IC ENGINES

INTRODUCTION:

• HEAT ENGINES:
• Any type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel
or any other source and converts this energy into mechanical work is termed as a heat engine.
• Heat engines may be classified into two main classes(Fig 2.1 a&b) as follows:
1.External Combustion Engines. 2.Internal Combustion Engines.

External Combustion Engines (E.C. Engines)

In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder as in case of steam engines
where the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam which is used to move a piston in a
cylinder. Other examples of external combustion engines are hot air engines, steam turbine and closed
cycle gas turbine. These engines are generally used for driving locomotives, ships, generation of
electric power etc.

Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines)

In this case, combustion of the fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within the cylinder of the
engine. The internal combustion engines group includes engines employing mixtures of combustible
gases and air, known as gas engines, those using lighter liquid fuel or spirit known as petrol engines
and those using heavier liquid fuels, known as oil compression ignition or diesel engines.
CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES:

Internal combustion engines may be classified as given below:

1.According to cycle of operation:
(i) Two stroke cycle engines
(ii) Four stroke cycle engines.
2. According to cycle of combustion:
(i) Otto cycle engine (combustion at constant volume)
(ii) Diesel cycle engine (combustion at constant pressure)
(iii) Dual-combustion or Semi-Diesel cycle engine
(combustion partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure).
3. According to arrangement of cylinder(Fig 2.2)
(i) Horizontal engine
(ii) Vertical engine
(iii) V-type engine
(iv) Radial engine etc.

4. According to their uses:

(i) Stationary engine
(ii) Portable engine
(iii) Marine engine
(iv) Automobile engine
(v) Aero engine etc.
5. According to the fuel employed and the method of fuel supply to the engine cylinder:
(i) Oil engine
(ii) Petrol engine
(iii) Gas engine
(iv) Kerosene engine
(v) Carburetor, hot bulb, solid injection and air injection engine.
6. According to the speed of the engine:
(i) Low speed engine
(ii) Medium speed engine
(iii) High speed engine
7. According to method of ignition:
(i) Spark ignition
(ii) Compression ignition
8. According to method of cooling the cylinder:
(i) Air cooled engine
(ii) Water cooled engine
9. According to method of Governing:
(i) Hit miss governed engine
(ii) Quality governed engine
(iii) Quantity governed engine
10. According to valve arrangement:
(i) Over head valve engine
(ii) L-head type engine
(iii) T-head type engine
(iv) F-head type engine
11. According to number of cylinders:
(i) Single cylinder engine
(ii) Multi cylinder engine

APPLICATION OF I.C. ENGINES:

The I.C. engines are generally used for:
(i) Road vehicles (e.g., scooter, motorcycle, buses etc.)
(ii) Air craft
(iii) Locomotives
(iv) Construction in civil engineering equipment such as bull-dozer, scraper, power shovels etc.
(v) Pumping sets
(vi) Cinemas
(vii) Hospital
(viii) Several industrial applications.
Note: Prime movers in all construction equipment are invariable I.C. engines, unless of course, when
drive is electric. Use of steam source for this equipment is almost absolute.
• Stroke – the movement of the piston from the top of the cylinder to the bottom.
• Cycle – A complete set of piston movements that are needed to produce a power stroke.
• Both operate with a piston moving up and down in a cylinder.

• Four stroke cycle : It has four piston strokes over two revolutions for each cycle.
• Two stroke cycle : It has two piston strokes over one revolution for each cycle

• I.C. Engine components shown in Fig2.4 are defined as follows:

• Block : Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of cast iron or aluminium.
• Cylinder : The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons reciprocate back and
forth.
 • Head : The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing part of the clearance
volume of the combustion chamber.
• Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and the piston face where
combustion occurs.The size of combustion chamber continuously changes from minimum volume
when the piston is at TDC to a maximum volume when the piston at BDC.

• Crankshaft : Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external systems.
• The
crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main bearings.
• It is
rotated by the reciprocating pistons through the connecting rods connected to the
crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation. This offset is sometimes called crank throw
or crank radius.
• Connecting rod : Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft, usually made of steel
or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in some small engines.
• Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston and form a
sliding surface against the cylinder walls.
• Push rods : The mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on overhead valve
engines with the camshaft in the crankcase.
• Camshaft : Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine cycle, either
directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, tappets) .
• Crankcase : Part of the engine block surrounding the crankshaft.
• In many engines the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.
• Exhaust manifold : Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine cylinders,
usually made of cast iron .
• Intake manifold :Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders, usually made of
cast metal, plastic, or composite material.In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake
manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.The individual pipe to a single
cylinder is called runner.
• Spark plug : Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by creating high
voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
• Carburetor : A device which meters the proper amount of fuel into the air flow by means of
pressure differential.For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all automobile
(and other) engines.

I.C. Engine components (apart from components shown in the figure)

• Exhaust System: Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the cylinders, treating
them,and exhausting them to the surroundings.It consists of an exhaust manifold which carries
the exhaust gases away from the engine, a thermal or catalytic converter to reduce emissions, a
 muffler to reduce engine noise, and a tailpipe to carry the exhaust gases away from the
passenger compartment.

• Flywheel : Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crank shaft of the
engine.The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish large angular momentum that
keeps the engine rotating between power strokes and smooths out engine operation.
• Fuel injector : A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air (SI engines )or into
the cylinder (CI engines).
• Fuel pump : Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from the fuel tank
(reservoir) to the engine.
• Glow plug : Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the combustion chamber of many
CI engines, used to preheat the chamber enough so that combustion will occur when first
starting a cold engine.
• The glow plug is turn off after the engine is started.
• Starter : Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are started by use of an electric
motor (starter) geared to the engine flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric battery.

• Top Dead Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away from
the crankshaft.Top because this position is at the top of the engines (not always), and dead because
the piston stops as this point. Because in some engines TDC is not at the top of the engines(e.g:
horizontally opposed engines, radial engines, etc,.) Some sources call this position Head End Dead
Center (HEDC).Some source call this point TOP Center (TC).When the piston is at TDC, the
volume in the cylinder is a minimum called the clearance volume.
• Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to the
crankshaft.
 • Some sources call this Crank End Dead Center (CEDC) because it is not always at the bottom
of the engine. Some source call this point Bottom Center (BC).
• Stroke : Distance traveled by the piston from one extreme position to the other : TDC to BDC
or BDC to TDC.
• Bore :It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston face diameter; piston face diameter is same as
cylinder diameter( minus small clearance).
• Swept volume/Displacement volume : Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one
stroke.
• Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
• Displacement can be given for one cylinder or entire engine (one cylinder times number of
cylinders).
• Clearance volume : It is the minimum volume of the cylinder available for the charge (air or air
fuel mixture) when the piston reaches at its outermost point (top dead center or outer dead
center) during compression stroke of the cycle.
• Minimum volume of combustion chamber with piston at TDC.
• Compression ratio : The ratio of total volume to clearance volume of the cylinder is the
compression ratio of the engine.
• Typically compression ratio for SI engines varies form 8 to 12 and for CI engines it varies from
12 to 24

FOUR STROKES OF SI ENGINE CYCLE

• Suction/Intake stroke: Intake of air fuel mixture in cylinder through intake manifold
(Fig 2.6).The piston travel from TDC to BDC with the intake valve open and exhaust valve
closed.This creates an increasing volume in the combustion chamber, which in turns creates a
vacuum.The resulting pressure differential through the intake system from atmospheric pressure
on the outside to the vacuum on the inside causes air to be pushed into the cylinder.As the air
passes through the intake system fuel is added to it in the desired amount by means of a
carburetor.
 • Compression stroke: When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the piston
travels back to TDC with all valves closed.(Fig 2.7) This compresses air fuel mixture, raising
both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder. Near the end of the compression stroke the
spark plug is fired and the combustion is initiated.
• Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of time with the
piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant volume combustion).It starts near the end of the
compression stroke slightly before TDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly after TDC.
Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust products and
increases the temperature in the cylinder to a high value.This in turn increases the pressure in
the cylinder to a high value.
• Expansion stroke/Power stroke : With all valves closed the high pressure created by the
combustion process pushes the piston away from the TDC(Fig 2.8). This is the stroke which
produces work output of the engine cycle.As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder
volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop
• Exhaust stroke: By the time piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is complete, but the
cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure(Fig 2.9).With the
exhaust valve remaining open, the piston travels from BDC to TDC in the exhaust stroke.
This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust system at
about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when the piston
reaches TDC.

FOUR STROKES OF CI ENGINE CYCLE

• Suction/Intake stroke: Intake of air into the cylinder through intake manifold(Fig 2.10).The
piston travel from TDC to BDC with the intake valve open and exhaust valve closed.This creates an
increasing volume in the combustion chamber, which in turns creates a vacuum.The resulting pressure
differential through the intake system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the
inside causes air to be pushed into the cylinder.As the air passes through the intake system fuel is added
to it in the desired amount by means of fuel injectors.
• Compression stroke: When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the piston
travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air, raising both the pressure
and temperature in the cylinder. Near the end of the compression stroke the fuel is injected through
fuel injectors and the combustion is initiated.
• Combustion of air occurs in a very short but finite length of time with the piston near TDC
(i.e., nearly constant volume combustion).It starts near the end of the compression stroke
slightly before TDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly after TDC.Combustion changes the
composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust products and increases the temperature in
the cylinder to a high value. This in turn increases the pressure in the cylinder to a high value.
• Expansion stroke/Power stroke : With all valves closed the high pressure created by the
combustion process pushes the piston away from the TDC. This is the stroke which produces
work output of the engine cycle.As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder volume
is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.
• Exhaust stroke: By the time piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is complete, but the
cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure.With the exhaust
valve remaining open, the piston travels from BDC to TDC in the exhaust stroke.This pushes
most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust system at about
atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when the piston reaches
TDC.
TWO STROKE SI ENGINES
• Each time the piston moves up, it completes the intake and compression stroke.
• Each time the piston moves down, it completes the power and exhaust stroke.

• Intake/Compression Stroke(Fig 2.12):

As the piston moves up the cylinder the intake and exhaust ports are covered.
The air/fuel/oil mixture above the piston is compressed.At the same time a new air/fuel/oil mix
is drawn into the crankcase of the engine through a reed valve connected to the carburetor.The
reed valve is a special valve that permits air/fuel/oil to move in one direction only.
 • Power/Exhaust Stroke(Fig 2.13 & 2.14):
At the top of the stroke the spark plug ignites the compressed mixture.The burning of the
mixture pushes the piston downward producing power.The downward motion of the piston
pressurizes the air/fuel/oil mixture in the crankcase and forces the reed valve to close.The rush of
air/fuel/oil into the cylinder helps push out the exhaust gas and is ready to be compressed by the
upward movement of the piston. The cycle now begins again.

VALVE TIMING
• Valve timing is the regulation of points in the cycle, at which the valves are set to open and
close.Since the valves require a finite period of time for opening and closing therefore a ‘slight lead
time’ is necessary for proper opening and closing of valves.The design of the valve operating cam
provides for the smooth transition from one position to another while the cam setting determines the
timing of the valve.
INTAKE VALVE OPENING

• Theoretically the intake valve should open at TDC but almost all spark ignition engines employ
an intake valve opening of a few degrees before TDC on the exhaust stroke.This is done to ensure that
the valve is fully open and the fresh charge starts to flow into the cylinder as soon as the piston
reaches TDC.
INTAKE VALVE CLOSING FOR LOW SPEED ENGINES

• When the piston reaches BDC and starts to ascend on the compression stroke, the inertia of the
incoming fresh charge tends to cause it to continue to move into the cylinder. At low engine speeds the
inertia of the charge is relatively low. If the intake were to remain open much beyond BDC, the up
moving piston would force the charge already in the cylinder back in the intake manifold causing a
significant reduction in volumetric efficiency. Hence the intake valve is closed relatively early
0
after BDC for a slow speed engine.In low speed engines the intake valve closes 60 after BDC .The
valve timing diagram for low speed engines is shown in Fig 2.15
INTAKE VALVE CLOSING FOR HIGH SPEED ENGINES

• High speed engines bring in the charge through the inlet manifold at great speeds and the charge
has great inertia.As the piston moves up, the incoming fresh charge produces a ‘ram’ effect, which
tends to pack more charge into the cylinder.Thus in high speed engines the intake valve timing is
delayed for a greater period of time after BDC in order to take advantage of this ‘ram’ effect and to
induct maximum quantity of charge.The valve timing diagram for high speed engines is shown
in Fig 2.16
EXHAUST VALVE OPENING

• The exhaust valve is set to open 25 ͦ before BDC in low speed engines and 55 ͦ before BDC
in high speed engines.If the exhaust valve did not open until BDC, the pressure in the cylinder would
be considerably above atmospheric pressure increasing the work required to expel the exhaust gases.
Opening the exhaust valve earlier than BDC reduces the pressure which results in overall gain in
output.

EXHAUST VALVE CLOSING

During the exhaust stroke, the piston forces the burnt gases out at a high velocity. If the closing of the
exhaust valve is delayed beyond TDC, the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder
better by carrying out, a greater mass of gases left in the clearance volume, which results in increased
volumetric efficiency.

VALVE OVERLAP

• It should be noted that it is quite possible for the intake and the exhaust valve to remain open or
partially open at the same time. This is known as valve overlap.This overlap should not be excessive
enough to allow the burnt gases to be sucked back into the cylinder, or the fresh charge to escape
through the exhaust valve.
PORT TIMING

• If a timing diagram for a two stroke engine is examined, it can be seen that the exhaust valve
starts to open at about 110º after TDC (position 4 on the Fig 2.17). After the initial blowdown of the
exhaust gas from the cylinder, the scavenge ports are opened at about 140º after TDC (position 5), as
the piston moves down the cylinder.
• The position of the scavenge ports is fixed in the cylinder liner, and so it should be obvious that
their opening and closing must be symmetrical about BDC, and therefore they close at 140º before
TDC as the piston moves up the cylinder on the compression stroke. When the engine is operating in
the reverse direction, the timing of the opening and closing of the scavenge ports remains the same.
• The exhaust valve can be timed to open and close symmetrically about BDC, and so again it
means that when the engine is reversed, the exhaust valve will open and close at the same time as when
the engine is running ahead. This means that there is no need to alter the position of the exhaust cams
for astern running.
• Engine builders may not time the exhaust valve symmetrically about BDC; instead, to achieve
more economical and efficient operation when running ahead may retard the opening of the exhaust
valve by up to 15°. For instance the exhaust valve may be timed to open at 125° after TDC and close at
95° before TDC. This of course will mean when the engine is running astern, the exhaust valve will
open and close early.
• However, because the engine runs astern for only a very small percentage of it's operating life,
the advantages gained when running ahead far outweigh the disadvantages when running astern.
ENGINE SYSTEMS:
FUEL:
• A chemical fuel is a substance which releases heat energy on combustion.
• The principal combustible elements of each fuel are carbon and hydrogen.
• Based on the requirements , the fuel system is employed.
• The fuel-injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI engine.
• The engine performance, power o/p , economy etc is greatly dependent on the effectiveness of
the fuel-injection system.
• Basically the purpose of carburetion & fuel-injection is the same i.e. preparation of the
combustible charge. But in case of carburetion fuel is atomized by processes relying on the air
speed greater than fuel speed at the fuel nozzle , whereas in fuel-injection the fuel speed at the
point of delivery is greater than the air speed to atomize the fuel.
 In Fig 2.18 is shown simple carburetor. L is the float chamber for the storage of fuel. The
fuel supplied under gravity action or by fuel pump enters the float chamber through the filter F. The
arrangement is such that when the oil reaches a particular level the float valve M blocks the inlet
passage and thus cuts off the fuel oil supply. On the fall of oil level, the float descends down,
consequently intake passage opens and again the chamber is filled with oil.
 Then the float and the float valve maintains a constant fuel oil level in the float chamber.
N is the jet from which the fuel is sprayed into the air stream as it enters the carburetor at the inlet S
and passes through the throat or venturi R. The fuel level is slightly below the outlet of the jet when the
carburetor is inoperative.
As the piston moves down in the engine cylinder, suction is produced in the cylinder
as well as in the induction manifold Q as a result of which air flows through the Carburetor.

The velocity of air increases as it passes through the construction at the venturi R and pressure
decreases due to conversion of a portion of pressure head into kinetic energy. Due to decreased
pressure at the venturi and hence by virtue of difference in pressure (between the float chamber and
the venturi) the jet issues fuel oil into air stream. Since the jet has a very fine bore, the oil issuing from
the jet is in the form of fine spray; it vapourises quickly and mixes with the air. This air fuel mixture
enters the engine cylinder; its quantity being controlled by varying the position of the throttle valve T.
The carburettor controls the flow to the engine.This is done by the THE FLOAT CHAMBER.
Controlling the air/fuel mixture means controlling the engine. The carburettor part which
controls the flow is THE THROTTLE .
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
• Fuel injection system is a well-designed mechanism for admitting fuel into an I.C. engine.
• It has become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive petrol engines, having
almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s.
• A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will
handle. Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications.
• The basic function of a fuel injection system is to inject fuel to the engine cylinders in proper
quantity, at correct time and at a pre-determined rate.

OBJECTIVES OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

The injection system of the compression ignition engine should fulfill the following objectives
consistently and precisely:

1. Meter the appropriate quantity of fuel, as demanded by the speed of, and the load on, the
engine at the given time.
2. Distribute the metered fuel equally among cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine.
3. Inject the fuel at the correct time (with respect to crank angle) in the cycle.
4. Inject the fuel at the correct rate (per unit time or crank angle degree).
5. Inject the fuel with the correct spray pattern and sufficient atomization as demanded by the
design of the combustion chamber.
6. Begin and end injection sharply without dribbling.
 There are two major divisions of Fuel Injection systems:

• Air Injection systems, which inject air along with the liquid fuel.
However, the air injection systems have proved to be less efficient and costlier than other
systems and hence, is now obsolete.
• Solid Injection systems, which inject only the liquid fuel through the injectors.

AIR INJECTION SYSTEM

• In this method fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air to a very high
pressure. The rate of fuel admission can be controlled by varying the pressure of air .
• The fuel is metered & pumped to the fuel valve by a camshaft driven fuel pump. The fuel valve
is opened by means of a mechanical linkage operated by the camshaft which controls the timing of
injection . The fuel valve is also connected to a high pressure air line fed by a multi stage compressor
which supplies air at a pressure of about 60 to 70 bar.(Fig 2.19)

ADVANTAGES;
• It provides better atomization & distribution of fuel.
• Heavy & viscous fuels, which are cheaper can also be injected.
DISADVANTAGES;
This method is not used now a day due to following reasons:
• It requires a high pressure multi stage compression.
• A separate mechanical linkage is required to time the operation of fuel valve.
 • The fuel valve sealing requires considerable skill.
• Due to the compression & the linkage the bulk of the engine increases . This also results
in reduced B.P due to power loss in operating the compression & linkage.
• In case of sticking of the fuel valve , the system becomes quite dangerous due to the
presence of high pressure air.

SOLID INJECTION SYSTEM

In this method fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber without primary
atomization is termed as solid injection. It is also termed as mechanical injection.

Solid injection system can be classified into four types:

1. Individual pump & injector.
2. Unit injector system.
3. Common rail system.
4. Distributor system.
INDIVIDUAL PUMP FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

• As shown in the Fig 2.20 , the fuel is drawn from fuel tank by means of a fuel feed pump which
is operated from the injection pump camshaft.
• The fuel is then passed through a filter and there-by to the fuel injection pump.
• The filter prevents any abrasive matter in the fuel flow towards the injection pump, which
would otherwise result in poor starting, irregular idling and deterioration in performance due to
decreased fuel delivery from the injection pump

•
• The fuel injection pump then injects definite quantity of fuel into each cylinder in turn,
according to the firing order, through the injectors fitted on them.
• The injection pump is gear driven from the engine camshaft so that it is driven at half the engine
speed.
• Also a governing device is placed at the side of the injection pump to provide automatic speed
control.
• Any excess fuel after lubrication of injector nozzle is returned to the fuel tank.
• The most successful working of this system is found in Swaraj Mazda SL engine.

INDIVIDUAL PUMP & INJECTOR:

• In this system , each cylinder is provided with one pump & one injector(Fig 2.21).
• Also in this system a separate metering & compression pump is provided for each cylinder.
• The pump may be placed close to cylinder as shown in fig(a) or May be arranged in a cluster
as shown in fig(2.22)

• In high pressure pump , plunger is actuated by a cam & produces the fuel pressure necessary
to open the injector valve at the correct time .
• The amount of fuel injected depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.

UNIT INJECTOR SYSTEM:

• The unit injector system is one in which the pump & injector are combined in one housing.
• Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit injectors.
• Fuel is brought up to the injector by a low pressure pump at proper time, a rocker arm actuates
the plunger & thus injects the fuel into the cylinder.(Fig 2.23)
 DISTRIBUTOR SYSTEM:

• In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters & times it .
• The fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel supplies it to rotating distributor at the
correct time for supply to each cylinder (Fig 2.24).

COMMON RAIL DIRECT INJECTION SYSTEM

• In this system the unit injectors is employed on each cylinders.

• The unit injectors are operated by rocker arms.
• The fuel taken from the fuel tank by feed pump then passed through filter and common rail and
same quantity of fuel is injected in each cylinder (Fig 2.25)
 MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

• MPFI- a technology used in petrol engines

• Uses a small computer to control the car’s engine
• In MPFI engine one fuel –injector is installed near each cylinder ,that is why it is called multi
point fuel injection.
• Before MPFI system, there was a technology called “Carburetor”
• The computer in the MPFI system decides the amount of fuel to be injected.
• System also learns from the drivers driving habits.
• MPFI system makes engine fuel efficient .
• MPFI Systems can either be:
• Sequential
• Simultaneous
• Group
These techniques result in better “power balance” amongst the cylinders, higher output from
each of them, along with faster throttle response..
PORT INJECTION:

• The injector is placed on the side of the intake manifold near the intake port .
• Every cylinder is provided with an injector in its intake manifold (Fig 2.26)

THROTTLE BODY INJECTION SYSTEM:

Fig 2.27 illustrates the simplified sketch of throttle body injection system( single point
injection). This throttle body is similar to the Carburetor throttle body, with the throttle valve
controlling the amount of air entering the intake manifold.
An injector is placed slightly above the throat of the throttle body. The injector sprays
gasoline into the air in the intake manifold where the gasoline mixes with air. T his mixture then passes
through the throttle valve and enters into the intake manifold.
The fuel – injection systems can be either timed or continuous . In the timed injection system ,
gasoline is sprayed from the injectors in pulses. In the continuous , gasoline is sprayed continuously
from the injectors. The port injection system and the throttle body injection system may be either
pulsed systems or continuous systems. In both systems, the amount of gasoline injected depends upon
the engine speed and power demands. The MPFI systems are classified as D-MPFI and L-MPFI .
D-MPFI SYSTEM:
The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. In this type, the vacuum in the
intake manifold is first sensed. In addition , it senses the volume of air by its density. Fig
2.28 gives the block diagram regarding the functioning of the D-MPFI system. As air enters into
the intake manifold, the manifold pressure sensor detects the intake manifold vacuum and sends the
information to the ECU. The speed sensor also send s the information about the rpm of the engine to
the ECU. The ECU in turn sends commands to the injector to regulate the amount of gasoline supply
for injection. When the injector sprays fuel in the intake manifold the gasoline mixes with the air and
the mixture enters the cylinder.

L-MPFI SYSTEM:
The L-MPFI system is a port fuel-injection system. In this type the fuel metering is regulated
by the engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters the engine. This is called air – mass
metering or air – flow metering. The block diagram of L-MPFI system is shown in Fig 2.29 . As air
enters into the intake manifold, he air flow sensor measures the amount of air and sends information to
the ECU. Similarly, the speed sensor sends information about the speed of the engine to the ECU. The
ECU processes the information received and sends appropriate commands to the injector , in order to
regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When injection takes place , gasoline mixes with
the air and the mixture enters the cylinder.
 COOLING SYSTEMS

• In order to cool the engine a cooling medium is required. This can be either air or a liquid.
• There two types of cooling system for cooling the I C engine, these are
1. Water or indirect cooling system.
2. Air cooling system.

1. WATER OR INDIRECT COOLING SYSTEM:

In this system mainly water is used and made to circulate through the jackets provided around
the cylinder, cylinder-head,valve ports and seats where it extracts most of the heat.

Water-cooling can be carried out by any one of the following five methods:
• Direct or non-return system
• Thermosyphon system
• Forced circulation cooling system
• Evaporative cooling system
• Pressure cooling system
DIRECT OR NON-RETURN SYSTEM:

This system is useful for large installations where plenty of water is available. The water from a
storage tank is directly supplied through an inlet valve to the engine cooling water jacket. The hot
water is not cooled for reuse but simply discharged.

THERMOSYPHON SYSTEM

• The basic principle of thermosyphon can be explained with respect to figure. Heat is supplied to
the fluid in the tank A. Because of the relatively lower density, the hot fluid travels up, its place
being taken up by comparatively cold fluid from the tank B through the pipe p2.
 • The hot fluid flows through the pipe p1 to the tank B where it gets cooled. Thus the fluid
circulated through the system in the form of convection currents.
• For engine application, tank A represents the cylinder jackets while tank B represents a radiator
and water acts the circulating fluid. (Fig 2.30)

FORCED CIRCULATION COOLING SYSTEM:

• In Forced cooling system a pump is used to cause positive circulation of water in the water
jacket. usually the pump is belt driven from the engine.
• The water or coolant is circulated through jackets around the parts of the engine to be cooled
and kept in motion by a centrifugal pump which is driven by the engine.
• The water is passed through the radiator where it is cooled by air drawn through the radiator by
a fan (Fig 2.31).
• A thermostat is used to control the water temperature required for cooling. This system mainly
consists of four components, viz., a radiator, fan, water pump and a thermostat.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM:

• This system is used in stationary engines. In this , engine will be cooled because of the
evaporation of the water in the cylinder jackets into steam.
• This method of cooling utilizes the high latent heat of vaporization of water by allowing it to
evaporate in the cylinder jackets.
• The cooling circuit is such that coolant is always liquid but the steam formed is flashed off in the
separate vessel. The makeup water so formed is sent back for cooling.(Fig 2.32)
• This system is used for cooling of many types of industrial engines

PRESSURE COOLING SYSTEM:

• In pressure cooling system moderate pressures, say upto 2 bar, are commonly used.
• As shown in the Fig 2.33 a cap is fitted on the radiator with two-valves, a safety valve which is
loaded by a compression spring and a vacuum valve.
• When the coolant is cold both the valves are shut, but as the engine warms up the coolant
temperature rises until it reaches a certain value corresponding to the desired pressure then the safety
valve opens; but if the coolant temperature falls during the engine operation the valve will close again
until the temperature again rises to the equivalent pressure value.
• When the engine is switched off and the coolant cools down vacuum begins to form in the
cooling system, but when the internal pressure falls below atmospheric the vacuum valve is opened by
the higher outside pressure and the cooling system then attains atmospheric pressure.
AIR COOLING SYSTEM

• Air cooling is usually used for small engines and for engines whose application gives extreme
importance to weight such as aircraft engines. Other area for air-cooled engines are industrial
and agricultural engines where there can be a strong objection to use of water as coolant.
• For air cooling the cylinder head heat transfer area is increased by fining & air is passed over
these fins to affect cooling.(Fig 2.34)

• Two types of fins used to cover the cylinder.

• The length of fins & the spacing b/w them is quite important for efficient cooling .
• Larger inter-spacing b/w the fins offers larger area for cooling air but the heating of the air is
less, so more cooling air is required.
• Smaller interspacing b/w the fins results in smaller flow area for cooling air & hence air is
heated more & input to the cooling air is less.
• However, the pressure drop required for flow is more. If the distance b/w two fins is quite small
the laminar layer of the opposite area come in contact with each other & the efficiency of the fins
is reduced very much. Therefore ,a spacing less than 2.5mm is not used.
• The height of the fins controls the distance b/w the two cylinders and hence, the size of the
engine. Usually the fin height varies from 15 to 25mm.

ROLE OF RADIATORS

• The function of the radiator is to reject coolant heat to the outside air.(by conduction & forced
convection & not by radiation)
• The cooling effect in a radiator is achieved by dispersing the heated coolant into fine stream
through the radiator core so that relatively small quantities of coolant are brought in contact with
large metal surface areas which in turn are cooled by a stream of air (Fig 2.35).
• It should be noted that it is easier o transfer heat from water to the metal surfaces than from
metal surface of air.

• The radiator consists of an upper tank (header tank) at the top & a collector tank at the bottom of
the radiator core.
• Two types of radiators in common use are :
• Down-flow type & cross flow type.
• In down-flow type ,water flow from top to bottom ,but in cross flow type the hot coolant is
supplied to top of the supply tank, it flows across the radiator and is taken out from the bottom of
the collector tank. A separate header tank is usually provide at the upper end of the collector tank to
prevent aeration.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
NEED FOR LUBRICATION:

• In an I.C. engine, moving parts rub against each other causing frictional force. Due to the
frictional force, heat is generated and the engine parts wear easily. Power is also lost due to friction,
since more power is required to drive an engine having more friction between rubbing surfaces.
• To reduce the power lost and also wear and tear of the moving part substance called lubricant is
introduced between, the rubbing surfaces.

FUNCTIONS OF A LUBRICANT

• Lubricant reduces friction between moving part

• It reduces wear and tear of the moving parts.
• It minimizes power loss due to friction.
• It provides cooling effect. While lubricating it also carries some heat from the moving parts
and delivers it to the surroundings through the bottom of the engine (crank case).
• It helps reduce noise created by the moving parts.
ENGINE PARTS TO BE LUBRICATED:

•
Crank shaft
• Crank pin
• Big and small end of the connecting rode
• Piston pin
• Internal surfaces of cylinder walls
• Piston rings
• Valve mechanisms
• Cam shaft etc.
TYPES OF LUBRICATION SYSTEM

1. Petrol lubrication system or Mist lubrication system.

2. Wet sump lubrication system
3. Dry sump lubrication system.
PETROL LUBRICATION SYSTEM:

• This system of lubrication is used in scooters and motor cycles.

• About 3% to 6% of lubricating oil is added with petrol in the petrol tank.
• The petrol evaporates when the engine is working. The lubricating oil is left behind in the form
of mist.
• The parts of the engine such as piston cylinder walls, connecting rod are lubricated by being
wetted with the oil mist.
WET SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM:

In the wet sump system, the bottom of the crankcase contains an oil pan or sump from which the
lubricating oil is pumped to various engine components by a pump. After lubricating these parts, the
oil flows back to sump by gravity. Again it is picked up by a pump and recirculated through the engine
lubricating system (Fig 2.36).

A wet-sump system is simple, low cost, and light weight. That's why virtually every production engine
in the world uses wet-sump lubrication.

• Two types of wet sump engine lubrication systems are used in internal-combustion engines.
• They are:
• Splash system
• The pressure-feed system.
1. The pressure-feed system, with small modifications, is the more popular for more popular for
modern automobile engines.
2. The splash system is used on most lawn mower and outboard engines.
SPLASH LUBRICATION SYSTEM:

• The splash system is used only on small four-stroke-cycle engines such as lawn mower engines.
• As the engine is operating, dippers on the ends of the connecting rods enter the oil supply, pick
up sufficient oil to lubricate the connecting-rod bearing, and splash oil to the upper parts of the engine.
• The oil is thrown up as droplets, or fine spray, which lubricates the cylinder walls, piston pins
and valve mechanism (Fig 2.37).
PRESSURE – FEED SYSTEM:

• In the pressure-feed system, oil is forced by the oil pump through oil lines and drilled
passageways.
• The oil, passing through the drilled passageways under pressure, supplies the necessary
lubrication for the crankshaft main bearings, the connecting-rod bearings piston-pin bushings, camshaft
bearings, valve lifters, valve push rods, and rocker studs.
• Oil passing through the oil lines is directed to the timing gears and the valve rocker shafts in
order to lubricate these parts.
• The cylinder walls are lubricated by oil thrown off the connecting-rod and piston-pin bearings.
• Some engines have oil spit holes in the connecting rods that line up with drilled holes in the
crankshaft journal during each revolution, and through or spit a steam of oil onto the cylinder
walls.
• Since the oil in the passageways is under pressure, each time the drilled holes in the crankshaft
and connecting rod line up with the holes in the bearings, the pressure forces the oil through these
drilled passages into the crankshaft and connecting rod, lubricating their respective bearings.
• After the oil has been forced to the area requiring lubrication, it falls back down into the oil pan
ready to be picked up again and returned through the system (Fig 2.38).
• As the oil falls, it is frequently splashed by the moving parts onto some other part requiring
lubrication
DRY SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM:

• In a wet sump, the oil pump sucks oil from the bottom of the oil pan through a tube, and then
pumps it to the rest of the engine (Fig 2.39).
• In a dry sump, extra oil is stored in a tank outside the engine rather than in the oil pan. There are
at least two oil pumps in a dry sump -- one pulls oil from the sump and sends it to the tank, and the
other takes oil from the tank and sends it to lubricate the engine. The minimum amount of oil possible
remains in the engine.
• A dry-sump system has several advantages over wet, but the main one is additional power.
• Because there is only a minimum of oil in the pan, windage ‚oil clinging to or splashing against
the rotating assemblies of the engine is greatly reduced.
• In addition to evacuating oil from the pan, the external oil pump creates a vacuum inside the pan
and block that further increases horsepower by improving ring seal.
• Other advantages of a dry-sump system are increased oil capacity because of the external tank,
the ability to easily add remote oil coolers, and because the pan doesn’t store oil, it can be quite
shallow to allow for lower engine placement
WANKEL ENGINE

• The wankel engine uses a triangular shaped rotor housed in an oval shaped cylinder (Fig 2.40).
• As the rotor is rotated it moves around the cylinder producing the four basic functions to
produce a power stroke.
Intake Stroke:

• The production of power begins with the rotor at point A.(Fig 2.41)
• The intake port is uncovered allowing a new air/fuel mixture to enter the combustion
chamber.