Which test can be used to differentiate the following pairs of carbohydrates?

Explain why and why

other tests is not possible.

a. Fructose and galactose

 Seliwanoff’s test. it is used to distinguish aldoses from ketoses. Ketohexose undergo

dehydration to form a hydroxymethylfurfural that condenses with resorcinol (present in
seliwanoff reagent) to form a cherry-red condensation product. Ketoses react more quickly
than aldoses and thus the reaction time is a means of separation or detection. Ketoses react
within 1 minute of heating while aldoses will require several minutes. Disaccharides
containing fructose should react intermediately between that of fructose alone and one of
the aldoses.
 Mucic acid test: specific test for aldohexose galactose and fructose is a ketohexose so it will
not be converted to an aldaric acid or dicarboxylic acid or acidic sugar. Since aldaric acid
reaction occurs in which both ends (−CHO and −CH2(OH)) of an aldose when oxidized using
a strong oxidizing agent like HNO3 such in the case of mucic acid test.

It cannot be differentiated neither with Benedict ’s test since both are reducing sugars or barfoed’s
test since they are both monosaccharides reducing sugar, and with Phenylhydrazine test since both
are reducing sugars capable of forming osazone crystals. Bial’s orcinol test is not also possible since
both are hexoses, and the test is only specific for furanose sugar or sugar with 5 carbon atoms or for
pentose sugar.

b. Ribose and glucose

 Bial’s test since this test is for sugar with furanose ring or pentose sugar. If sugar is a
pentose-furanose: color turns green/olive; However, with a hexose (or higher)-furanose:
color turns a muddy brown, but if the sugar is a pyranose (like glucose): no change in color.

Seliwanoff’s test is not possible since both are aldoses. Bial’s test is not also possible since the test is
only specific for aldohexose sugar galactose. Osazone does not apply since both are reducing sugars
capable of forming osazone crystals; and barfoeds test cannot differentiate the two sugars since
both are reducing monosaccharide, none of the sugar is a reducing disaccharide.

c. Glucose and maltose

 Barfoed’s test. This test can distinguish monosaccharides from di- and polysaccharides
because with the conditions of lower pH and shorter incubation time, only monosaccharides
can react fast enough to reduce copper ions. The reagent is similar to Benedict's except that
the pH is lower (around pH 4.5) and heating time is reduced to 2 minutes. Do not heat
longer than 2 minutes. Longer heating may cause hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage, thus
breaking disaccharides to monosaccharides. Glucose is a monosaccharide, hence, will react
immediately compared to maltose which is a disaccharide.

Seliwanoff’s test is not possible to differentiate the sugars since maltose also contain glucose units
and none of which is a ketose sugar. Bial’s test is not also possible since the test is only specific for
aldohexose sugar galactose. Osazone does not apply since both are reducing sugars or contain
reducing sugar (with maltose) capable of forming osazone (glucosazone and maltosazone) crystals.
1. Why do some food sample did not have the significant color change with iodine test?
 Iodine (iodine-potassium iodide, I2KI) staining distinguishes starch (a polysaccharide) from
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and other polysaccharides. In the case of presence of
starch, the color of the solution changes. The color change should be a blue-black color
which appears only in the case if positive results which are that the starch is present in the
sample. The basis for this test is that starch is a coiled polymer of glucose. Iodine interacts
with these coiled molecules and becomes bluish black. Other non-coiled carbohydrates do
not react with iodine. Therefore, a bluish black color is a positive test for starch, and a
yellow-ish brown color (i.e., no color change) is a negative test for starch Some food sample
contain starch like (bread, rice, banana, cracker) while others like table sugar (sucrose),
milk (contains only lactose) and fruit juice (contains fructose) since they contain
disaccharide units. Other food sample will vary.

2. Explain the principle or the basis of the colour change in the Iodine Test for presence of
Starch.
 The starch-iodide complex is formed as charge - recall electrons are charged particles - is
transferred between the starch and iodide ions - tri-iodide or pentaiodide. The transfer of
charge between the starch and the iodide ion changes the spacing between the energy
levels/ orbitals. This change results in the starch-iodide complex absorbing light at a
different wavelength - than any other species aforementioned - resulting in an intense
purple colour; some call this colour blue-black. The reaction is due to the formation of
polyiodide chains from the reaction of starch and iodine. The amylose in starch forms
helices where iodine molecules assemble, forming a dark blue or black color. When starch is
broken down or hydrolyzed into smaller carbohydrate units, the blue-black color is not
produced. Therefore, this test can also indicate completion of hydrolysis when a color
change does not occur.

1. What color difference will be observed in glycogen with iodine test or how can iodine test be
used to distinguish between amylose and glycogen?
 Glycogen, the common polysaccharide in animals, has a slight difference in structure and
produces only an intermediate color reaction. The use of Lugol's iodine reagent (IKI) is
useful to distinguish starch and glycogen from other polysaccharides. Lugol's iodine yields a
blue-black color in the presence of starch. Glycogen reacts with Lugol's reagent to give a
brown-blue color. Other polysaccharides and monosaccharides yield no color change; the
test solution remains the characteristic brown-yellow of the reagent. It is thought that
starch and glycogen form helical coils. Iodine atoms can then fit into the helices to form a
starch-iodine or glycogen-iodine complex. Starch in the form of amylose and amylopectin
has less branches than glycogen. This means that the helices of starch are longer than
glycogen, therefore binding more iodine atoms. The result is that the color produced by a
starch-iodine complex is more intense than that obtained with a glycogen-iodine complex.

2. What purposes do starch, pectin and cellulose serve in plants?

 Starch is the storage form of glucose (energy) in plants, while cellulose is a structural
component of the plant cell wall and pectin helps keep the walls of adjacent cells joined.

3. What are the uses of starch as food additive and in medicine?

 Starches are used in the pharmaceutical industry for a wide variety of reasons, such as an
excipient, a tablet and capsule diluent, a tablet and capsule disintegrant, a glidant, or as
binder. Disintegrants enable tablets and capsules to break down into smaller fragments
(dissolve) so that the drug can be released for absorption. Starches also absorb water
rapidly, allowing tablets to disintegrate appropriately. Starches are also used in the food
manufacturing industry for processing, and as food thickeners or stabilizers. There are
many other diverse uses for starches in the manufacturing industry. Pregelatinized starch
 derives primarily from corn, has been cooked and then dried. Instant puddings, pie fillings,
soup mixes, salad dressings, candy often contain pregelatinized starch.

4. What are the similarities and difference between amylopectin and glycogen? Tabulate.
 Amylopectin and glycogen are similar in their structure as both are made from α-D glucose
monomers. The key difference between amylopectin and glycogen is, amylopectin is a
soluble form of starch while glycogen is an insoluble form of starch. Amylopectin is one of
the two types of starch, which is the main form of storage polysaccharides in plants.
Glycogen is the main storage polysaccharide in animals. The 1,4-alpha glycosidic bonds
form the linear chain of both amylopectin and glycogen while 1,6-alpha glycosidic bonds
form the branches.

Similarities Between Amylopectin and Glycogen

 Both amylopectin and glycogen are branched polysaccharides.
 They both are made up of glucose monomers.
 Both contain 1,4-alpha glycosidic bonds and 1,6-alpha glycosidic bonds.
Difference Between Amylopectin and Glycogen
Definition
 Amylopectin: a branched-chain polysaccharide found in plants.
 Glycogen: a storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi.
Origin
 Amylopectin: a storage polysaccharide in plants.
 Glycogen: a storage polysaccharide in animals.
Formation
 Amylopectin: formed by the polymerization of glucose.
 Glycogen: formed by a combination of amylose and amylopectin.
Branching
 Amylopectin: a branched polymer.
 Glycogen: highly branched when compared to amylopectin.
Breakdown
 Amylopectin: can be broken down by amylase.
 Glycogen: hydrolyzed when it is dissolved in water.

5. Why do you think is the reason why liver stores glycogen and not glucose?
 Glycogen is insoluble thus, storing it as glycogen will not upset the osmotic pressure rather
than glucose which is soluble in water and if it is stored as glucose it will disturb the
osmotic pressure (hypertonic) that will cause the cell to lyse. Glycogen is a polymerized
form of sugar with alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6 that enables that can be degraded efficiently
rather than free floating glucose. with that in mind it would be as efficient if glucose is
stored in the liver and shipped to the desired destination if it is possible to store it in the cell
without disturbing the osmotic pressure. Glucose is unstable and forms a ring which
maturates with a predominance of beta anomers which is favored structure but also, the cell
would have a alpha glucose that is unable to undergo glycolysis and it wouldn't be
accessible when it is needed for breakdown.