• Lack of proper animal health services
Table 3: Milk Production per cow per lactation in
the world
SN Countries Production kg/ Lactation
1 EU 5, 594
2 USA 9,284
3 Canada 8, 395
4 Japan 9, 269
5 Australia 5, 491
6 Argentina 4, 697
7 Chaina 3, 988
8 Newzealand 3, 211
9 India 1, 145
10 Nepal 438
Table 4: Milk production per cow per year of selected countries.
Source: FAO statistics year books (2010)
S.N. Country Milk production (kg) per cow per Year

1 World 2,090
2 Developed countries 3,740
3 Japan 7,000
4 Denmark 7,500
5 USA 7,637
6 Asia 9,21
7 Developing countries 6,60
8 Nepal 3,97
Table 5: Milk production by region in Nepal (MT)
Region Milch cow Milch buffalo Cow milk Buffalo milk Total milk
EDR 332384 292178 196708 263199 459907

CDR 263728 377741 177815 358483 536299
WDR 154560 341323 105190 315616 420806
MWDR 144868 211885 76157 160705 236862
FWDR 130595 132257 87936 112438 200374
Nepal 1026135 1355384 643806 1210441 1854247
Agriculture, 2015/16
• DDC’s infrastructure consists of 8 milk supply schemes
• Kathmandu,
• Biratnagar,
• Hetauda,
• Pokhara,
• Lumbini,
• Nepalganj,
• Janakpur and
• Dhangadi),
• 4 modern dairy processing plants established at Kathmandu, Hetauda,
Biratnagar, Pokhara, 16 small cheese and butter plants in the hills and
mountains, 81 chilling centre and about thousands of collection centers have
been converted into milk producers association MPA’s which are operating as a
single co-operative society of dairy farmers.
• The yearly demand for processed milk is 94 thousand MT and milk
product is 290 thousand MT in Nepal. The consumption of fluid milk
in the urban area is one liter/family/day with the family size of 5.96
and did not increased significantly over the last decades.
• Urban consumption is increasing towards the dairy products. Urban
consumers have developed a habit of consuming a variety of milk
products like ice cream, butter, cheese etc.
• Now a day’s several varieties of milk products are found to be sold
through stores and super markets. Agriculture perspectives plan
(APP) reported that build milk demand will grow at 11%/ year and
milk product demand will grow at 10% per year.
Table 6: Per capita annual consumption of milk
products in Nepal (kg):
Products 1990 2000

Ghee 0.775 1.39
Yoghourt 2.05 2.31
Cheese 0.1 0.01
Butter 0 0.07
Ice cream 0 0.04
Condensed milk 0.1 0.01
Powder milk 0.32 0.07
• The processed milk and milk and milk products are sold in the urban
areas mostly through commission dealers. The private sector collects
milk from the same way by paying 3 – 4% higher price.
• Product diversification is very less in Nepal. More than 90% milk is
sold as pasteurized milk, only a little amount of milk is converted into
products are available in the market. In private sector, significant
progress has been made on Ice cream and fermented products.
The major problems in dairy sectors (market milk):
• Price intervention by HMG/Nepal.

• Inadequate pricing policy for supply, and demand of milk in lean and flush
period
• Decrease in road infrastructure.
• Slow product diversification.
• Import of milk powder.
• Flow of foreign milk during flushing session.
• Inadequate effort on market milk promotion.
• Inadequate milk chilling facilities
• Over staffing and underutilization of plant.
• Inadequate number of technician or specialists.
• Even though, there is a large prospect of future investment in dairy
sector in Nepal. Rate of return in different dairy industries are
estimated as 20-45% which are very high in comparison to other
developing countries .
• GON should be emphasized towards the processing facilities,
distribution strategy regional wise and encourage, the dairy
farmers/producers by providing right pricing policy and other facilities,
to increase milk production in rural area.
• These should be action oriented policy to address the milk holiday
problems and leakaging in dairy sectors. There should be monitoring
and evaluation procedures in processing and distribution of market
milk.
• Dairy production statistics reported as the total worldwide milk production is
579 million tones, out of which 490 million tones are cow milk; the remaining
balance of 89 million tones is from other dairy animals, mainly from buffaloes
(IDF 368/2000).
• Buffalo milk production is estimated as 67 million tones which showed an
increase of productivity by 1.5% against previous years.
• Trend of sheep milk production showed only modest growth as compared to
the stronger base of goat milk but not as spectacular growth as that of buffalo
milk.
• Most of these animals are kept for small scale holding.
• Large scale production of goat and sheep milk is confined to the European
countries particularly in France, Norway, and Netherland.
• Trend of milk production in dairy developed countries revealed that there is
significant increase in milk production with stable supply of milk in the
market while number of animals is significantly decreased. Higher
production with decreasing number of animals with stable supply of milk
favors in the reduction of production cost with increasing consumers in the
world market.
• In technological aspects, they are using genetic and breeding tools like AI,
selection and culling, MOET, GMO, probiotic and markers to increase the
reproduction potentiality of females. Now they are thinking to increase the
productivity beyond the optimum level of production of animal e.g. Super
cow.
Role of dairy sector in poverty reduction
• Agriculture has a pivotal role for poverty reduction. These needs high
growth and provide employment to the rural people. Small programs in a
few locations cannot make a major impact, where poverty is massive. Even
within agriculture, dairy sector is more attractive for the following reasons,
• It can provide income every day or no seasonal barrier.
• Employment is immediate and the sector provides high employment
content. 10-20 liters milk employed for one person.
• Land holding is not necessarily a constraint. Weather has less negative
impact as compared to crop production.
• Full fill nutritional requirement, supply both meat and milk (in case of
buffalo)
• Minimize rural urban disparities. Draw cash from urban to rural areas which
are distributed even to poorest of the poor (ultra poor) in the rural areas.
• Dairy farmers groups and cooperatives are the Important tool
• For this establishment of dairy plant is necessary to supply the
population of the country with high quality of liquid and milk products
by giving milk processing techniques and to create a market for fresh
milk which support the rural milk producers. To achieve these objectives
the city milk pants are established in densely populated areas eg. Cities.
These plants mainly produce sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, cream and
fresh milk product eg..Yoghurt, Dairy factory or collection centers are
established in rural areas where large amount of milk are produced and
there is no sufficiently large market for consumption for liquid milk.
There fore dairy factory should specialized for preservation and
processing( making non perishable product) like butter, ghee, cheese,
etc or collection centers are established to collets the milk from milk
shed areas. Establishment dairy plants are of great importance due to
following reasons, by giving milk treatment.
• All pathogenic bacteria and viruses are killed and milking and
milk products safe for human consumption. The keeping
quality of milk and milk products will improve because most
pathogenic M. O. and enzymes are destroyed. Better quality
and characteristics flavor of the products can be obtained.
Out of total milk production in Nepal cattle produce 28% of
the national milk production. The largest amount of the milk
72% comes from buffalo.
Per capita Annual consumption of milk products in Nepal (kg)
S.N. Products 1990 2000
1 Ghee 0.775 1.39
2 Yoghurt 2.05 2.31
3 Condensed milk 0.1 0.01
4 Cheese 0.1 0.01
5 Butter 0 0.07
6 Ice-cream 0 0.04
7 Powder milk 0.325 0.07
• Product diversification is very slow in Nepal. More than 95% of milk is
sold as the pasteurized milk only a little amount of milk is converted
into product. Imported milk products are available in the market. In
privet sector, significant progress has been made on Ice-cream and
fermented products.
Major problems of Dairy sector in Nepal
• Low producing animal and high cost of production.
• Low government investment to the sector in infrastructure development like
road, irrigation, power, fertilizer etc.
• Majority smallholder farmer and subsistence farming system.
• Lack of focused development orientation or overwhelming focused in small
ruminant.
• Lack of input supply such as AI services, feed industries and veterinary
services.
• Lack of farmers' need based focused research.
• Ambiguity in policy and strategies.
• Ineffective quality control system.
• Lack of credit facility and value chain approach.
• Price intervention by government.
• Inadequate pricing policy for supply and demand of milk in lean and flush
season.
• Import of powder milk.
• Lack of institutional coordination.
• Flow of foreign milk during flush season.
• Inadequate effort in market promotion.
• Inadequate milk chilling facilities.
• Inadequate milk supply and under utilization of processing plant
• Inadequate number of technical staff and lack of staff technical competency.
• Even though there are large prospects of future investment in
dairy sector in Nepal.
• Privet sector should grasp this opportunity quickly before
imported product dominates the market of Nepal.
Future direction for the Nepalese dairy sector
• Government should focus on dairy production programs.
• Implement school milk program to enhance milk production.
• Move concentrate to fodder based production system.
• Expand preventive vet services.
• Focused on genetic improvement for better milk production.
• Promote privet sector to provide quality service.
• Enhance DLS capacity.
• Make cooperative as a base organization for dairy development.
• Promote credit and livestock insurance scheme.
• Emphasize farmer based research.
• Develop dairy sector infrastructure system.
• Milk holiday
• Though not good for farmers, the days during which farmers are asked
not to bring to chilling centers are referred as milk holidays. Farmers
have been facing this problem in Nepal since 1991/92. Milk not
collected is estimated to be about 2% of the other.
• Causes of milk holiday
• Temporal causes: It decreases milk selling for short time. Though milk
holiday started in beginning of 1991/92, the problem was somewhat
resolved due to export of milk to neighboring state of India. Expansion
of chilling by Himalayan dairy and emergence of Sitaramgokul milk
processing in privet sector in 1995-96 dampened milk holiday problems.
Though addition of private and other facilities later has also contributed
to solve the problem.
• Seasonal causes: The problem of seasonal trend has to do mostly in the
buffalo milk production due to calving pattern of buffaloes. Buffalo milk
also contributes 70% of the total milk production in Nepal and 90% of
the calving by buffaloes occurs between August to November. Milk
production in flush season (Oct- Sept) is about 60% and lean season
(April-Sept) 40%.
• Spatial causes: The spatial causes have to do basically with the
imbalance of production, processing and distribution of collection
centers. Part of which is also related to political pressure. For example
Kathmandu milk supply scheme has to reach up to Surkhet to collect
raw milk.
Other causes of milk holidays
• Price intervention by government of Nepal.

• Inadequate pricing policy for supply and demand between lean and
flush season.
• Over polities in milk price setting.
• Import of powder milk
• Flow of Indian milk during flush season
• Inadequate effort in market promotion
• Excessive reliance of farmers on DDC
Possible solutions for eliminating milk holiday
• Increase export arrangement
• Encouragement to private sectors
• Price differential between flush and lean season.
• Leave the price to the market.
• Encourage private sector to utilize excess capacity.
• Clear environment for new factories establish
• Reduce cost of production through fodder based feed market
• Increase consumer demand of milk
• Increase product diversification
• Manage the seasonality in milk production.
• Improving collection and delivery demand.
• Increase processing facility by reason
• Dairy Related Institutions
• Dairy Cooperatives
• History of dairy cooperatives dates back to the First Five Year Plan
(1956-61) when the dairy cooperatives were formed in Tusal Village of
Kavre district. However, the dairy cooperatives were became more
effective only after December 1981, when DDC initiated the milk
producers oriented program by encouraging the farmers to form their
own Milk Producers’ Associations (MPAs) along the lines of
cooperative principles. The MPAs operated under the by-laws
prepared by DDC. The MPAs had no formal legal status and they
operated as single purpose primary cooperatives with milk trade and
support to milk production as their main activities.
• In order to enable the MPAs with the formal legal identity and to make
them more autonomous, DDC took initiation to convert these MPAs
into Milk Producers’ Cooperative Society (MPCS) in February 1989.
• The main function of these MPCSs is to collect milk from the farmers
(both the members as well as non-members), test it for quality,
transport it for selling to the nearest milk chilling centers/milk
processing plants of DDC and/or private dairies; receive payment for
the milk from them; and distribute the payment to the individual milk
supplier farmers.
• Apart from milk collection business some of the MPCSs have also
started the operation of milk chilling vats; and milk processing for
producing various dairy products.
• The dairy cooperatives in Nepal have adopted a three - tier system of
which the MPCSs are the first-tier primary level cooperatives.
• In the second tier, MPCSs in different districts have formed district level
District Milk Producers’ Cooperative Unions (DMPCUs), which are
registered under Cooperative Act as district level bodies. Presently,
there are 36 DMPCUs in different districts (mainly in Terai and mid-
hills) and their main objectives are to deliver programs designed to
support the increased production and processing of milk and milk
products and to contribute to the financialand social upliftment of the
rural milk producers.
• In the third tier, the MPCSs and DMPCUs have formed Central Dairy
Cooperative Limited Nepal (CDCAN). CDCAN is registered as their
central-level cooperative organization. Established in 1993,
• CDCAN is a national level tertiary organization of all the milk
producers' cooperatives at primary and secondary levels.
• CDCAN aims to bring increased economic benefits to milk
producers and to contribute to make the country self-reliant
in clean and high-quality milk and related products.
• It also implements policy advocacy activities at the central
level to represent the interest of member organizations.
• Currently, 36 DMPCUs and 1,329 MPCS are affiliated to
CDCAN.
• Dairy Development Corporation (DDC)
• DDC is the pioneer public sector dairy entity. It was created in July 1969 under
the
• Corporation Act of 1964.
• Its major objectives are to:
1. Provide a guaranteed market for milk to the rural farmers with fair price,
2. Supply pasteurized milk and milk products to urban consumers,
3. Develop organized milk collection system to meet increasing demand for
4. Pasteurized milk and milk products, and Develop an organized marketing
system for milk and milk products in urban
• A Board of Directors appointed by the GoN governs DDC. The
General Manager or the Executive Chairperson is also
appointed by the Government. Currently, DDC operates 6 milk
supply schemes (MSS)(Annex 2A) and a Milk Products
Production and Supply Scheme (MPPSS) (Annex 2B).DDC’s
milk collection network exists in 31 districts2 where 55 milk
chilling centers (MCCs) and about 800 MPCSs are operating.
• National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
• In 1990, the GoN approved the “Ten Year Dairy Development
Plan (1991-2000)” as a blueprint for dairy development in
the country. Based on the recommendation of the Plan, the
GoN established NDDB in 1992 under a separate Act. The
Board is an apex level autonomous institution of dairy
development in Nepal.
• The major objectives of the board are to:
• Assist GoN in formulating national level dairy development policies
and plans,
• For develop dairy industries,
• Find remedies to problems relating to livestock development and
animal health
• Sector for dairy development,
• Initiation and coordination among the public and private dairies,
• Carry out dairy development related high level studies and research
works, and
• Make arrangements for fodder and pasture resources.
• The functions of NDDB include:
• Policy formulation and recommendation on import of goods necessary for
production and promotion of milk and milk products as well as animal
feeds, and implementation of the approved policies,
• Formulation and recommendation of milk pricing policy to the GoN,
• Recommendation to GoN on wellbeing of dairy processors and consumers,
• Development of cooperative sector dairies,
• Registration of dairy industries,
• Management and mobilization of national and foreign grant and loan for
dairy
• industries,
• Technical assistance for setting-up, improving, promoting and safeguarding
dairy industries,
• Review, monitoring and evaluation of dairy development programs,
and
• Carry out other necessary activities for dairy industries.
• NDDB has an executive committee (EC) composed of 14 members,
which is Chaired by Minister of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoAC).
An Executive Director (ED) whose serving period as specified by the
Act is 4 years heads its Secretariat. The Minister through Cabinet
approval appoints the ED. The Secretary of MoAC is the Vice-
Chairperson and the ED is the member-secretary. The members
include representative of farmers (4), private dairy entrepreneurs (3),
General Manager of the Dairy Development Corporation (1),
Representative of Federation of the Nepalese Chamber of Commerce
and Industries (1), Director General of Department of Livestock
Services (1), and Joint Secretary of the Ministry of Finance (1).
• Department of Livestock Services (DLS)
• DLS aims to contribute to poverty reduction in the country through
livestock development by improving living standard of the people
through sustainable livestock development. DLS strives to develop
livestock sector by diversification and commercialization as an income
generating and prosperous farming. Presently, one of the major
activities of DLS related to dairy development is Community Livestock
Development Project (CLDP) which is the continuation of Third
Livestock Development Project (TLDP); both funded mainly by Asian
Development Bank. The overall project objective is to reduce poverty
amongst rural poor through gender and socially inclusive
development. Its purpose is to improve the levels of food security,
nutrition, incomes, and employment.
• Department of Food Technology and Quality Control (DFTQC)
• DFTQC was established in 1961. From the very beginning of its
establishment, DFTQC has played a pioneer role to lay down
foundation stone for food control system, research and development
of food processing and nutrition support programs. As mandated by
GoN, DFTQC is the sole governmental agency for implementing Food
Act and Regulation as well as Feed Act and Regulation for the
enhancement of quality and safety of food and feed in the country.
DFTQC strives to maintain safety and quality of food and feed products
in the country by implementing updated food and feed act and
regulations, promote entrepreneurship by developing and
disseminating appropriate technologies, and improve the nutritional
status of people through food-based approaches.
• Department of Cooperatives (DoC)
• DoC is a regulatory body to regulate all the cooperatives from primary to
federation level
• Operating in the country. The DoC has three main functions: registration of
cooperatives, making recommendations for improvement of cooperatives, and
dissolving such cooperatives which fails to operate for two consecutive years
or acts against its objectives. Additionally, the DoC is also responsible to
regularly monitor the cooperatives to assess their performance. Accordingly,
the DoC is also responsible to register and monitor and the MPCS, district
and central level dairy cooperative associations.
• National Cooperative Development Board (NCDB)
• NCDB was formed under the NCDB Act, 1992. The Board has been
constituted to promote and develop cooperatives. Its EC is composed of
2 members representing government, private sector and professionals.
The Secretariat of the Board is headed by an Executive Director
appointed by GoN. The NCDB is also responsible for mobilizing funds,
entering into joint venture agreements, extending technical support and
coordinating the functions of non-government organization involved in
cooperative activities.
• Private Sector
• The private sector started getting involved in the dairy-processing sector
from late 1970s with very small-scale operations in Kathmandu. Today,
there are many private dairies (including cooperatives) of various sizes
both within and outside the Kathmandu valley. Prominent among the
private dairies with modern milk processing facilities are Nepal Dairy,
Himalaya Dairy, Sitaram Dairy, Anmol Dairy, Kathmandu Dairy, Adhunik
Dairy etc in Kathmandu Valley; Sujal Dairy in Pokhara Valley, and
Kamdhenu Dairy in Sunsari. These dairies produce pasteurized milk and
other dairy products such as yoghurt, ice-cream, butter, ghee and the
like.
• According to available information, altogether 250 dairies of
varying scale are operating in the country. The private dairy
entrepreneurs have established an association called Nepal
Dairy Association (NDA) in 1998. It has 136 small, medium, and
large scale member dairy industries scattered throughout the
country. The main objectives of the association are to work for
common causes of the dairies in Nepal, and make technical
support available to its members. Its commitments are to
support dairies for their professional development, explore
new technologies, and transform these among its members.

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D905

9 MINOR CONSTITUENTS OF MILK 27

10 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK 28

11 NON-MILK SUBSTANCES AND OFF- FLAVOURS IN FRESH MILK 30

1 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

Cow See table 2.2.

Human 87.60 1.20 3.80 7.00 0.21

Ass 89.02 1.98 2.45 6.04 0.45

Buffalo 82.44 4.74 7.40 4.64 0.78

Camel 87.67 3.45 3.02 5.15 0.71

Cat 83.05 7.00 4.50 4.85 0.60

Dog 74.55 3.15 10.20 11.30 0.80

Elephant 85.63 3.20 3.12 7.42 0.63

Ewe 80.87 5.40 8.05 4.78 0.90

Goat 87.33 3.50 4.15 4.20 0.82

Llama 86.55 3.90 3.15 5.60 0.80

Mare 89.18 2.60 1.59 6.14 0.49

Porpoise 41.28 11.20 45.80 1.15 0.57

Rabbit 68.50 12.95 13.60 2.40 2.55

Reindeer 63.38 10.25 22.42 2.50 1.45

Seal 34.00 12.00 54.00 none 0.53

Sow 80.63 6.15 7.60 4.70 0.92

Vixen 81.86 6.35 6.25 4.23 1.31

Whale 69.80 9.43 19.40 ? 0.99

Zebu 86.20 3.00 4.80 5.30 0.70

Breed Water Fat% Protein Lactose Ash% Total Solids not

Ayrshire 87.42 3.85 3.32 4.70 0.58 0.71 8.73

Brown 86.93 3.95 3.43 5.00 0.73 13.07 9.16

Guernsey 85.89 4.70 3.75 4.86 0.75 14.16 9.36

Holstein 88.12 3.52 3.30 4.70 0.86 12.21 8.69

Jersey 85.60 5.05 3.75 4.84 0.82 14.40 9.35

Short Horn 87.42 3.70 3.32 4.82 0.74 12.58 8.88

2  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

3 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

1.4 Some factors that affect the composition of milk

Fig.1.1. Increase of fat percentage of milk during milking (one cow)

4  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

5 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

Fig.1.3. Variation in the percentage of protein during lactation

Fig. 1.4. Four-weekly variation in percentage of protein. Milk delivered to plant.

6  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

Age (year) Yield (ratio) Fat percentage (ratio)

5–6 106 99,5

6–7 110 99,6

7–8 114 99,5

8–9 114 99,3

7 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

8  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

The diameter of the fat globules is approximately 0.1-10 micrometer (average 3

9 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

10  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

The popular definition for fat is a greasy or oily substance.

3.1 Milk fat globules

3.2 Fatty acids of milk fat

11 D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

These usually are liquid at room temperature.

12  PTC+ OENKERK D 905 COMPOSITION OF MILK

Lauric 53.0 - - trace - trace

Myristic 16.9 trace 0.5 1.1 0.3 1.4

Palmitic 8.5 11.8 12.2 21.1 4.0 8.3

Stearic 2.0 1.9 1.2 2.3 2.0 3.1

Oleic 4.2 30.4 22.3 22.8 17.0 52.0

Linoleic 1-3 40-50 60.5 45-48 70-74 20-28

Linolenic trace 1.2 3.1 3.4 2.7 2.8