remem of Radanhion fa oaeer cae hace 4 TWO rotons ond 2 notre ecm 4 +4 — Helm the “ a ‘aes ‘Sete a ov f ‘ype ofraition “hte diferent sons ada tat rus cnet hen ays ‘fae ton There arate mas of Tye non nd Shara gage ote Tay anbevwiten 303i. ——— The crore tat beta orice cone ran he nace 00 wna gedicepe hgciewanerere Bo con ra “ Tis nomterrepreenes erp es . Positrons re h-ene gh seed particles wth he same massas B ‘erat achat ey cn be ritn sorte 2 owwatsitossaaie Sechager and rate moses ofthe lens ate real mate parties fredeen ypesot | sdgontons ae antinnt artes fadatenenitedtom | fy portamento the Stomic ul, ‘wo parce wl snitch ete 2 catonizuasute | eninge Terry ee ‘ral ceil flan RASA rE Canbeseda pore gucecatt . Eplanwhch oftheseG lowest Y= least perratrb9 ( yorge ~ highly ionaring a me generating (gamma) ~ least vounngd-Fartiele A \ yas Kr on = z 6 — vod oh Any hy L of vob chia 5 aa-farticeleteen eet (ret Ae eu ht er hig a a E bee al TWD Dsborstesyninswediorpreenttevtus pare, The seston |p| e atomic (proton) number for anucleus oan alpha partici also represents [neu | {theamount af posite charge, We ive beta particles and positions +1 indiate hee charge. Radium-226 emis an alpha parle What she oter product? pa e+? (On the right of thearow the nucleus has anatomic number of 88-2 6 “hisisraon in Che atomic numbers also represent the paste charges) ‘Maus numbers must als balance. The radon nucleus has amass number of 226-4222, Bre Hen lode anderoes decay Mat the oer ed? ayo fee? [checkpoint Hew confident can you answer ‘The mass umber stay the same. The atomic number goes up by 11054. the Progression questions? ‘Thisis xenon (fe. The atomic numbers represent postive charges ard ‘the-1 onthe beta particle represents a negative charge ———— aaa 1 Draw up table tosummare ope 0 pe theaierent ypesof ‘noc dey ond what Oo ‘Write balanced nuclear equations to show the following decays. ae eee eae Youll ned tus a pode tabi. ssa ease wa cs umber cf thence $B + Poi 208 7 nderoes a decay fe 52 Carbon-16 (30 undergoes I> exrnatism 9 ee undergoes ecay B decoy We bleed EI reason 7 (0 undergoes decay, ‘cleo equation to show this O! meteor ns ‘reaction i the way new aubtanens ae formed coer z ie a tndegas lp decy ond oc iisoncee BF dcay re two nclar Deere what happens when ances undergoes deco andthe cuanto show tis eet shes onthe noes mors) | Sequence of deny.i ‘+ How does the activity ofa substance change overtime? + What does the half fe of radioactive substance describe? ‘+ How can the hafife be used to work out how much ofa substance decays? Mare Curie (1867-1934) made many important scorers connected with radioactivity, before ts ‘angers were known Her laboratory notebooks ae still radioactive and willbe dangerous frat lebst another 1500 years. When an unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive deca Torucleus changes to ney = 2 decay pe second Tsone nuclear decay exch second 4A sample of uranium 235 has a decay rate of @unataleraions @ decayed mucus you get a sic and sometimes you dort. The probability of petting asics) {na simitar way. at any given moment there is a certain probability that a particular unstable nucleus wll decay. etait (80) cera ete gam aan ndhidunl nutes bea TETRIS owever the hate does allow us to predic the activity cf a large number of nucle. The half-ifeis the same for any mass ofa particular isotope. Some half.ives are shown in table C er each haf he murber of unstable nuclei aes, uranum 235 700 millon yeas © z whordoesthehattteofanisotope ———eaboncta | 50 yeu descrber . coos 137 Soyer 42} > 410g sample of caesium-137 has ahalfife hayentnatetatiecteste Bae aa Sample Chote fone ators 1024 Strontium-90 has a half life of 29 years. How many therefore also a measure oF how Tong it takes for the activity to halve. It can strontium-90 half-lives is: be found by recording the activity of a sample over a period of time. a 29 years b 58 years i In figure D, the activity at 3 minutes is 800 counts per second. After one 5 half-life the count rate will have decreased to 400 counts per second, ‘There are 10 million atoms in a sample of radon-222. This occurs at 9.5 minutes, o the half-life is 9.5 -3 = 65 minutes. How many undecayed _ nuclei are left after: 1200. 1 WP a 5.8 daysb 7.6days WF Lddays d 1.9 days? ‘When the Earth was formed around 45 billion years ago, most. of it was molten. The Earth has o 6% 1 2 2 00 3 been cooling down ever since but ime (minutes) part of the core is still molten, partly because of the energy released by radioactive isotopes in the Earth How confidently can you answer the Progression questions? $1 A sample of caesium-137 has ity of 100.8q, What will its activity be in 90 years time? 1 Explain what the half-life of a D graph of activity against time for a radioactive substance Activity (Ba) E graph showing the decay of two different radioactive substances eacecheeareceetetl about how its activity and the SEF © Work out the half-lives of the two sources shown in Figure E. PR eee EERO aia change over time. 2 Asample containing carbon-14 has an activity of Describe how you could find the halflife of a newly discovered 115Bq, How long ago would it radioactive substance (2 marks) have had an activity of 24 Bq? 103‘+ How can radioactivity be used to preserve food? + How is radioactivity used in industry? + How is radioactivity used in smoke alarms? Killing microorganisms All foods contain microorganisms that eventually cause them to decompose. Some bacteria also cause food poisoniny with gamma rays to kill bacteria. This makes itsafer ans that it can be stored for longer before going off. it does not make the food more radioactive, although some foods are naturally radioactive. fhe usual AAll these strawberries are several days metho rem, i cannot old, The ones on the left were irradiated _be sterilised using heat, so they are sealed into bags and irradiated with with gamma rays. gamma rays, which can penetrate the bags and the equipment. {33 1 What happens when food is irradiated? 2 2 Suggest why surgical equipment is sealed into bags before irradiation. Radioactive detecting Radioactive isotopes can be wscastcesr example, a gamma source added to water is used to detect Teaks in Water pipes buried underground, Where there is a leak, water flows into the surrounding earth. A Geiger- Miller tube following the path of the pipe will detect higher levels of radiation where there is a leak. _-Geiger-Maller tube Cancer jelp he can also be fou will learn more about this in SP6j Radioactivity in medicine. S23 3 Explzin why gamma sources are used as tracers Busing a gamma source to detect a leak rather than beta sources. Checking thickness Paper can be made the wood pulp The detector in articles get through the paper from a source on 104When the paper ito thin, more beta particles penetrate the paper and the detector ecords higher count rate A computer senses that the count rate has risen and reduces the force applied to the oles to ‘make the pape thicker When the paper is too thick, the opposite happens. processor unt yrmecen Way wot 0 = radiaton source {chbetapaice eter ived oconathe tines of paper dueng manufacture + Leokatcagram plan what happens when the paper tooth D5 wrywulé yourctusan apa sure tmnt paper thickness? ‘Smoke alarms ‘The detector senses the amount ‘Asmoke alarm contains a source of An americaum-241 source gives, of current. f the current falls the Aiphaparicis usualy araciacive OF 8caeant eam ofepte sreeords | isotope called americium-241. The 5 detector has once ath anairganbetrcen wo sevialy Charged plates The meu 24) source release alpha particles, \whichionise molecules inthe ai, These ions are attracted to pltes with an oppesitecharge ands allow small electrical curentto flow Aslongas tis caret treslrm ntsc When tote peut te gp te Soke pres sow do helons ‘homes tha te coe Now ton the pp dese Thea a ‘Scns whenticen dope —= Geet laee the Progression questions? ‘Soe nthe deuce ‘he ons and so wake the cent al 3) 6 what ype faavon peace by ameriur 217 7 Twehatte ofr 243142 years Vy does thsmaket st peste fe ses for ‘table source ofp partes ina snake aa? fadoocty EX Explain the characterises needed inradioacve sources ies sctcsionen, Sertangsrgeaeqipe Desde how youu ue eatin fo menitrthe tenes of feces contin pe aliminum oles tisbong mae ‘emats) thet andsesamin cnt a ere ‘i Tntoraity |, Napee sh gy © Shue sistance from Ke souve - + Mininaae Hae devotion Ceqpose sme)Nuclear accidents Occasionally there is an accident in a nuclear power station, allowing radioactive materials to escape into the environment. Accidents such as this, cause a hazard, as they may lead to people bélfig)ifadiated or eohtaminated: ‘Someone is irradiated when they are\BRB6SeaO|slpha, beta or gamma radiation from nearby radioactive materials. Once the person moves away the irradiation stops. ‘Someone becomes|eehitaminated if they get particles of radioactive material on their skin oF side their body{THeY.Will]BSlexposed to radiation as the unstable isotopes in the material decay,and this wilt Continue uot. tine material has all decayed or until the source of contamination is removed {which is not always possible), Water and soils can also be contaminated 50 contamination can spread into the food chain. Contaminationwith radioactive materials with long half-lives poses a greater hazard as the effects will last longer than for materials with shorter half-lives. D These workers are cleaning up after an accident at a nuclear reactot. The overalls stop their clothing becoming contaminated, itis important to understand that the dangers of radiation from medicine, industry and power generation are small compared with many other aspects ‘OF our modem Tives, However, many people are concerned that accidents may happemmmiuclear power stations. 42} 3 Look at photo D. Suggest why the workers are wearing masks. 4 Explain whether an alpha or beta source is the most harmful if both sources are: $2} a outside the body $EP inside the body (e.g, if breathed in or swallowed). 9} 5 Explain how the half-life ofa radioactive source affects the potential hazard it poses. Describe the difference between contamination and irradiation. (2 marks) 107 behind a radiation shield ina hospital Did you know? When radioactivity was first discovered, people did not know of the harm it could cause. Radioactive substances such as thorium and radium were pout into face creams and other products because people thought they might have health benefits Checkpoint How confidently can you answer the Progression questions? Strengthen $1 What are the hazards posed by radiation? S2 Describe three ways of minimising the risk from radiation. Extend E1 Explain two precautions that should be taken by people: a working with radioactive sources in industry busing radioactive sources in hospitals € cleaning up after a nuclear accident.gt) Ls + What are some of the uses of radioactive substances in diagnosis? + Why do isotopes used in PET scanners have to be produced nearby? + How is radiation used to treat tumours? Diagnosing with gamma technetium-99m s attached to ——_ a drug that collects inthe brain rays Radioactive materials are used to radioactive fono-125 absorbed ——} Glognose medical conditions without krypton-81m gas can be inhaled to investigate lung function isotope attached to molecules that wil be taken up by particular organs inthe body. Te tracers usualy injected int the bloodstream, but lodine-125 is made into a compound excreted by the kidneys. Indium-111 can be attached to white ale blood cells to locate infections @ { detected using one or more gamma [A Different tracers are absorbed by different parts of the body. cameras ‘Tracers can be injected into the blood to find sources of inter radioactive glucose molecules because very active cells, such as cancer cells takeup glucose morequhty thon ora 3) 1 Name wo medial condition that canbe investigated using gamma ray traces, B This gamma camera sean shows a 3} 2 Look at photo Whereis the main cancer in this person? bone tumour The brighter the colour, themoreradation has been detected, 3) 3. Whyare alpha and beta sources not used in medical radioactive tracers? Diagnosing with positrons ow fh “Tracers that emit postons can also be used to detect medical problems. The The electron-positron annihilation _detector in a PET scanner moves around the patient, building up a set of causes wo ganmavaysto beemitted images showing wheré diferent amounts of gamma radiation are coming from. in opposite directions. 108 “5 Tracerjoactive isotopes used in slrmedatuacei et tohave a short iso that other parts of the body are affected as little as possible. pans that they lose their radioactivity quickly and so must be made close to the hospital. They are often used within hours or even minutes of production, D PET scans showing the activity in a healthy brain (left) and one with Alzheimer's, disease (right). The radioactive isotope is attached to a substance that is used by active brain ce Treating cancer Cancer cells divide mi more susceptible to being killed by radiation. Internal radiotherapy uses a beta emitter such agjodine-13} placed inside the body, within of 2 This does not always require surgery —the patient stays in a room alone while the source is in place wand so are 2 5 Suggest why patients are kept away from other people while being treated with internal radiotherapy. Most radiotherapy is external radiotherapy, which uses beams of gamma 2s rays proto dusted ema am gus the Dd Several Tower strength beams may be directed at the tumour from different directions so that only the tumour absorbs a lot of the energy and the surrounding tissues are harmed as little as possible. 6 Explain why beta emitters are usually used for internal but not for external radiotherapy. Explain why both the half-life and the type of radiation produced are taken into account when choosing tracers for use in medical diagnosis. (6 marks) 109 Radioactive isotopes are produced in cyclotrons. Suggest why cyclotrons are located around the UK, sometimes within hospitals, How confidently can you answer the Progression questions? S1 Describe two ways in which radiation is used to diagnose medical conditions. S2 Write down one similarity and one difference between internal and external radiotherapy. E1 Explain how radioactive tracers are used to diagnose medical conditions. E2 Compare and contrast, the treatment of tumours using internal and external radiotherapy.eng: clea Fiwion TY Oo sy Nurlew Power stobror 3 Nuclear Fecion does rot qroduce ms 3 Ptomiéc Bomlo J tadipache fo was a 2 5 non-renewrole Nuclear fusen 3 2 OF wore ehemenit cormdarng F452) ro +emy (S)oe se Convertons powers that buon fae dma change Cavetonal paws sates cn aught 3 = guid sate mas vey epee re ssf» paver sation at the her seins nce ace cree Rene @ > Eoinore avrg andoredosbortage yim scone eae nein cfnaa pm asconpacsa tt Ges xn sg at Nes pow statins are dese Fea Mower acceso ‘onetime ocr incngamal este aac es near a aaa ft fe semtegetn| | feyorntety anyon aoner = tonnonnconneneaoaeneneenene De ch aay sen caine iy St escbe tee ferent pes Dantes on sarap sf sing race 10 4 panty ppl ing nea cer power ston wey ey © * rer steetenebeininetatee = @ + Lookataagam sugges ty may people tok tht mae ey O» metgeatncngeeti ESSE cedeotge ng Sleciaty mtr the Caps races ana fol eld per satan interme fn arent sly ane peltin ey cae, ‘Bmats) | ubleaprien235 i val ae Ut n — bat kr o 36 Bb apy Funan veachion Uncontvolied _. Momic Bow Chau Reaction Contoll) 3 Power Stastons Chron RAC Faery M 5. dow dom werctvons odo ator’ so Bok Yay con be albspvbad by UvaRiuw mpclows +o comse ” Reser con ve lowshd ¢ Conhol Rads + olbcot neutrons +o caibol oY ice A a ne bake of eatin Ont 1 oveidh uncpnivdied chasm venutryconholing Rede af Fission Reaction+ hyve alfonso doe ya? > a cn kame ge sot al acti i 9: Qe ny ca el. aaa Nuveay IO" oe’ onary a Sun 3 No CDy ay No vadiaactve waste > Lot of energy 20 overcome vepulsion between nucle of tv0 alam)2000 m/s 2000 m/s > 1000000 m/s > 1000000 mis Sa eee ey, Samet ‘At normal temperatures the ‘At very high temperatures the particles are repelled if they speed of the particles overcomes get close to one another. the repulsion and fusion can ocour. Electrosta ic repulsion can be overcome if the nucle! are moving very fast. Fusion reactors couldjiigoretically produce a lot more energy than fission reactors. The helium produced in nuclear fusion is not radioactive but any materials used to contain fusion reactions do become radioactivestowever, there are far fewer problems with safely disposing of radioactive waste materials from fusion reactors than from fission reactors. Itis very difficult tdlBUistainjthelextteme temperatures and pressures Fequiredifonfusion. So far none of the experimental reactors have produced Tore energy than has been put in, so fusion power is a long way off D The inside of the Joint European Torus fusion reactor. Magnetic fields are used to-contain the very hot gases, as they would melt any materials they came into contact with. GE} 5 Describe the difficulties of building a commercial fusion power station Explain how electrostatic repulsion is overcome in fusion reactors. (4 marks) 15 3 3 Why does fusion not happen at room temperature? © 4 Why does fusion happen at a lower temperature in the Sun than ina fusion reactor on Earth? Did you know? The temperature in the centre of the Sun, where most of the fusion reactions take place, is nearly 16 million degrees Celsius (1.6 « 107°C), Temperatures up to 100 million degrees Celsius (1 « 108°C) can be produced inside fusion reactors. Checkpoint How confidently can you answer the Progression questions? Strengthen S11 Describe the differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. You may need to look back at SP6! Nuclear fission. Extend E1 Explain the differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission, including their use as energy resources for generating electricity