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Question 1

Inflammatory response is an immune system response that is triggered by various factors

such as damaged cells, pathogens, or toxic compounds. Inflammation is an immune response to

stimuli which are recognized by the immune system as harmful. The actions are aimed at

removing injurious stimulu and the initiation of the healing processes (Ahmed, 2019). Therefore,

an inflammatory response is a defense mechanism that is essential to the health of birds. For a

series of local and systemic inflammatory responses in birds, there have to be an introduction of

immunogen into the skin or peritoneal cavity. During an inflammatory response molecular and

cellular events and interactions take place to efficiently reduce and minimize injury and/or

infection (Genovese, Saggerty, & Kogut, 2013). Nevertheless, excessive and uncontrolled

inflammation can end up being chronic leading to chronic inflammatory diseases. Inflammatory

responses are either acute (minutes-to-days) or chronic (weeks-to-months). The responses are

classified according to duration and intensity. At the tissue level, inflammatory can be seen

through heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of the functioning of the tissue resulting from

inflammatory, local immune, vascular cell immune response to injury or infection.

The acute phase of inflammatory response is usually similar regardless of type of

immunogen or even the route of its injection. However, the difference occurs in the degree and

temporal features of the inflammatory response. The first stage is the recognition of the

immunogen which triggers the production several local inflammatory mediators. When the

inflammatory mediators are recognized, the phagocytic cells adhere to endothelial cells in the

venules. In birds, the permeability of venules is increased unlike in mammals where it occurs in

arterioles or capillaries. They then emigrate from the blood circulation (Ahmed, 2019).
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Heterophils are the predominant leukocyte in the case of an acute inflammatory response

in birds. They are the first line of defense in birds and hence they come first in inflammatory

response and then they are followed by mononuclear cells. Heterophil in birds is considered to be

a counterpart of neutrophil in mammals. The two granulocytes have many similarities and

differences. The heterophylic inflammatory response in birds closely looks like that of reptiles

more than that in mammalians (Klasing, 1991). The main difference between heterophilic

response and netrophilic response is in granule components and also in pathogenesis of

inflammatory lesions.

After the introduction of immunogen into the peritoneal cavity or skin, a series of local

and systemic inflammatory responses take place. In birds, the detection of pathogens is via FC,

toll-like receptors, and other pathogen recognition receptors (Genovese, Saggerty, & Kogut,

2013). Local responses start by the production of chemotactic substances at the specific site

causing heterophils and monocytes to emigrate from the blood via postcapillary venules to where

the immunogen is located. The heterophils and monocytes are responsible for the phagocytizing

the immunogen. The monocyte are capable of initiating specific immunity mediated by

lymphocytes (Genovese, Saggerty, & Kogut, 2013). Monokines which are hormone-like

substances are released by monocytes. They act locally and their role to act locally to control the

inflammatory response which is localized and they also facilitate lymphocyte responses. The

monokines can also enter the circulatory system where their action is systemic to carry out the

acute phase inflammatory response. Monokines in birds are generally similar to interleukin-1 and

interleukin-2, granulocyte-stimulating factor, and tumor necrosis factor found in mammals

(Klasing, 1991). In birds, the inflammatory response is active in embryo all the way to

incubation and it is vital in the protection of the embryo. During the early stages, Basophils are
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present at the site in significant numbers and then degranulate releasing histamine. There is

occurrence of biphasic vascular permeability response in birds (Ahmed, 2019). Histamine is

responsible for the mediation of the first reaction while other reactions are mediated by other

factors that are unknown. However, in mammals, it is rare to see basophils. Overexuberant or

inappropriate inflammatory responses in birds can be associated to various pathologies which

makes it essential to regulate inflammatory response precisely.

Adult birds have greater inflammatory response than chicks and embryos. Infiltration of

lymphoid cells which leads to the formation of perivascular foci causes cuffing around blood

vessels in birds. However, such response is only seen in some specific inflammation responses of

the brain (Ahmed, 2019). Thrombocytes in birds also act as phagocytic cells.

Question 2

Many of diseases in wild birds are mild while others have implications threatening the

survival and/or reproductive success of the bird. Some disease are serious leading to high

morbidity and mortality which can then result to population decline or even extinction of the

birds. Some of the diseases of wild birds are zoonotic posing risk to humans. There are infectious

and non-infectious diseases of wild birds. Non-infectious diseases are those which cannot be

transmitted between birds like cancers. Infectious diseases are transmissible and they are caused

by viruses, bacteria, protozoan, and fungi.

Trichomonosis is a parasitic disease affecting wild birds. Trichomonas gallinae affects

the digestive system of the bird. Although any bird can be infected, pigeons, doves, and finches

are the most affected birds. However, it is bird specific and therefore it cannot infect mammals.

The disease causes lesions in the throat of the infected birds. The lesions make swallowing
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difficult. Some birds have matted wet plumage on the beak and around the face (Atkinson,

Thomas, & Hunters, 2009).

Avian pox is a common disease of wild birds. Pathological lesions are seen on the skin,

especially on unfeathered parts of the body, as warty growths on the head especially next to the

beak and eyes, wings, legs, and other body parts. The color of the warty growths is usually red,

grey, yellow, or pink and they can grow into significant size (Atkinson, Thomas, & Hunters,

2009).. The most affected birds are pigeons, tits, and dunnocks.

Salmonella is a bacterial disease infecting birds but in low levels. The most affected are

ground feeders. There are esophageal lesions as a result of esophagitis. Birds have caseous

necrosis and fibrinopurulent exudation in the esophagus and crop. The lower part of the

esophagus have multiple ulcers which can coalesce to form a large necrotic mass that can then

block the thoracic inlet. Some birds have enteric lesions with necrosis on the cloacal mucosa and

large intestines. Hepatic lesions are present with the liver becoming enlarged with several areas

having focal necrosis (Tizard, 2004). The spleen may be pale and enlarged. Necrosis on the

pectoral muscles.

Aspergillosis is a fungal disease affecting wild birds. A bird is infected after inhaling the

spores into the lungs and air sacs causing bronchitis and pneumonia. Birds that die after acute

aspergillosis are usually in flesh condition (Arne et al., 2021). For chronic infection, there is

dehydration and wasting where there is pectoral muscle atrophy and little internal and

subcutaneous fats. Primary lesions are found in the respiratory system. Chronically sick birds

have cheese-like white or yellow nodules or plaques in the air sacs, lungs, liver, and other

organs. Fungus growth on the respiratory tract may be observed resembling bread mold. For
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acutely infected wild birds, the lungs are dark red and firm with small yellow nodules scattered

on the surface of the lungs. Gross lesions which can be either be alone or associated for invasive

aspergillosis. Other lesions can be seen on the kidneys, spleen, brain, intestines, and liver. There

may be hemorrhagic and edematous lesions (Arne at al., 2021).

Mites cause mange disease and together with lice can subsist on the skin and feathers of

wild birds. Others suck blood causing anaemia which is evident in pale mucus membranes. The

birds become bald and featherless. The head have black color due to exposure to the sun. Lice

can be seen on the vent area, the underside of the wings, legs, and the head. Mites can cause

thickening and hyperkeratosis of the feet. With heavy infestation the feathers become blackened.

The vent area have scabbed and cracked skin (Atkinson, Thomas, & Hunters, 2009).

References

Ahmed M.A. (2019). Some differences in inflammatory reaction in mammal and birds.

Arné, P., Risco-Castillo, V., Jouvion, G., Le Barzic, C., & Guillot, J. (2021). Aspergillosis in

Wild Birds. Journal of Fungi, 7(3), 241.

Atkinson, C. T., Thomas, N. J., & Hunter, D. B. (Eds.). (2009). Parasitic diseases of wild birds.

John Wiley & Sons.

Genovese, K. J., He, H., Swaggerty, C. L., & Kogut, M. H. (2013). The avian

heterophil. Developmental & Comparative Immunology, 41(3), 334-340.

KLASING, K. C. (1991). Avian inflammatory response: mediation by macrophages. Poultry

science, 70(5), 1176-1186.
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Tizard, I. (2004, April). Salmonellosis in wild birds. In Seminars in avian and exotic pet

medicine (Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 50-66). WB Saunders.