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NON-STRUCTURAL LID ALTERNATIVE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR

URBAN CIRCULATION PLANNING, AND DESIGN

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Of ACADEMIC RESEARCH Vol. 3. No.1. January, 2011, Part I

NON-STRUCTURAL LID ALTERNATIVE DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS FOR URBAN CIRCULATION PLANNING,
AND DESIGN
Amir Shakibamanesh

Islamic Azad University, Salmas Branch (IRI)

Email: Shakibamanesh@iust.ac.ir

ABSTRACT

Low Impact Development is an approach to environment friendly land use planning. In fact, LID is a new
growing approach which principles aim at rectifying the shortcoming of the previous innovative land development
practices and leads the upcoming development towards a more environmentally sensitive land development
pattern.
This article attempts to analyze the role of LID in sustainable site planning and design with emphasis on
circulation design process. In Fact as the use of efficient road layouts, street types, and pavement treatments can
significantly reduce the cost of roadway construction, decrease the quantity of runoff from a site, potentially
increase lot yield and open space amounts, and protect natural resources, etc., this issue has be chosen as one of
the most important and affective elements of LID approach in urban design and planning process.
For this purpose this article will review and analysis the existing LID principles and strategies and try to find
some alternative design considerations which can help in creating a sustainable urban circulation design.
The essence of this paper lies in guiding development towards more sensitive environmental practices
resulting in Low Impact Development's approach.

Key words: Low Impact Development (LID), Sustainable Site Planning and Design

1. INTRODUCTION

The cities developed after the Second World War, show the conquest of man over nature- man oriented
society in which it is believed that the cosmos is a structure erected to support man on its pinnacle depicted his
dominance on nature and in the form of the cities (McHarg, 1967: 24).
The present zoning code adopted by several townships and counties tends to set rules for orderly
development of land. The conventional land use practice in such communities/neighborhoods tends to occupy
every available piece of land into streets, house lots, strip malls, office parks and parking lots (Wilson et. Al, 1998:
86; Sloane, 2006: 12; and Rodriguez, Khattak, and Evenson 2006: 45). The conventional land regulations lack a
greener vision to accommodate the growing demand for land. Instead the upcoming suburban communities are
designed on a limited model that aims to produce more and more suburbia with “improvements” composed of
endless subdivisions, big boxes, and shopping centers ultimately covering every bit of countryside.
The conventional zoning tends to produce grid-iron pattern eventually converting the rural regions into a
seamless blanket of wall-to-wall subdivisions with minimum open space, except for conserving flood prone areas,
producing no more than housing lots and streets that diminish the aspect of community life. Although the intentions
of Euclidian zoning was to provide better quality of life to the cities that follow its guidelines, but it neglected the
result brought about by basic development design standard contained in local ordinances that disregard the
conservation of open space or provision of neighborhood amenities like recreational areas in the form of parks,
playgrounds and community gardens etc. The “forced” patterns (standardized residential templates that are
overlaid on a site, that uses conventional development practices, without regard to a site’s natural features and
environmental sensitivities) cause unnecessary impacts to vegetation, local water, and soils and causes artificial
inflation of the infrastructure costs associated with clearing and grading (Nataluk and Dooley 2003: 21).
The need for developing cities that hint the movement towards new vitality is being realized. New towns are
being constructed and concepts of regional planning have emerged, resulting in increased awareness for new
conservation that could manage our recourses. This article tries to provide ways to simultaneously incorporate
economic and environmental considerations into the land development process. This approach to land
development, called Low Impact Development (LID).

2. LOW IMPACT DEVELOPMENT (LID)

Low Impact Development (LID) was piloted in Maryland (Prince George's County, 1999) as a way to
mitigate the negative effects of increasing urbanization and impervious surface. This approach uses certain
technology-based practices to ensure that a site's post-development hydrologic functions mimic those in its pre-
development state. These functions include groundwater recharge, infiltration, and frequency and volume of
discharges.
In fact LID techniques are designed to reduce stormwater runoff, protect watersheds, lower installation and
infrastructure maintenance costs, and add aesthetic value. The primary goal of this approach is to protect a
community's natural, predevelopment water flow in order to minimize the ecological impacts of urbanization (Foss,
2005:1). LID, uses various land planning and design practices and technologies to simultaneously conserve and
protect natural resource systems and reduce infrastructure costs. LID still allows land to be developed, but in a
cost-effective manner that helps mitigate potential environmental impacts. LID is best suited for new, suburban

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development (Nataluk and Dooley 2003: ix). In fact, LID is a new growing approach which principles aim at
rectifying the shortcoming of the previous innovative land development practices and leads the upcoming
development towards a more environmentally sensitive land development pattern.

3. LOW IMPACT DEVELOPMENT BENEFITS

LID is more than a collection of engineered tools. It is a comprehensive design technique incorporating site
planning and integrated management measures (CA WALUP, 2010: 4).By using LID approach, different types of
benefits can be obtained; these are as following: (CA WALUP, 2010: 2; Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 14; Ghode,
2007: 54; Prince George's County, 1999: 9-10; EEA, 2010:3)

 Preserving integrity of ecological and biological systems,

 Protecting sensitive natural features and incorporate natural features into site designs
 Improving surface water quality by reducing sediment, nutrient, and toxic loads from seeping into
the water bodies,
 Providing runoff storage measures dispersed uniformly throughout a site's landscape with the use
of a variety of detention, retention, and runoff practices.
 Reducing impacts on local terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals, and Preserving trees and
natural vegetation.
 Contributing to groundwater recharge through infiltration
 Protecting stream and lake quality from large volumes of polluted runoff
 Reducing frequency and severity of floods
 Reducing peak flow volume and velocity of floods
 Increasing time of concentration by strategically routing flows to maintain travel time and control the
discharge.
 Increasing aesthetics and recreational opportunities in protected riparian habitats
 Increasing land value by having a cleaner environment
 Preserving more open spaces
 Reducing land clearing and grading cost,
 Reducing storm water management costs,
 Providing economic incentives that encourage environmentally sensitive development.
 Reducing impact fee and increasing lot yields,
 Help building communities based on environmental stewardship.
 Customizing site design according to the site analysis
 Reducing municipal infrastructure and utility maintenance costs (streets, curb, gutters, sidewalks,
storm sewers, etc.)
 Increasing public/private collaborative partnerships in environmental protection,
 To help communities grow more attractively.
 Developing the full potential of environmentally sensitive site planning and design.

4. DESIGN AND VARIABLES OF LOW

IMPACT DEVELOPMENT APPROACH

Three major topics (consist of site area

classification, infrastructure and natural resources
design, and circulation design) are part of an LID
approach that should embrace the various design
determinants and variables identified in Figure 1. The
list of design determinants and variables identified in
the figure is by no means exhaustive. Site designers
should identify a complete list of these items based on
each site’s characteristics (Nataluk and Dooley 2003:
22).
4.1. Site Area Classification
Once the site analysis is complete, site
designers should analyze and classify areas of the site
by suitability of use. During the process of site area
classification, it is important to keep in mind that
maximizing a site’s development potential does not
necessarily mean that the entire site needs to be
developed. Compact forms of development make it
possible to conserve open space and protect habitat
and water quality while promoting housing affordability
and a sense of community (Nataluk and Dooley 2003: Fig. 1. Low Impact
23). Even though open, non-vegetated areas are Development Site Design
usually seen as prime development areas, site Source: (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 22)
designers should remain flexible and take into account

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all natural resource information collected during the site analysis. For instance, a field might serve as a headwaters
area for sensitive wetlands or be better developed into recreational fields for a park system.
4.2. Infrastructure and Natural Resource Design
The efficient blending of infrastructure and natural resources on a development site requires a thorough
understanding of the natural processes that characterize the site and the infrastructure practices and technologies
proposed as part of the land development process (Nataluk and Dooley 2003: 24). For example the orientation of
lots or streets plays a vital role in taking advantage of solar benefits. In this section site designers should use the
best combination of systems based on individualized natural resource objectives for a given site.
4.3. Circulation Design
Street and intersection widths, cul-de-sacs, parking, driveways, traffic calming measures, and even street
layouts can all be modified to reduce the amount of impervious surfaces. Compared with conventional street
layouts, LID roadways have lower maintenance costs, can increase safety through traffic calming measures, and
improve a community's appearance through roadway greening. New street designs can also affect the layout of
lots, which could increase the volume of open space, connect greenways, and protect sensitive natural features
(Foss, 2005: 3) and create win-win situations for builders, municipalities, and residents.
Vehicular and pedestrian circulation systems have always played an important role in organizing and
defining residential communities. Traditionally, residential or local streets have been designed with a focus on
accommodating community access, circulation, and parking. In the years after World War II, suburbanization and
highway construction grew at a rapid pace. As reliance on the automobile increased, transportation planners
identified the need for a hierarchy of safe and efficient transportation routes linking suburban residences with urban
employment centers, retail concentrations, and recreation opportunities. They developed a hierarchy of highways,
arterials, collectors, and local streets . Unfortunately, at some point during post-war suburban expansion, the
classes within the hierarchy blurred. Communities started to design local streets according to standards more
appropriate to arterial road and highway construction.. Many areas of the country saw pavement widths widened to
accommodate increased vehicle trips, ensure access for larger emergency vehicles, and provide parking spaces
on both sides of the street. The larger impervious areas created by wide streets have led to increased storm water
runoff, reduced water quality, and riparian habitat and species degradation (Nataluk and Dooley 2003: 79).
In fact a well-designed pedestrian and vehicular circulation system is critical to the success of a
development project. New designs for streets, sidewalks, and driveways can maintain the functions of circulation
while helping to reduce expanses of impervious surfaces that can alter local hydrology and degrade water quality.
In turn, new street designs can influence the layout of lots and help to increase the volume of open space in new
residential developments. When coupled with narrower, open-section streets, a well-designed street layout can
eliminate hundreds of square meters of impervious surface. Depending on the density, location, and type of
subdivision, different types of street layouts may easily lend themselves to a cluster arrangement, conserving
natural features, maintaining open space, and protecting water quality. So Low impact development practices can
help to alleviate these concerns

5. NON-STRUCTURAL LID ALTERNATIVE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

FOR URBAN CIRCULATION PLANNING, AND DESIGN

For LID sites, managing the imperviousness contributed by circulation design is an important component of
the urban planning and design process. Methods that can be used to achieve a reduction in the total runoff volume
from impervious surfaces are presented below:

5.1. Alternative Roadway Layout.

As illustrated in Figure 2, urbanization and increased impervious areas greatly alter the predevelopment
hydrology (USEPA, 1993; Booth and Reinelt, 1993).

Fig. 2. Impervious surface changes due to urbanization

Source: (FISRWG, 1998: 174)

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Traffic or road layout can have a very significant influence on the total imperviousness and hydrology of the
site plan. Figure 3 illustrates that the total length of pavement or imperviousness for various road layout options can
vary from 6340 linear meter for a typical gridiron layout to 4664 linear meter for a loops and lollipops layout.
Selection of an alternative road layout can result in a total site reduction in imperviousness of 26 percent (Prince
George's County, 1999: 30).

Fig. 3. Length of road layout and it's relation with Imperiousness

Source: (ULI, 1980: 8)

Constructing roads across steep sloped areas unnecessarily increases soil disturbance to a site. Good road
layouts avoid placing roads on steep slopes; by designing roads to follow grades and run along ridge lines (see
Figure 4). Steep site slopes often require increased cut and fill if roads are sited using conventional local road
layout regulations. If incorporated into the initial subdivision layout process, slope can be an asset to the
development (Prince George's County, 1999: 35).

Fig. 4. Roads placed along ridge lines preserve and utilize the
natural drainage system. Source: (Sykes, 1989).

Designs for residential roads generally fall into three categories: grid, curvilinear and hybrids. Figure 5
illustrates the grid and curvilinear road layouts and Table 1 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of the grid
and curvilinear approaches (Hinman, 2005:29).
The grid and curvilinear systems both have advantages and disadvantages. However, grid street patterns
with alleys have one large drawback in the LID context: grids typically require 20 to 30 percent more total street
length than curvilinear patterns. Recently, planners have integrated the two prevalent models to incorporate the
strengths of both. These street networks have several names including open space, hybrid, loop road design and
headwater street plans (Figure 6) (Hinman, 2005:31). Hybrid layout design can minimizes impervious road
coverage per dwelling unit, provides adequate turning radius for fire and safety vehicles, provides through traffic
flow with two points of access and also provides a large bioretention area in the center of the loop. In fact in hybrid
layout, open space in the center of the loop can provide storm water storage, a visual landscape break for homes
facing the road, and a creative example of integrating a regulatory requirement with a site amenity. On the other
hand, the open space pathways between homes (green streets) can Provide a connected pedestrian system that
takes advantage of open space amenities and additional stormwater conveyance and infiltration for infrequent,
large storm events.

Table 1. Strengths and weaknesses of the grid and curvilinear approaches.; Source: (Hinman, 2005:29)

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Fig. 5. Left: Typical grid road layout with alleys

Right: Typical curvilinear road layout with cul- de sacs
Source: (Hinman, 2005:30)

Fig. 6. Hybrid or open space, road layout

Source: (Hinman, 2005:31)

LID Alternative Design Considerations

 Cluster homes to reduce overall development envelope and road length.

 Narrow lot frontages to reduce overall road length per home (Schueler, 1995).
 Good road layouts avoid placing roads on steep slopes; by designing roads to follow grades and
run along ridge lines.
 The adjacent table provides suggestions on how to incorporate slope into lot layout and road
design to minimize grading and natural drainage way impacts (Prince George's County, 1999:35)

Table 2. Alternative road layouts; Source: (Sykes, 1989)

 In LID approach, using hybrid layouts is suggested. this type of site design, reduce
imperviousness by changing the cul-de-sac design, reducing street width and lot size, and instead

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clustering houses around common green spaces that also serve as infiltration sites and preserving natural
features.

Fig. 7. Using a hybrid or open space road layout

Source: (Hinman, 2005:33)

 Alternative road layout options use road plans that designate length of cul-de-sacs and the
number of branches of side streets off collector streets based on the existing ridge lines and drainage
patterns of a site: (Prince George's County , 1999:35)
o For areas with rolling terrain with dissected ridges use multiple short branch cul-de-sacs
off collector streets.
o For flat terrain use fluid grid patterns. Interrupt grid to avoid natural drainage ways and
other natural resources protection areas.

5.2. Urban streets and roads

Residential streets account for an enormous share of a community’s impervious surfaces. A reevaluation of
residential street standards to address the expanse of impervious surfaces and enhance the environment can also
reduce infrastructure costs, improve pedestrian and vehicular safety, and increase community aesthetics (Nataluk
and Dooley, 2003:82).
Reduced width road sections are an alternative that can be used to reduce total site imperviousness. Figure
8 shows a typical primary residential street road section and figure 9 shows a typical rural residential street road
section. The right of way width for both sections is approximately 18 meter. The width of paving for the primary
residential section is 11 meter wide and the section includes the use of curb and gutter. By using the rural
residential road section in place of the primary residential section, the width of paving can be reduced from
approximately 11 to 7.5 meter, which represents a 33 percent reduction in paved width. The rural section also
eliminates the use of concrete curb and gutter which reduces construction costs substantially and facilitates the use
of vegetated roadside swales (Prince George's County, 1999: 30).

Fig. 8. Typical primary residential street section; Source: (Prince George’s County, 1999:31)

Fig. 9. Typical typical rural residential street section; Source: (Prince George’s County, 1997:31)

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Where zoning and density allow, communities should permit open-section roadways with sidewalks on one
side of the roadway only. Open-section roadways consist of a variable-width gravel shoulder, usually wide enough
to accommodate a parked car, and an adjoining grassed swale that conveys storm water. Street pavements should
be adjusted accordingly depending on off-street parking availability and shoulder requirements (Nataluk and
Dooley, 2003: 82).
Alleys are also an important part of urban circulation design that can be incorporated into residential designs
to provide garage access and parking while accommodating functions such as utility maintenance and refuse
collection. Alleys can also alleviate the need for on-street parking, which can increase street widths and the
expanse of impervious surface.
Total site imperviousness can also be reduced by limiting sidewalks to one side of primary roads (Prince
George's County, 1999: 31). In LID approach, utilities should be located under street pavements to eliminate
conflicts with tree roots, grassed swales, and bioretention areas.

LID Alternative Design Considerations

- Reduced application of sidewalks to only one side of the primary roads (Prince George's County, 1999:
31)
- Reduce driveway width. The narrower streets have additional benefits as they help reduce traffic speed;
preserve land to make it available for other purposes such as food production, and open space; reduce urban
runoff; keep the neighborhood cooler in summer by absorbing less heat; and enhance the social life of the
community. The narrower streets allow the residents to treat the available open space as belonging to themselves
and hence taking care of its maintenance (Francis 2001:35).
- Design a bioretention swale or bioretention cell between the sidewalk and the street to provide a visual
break and increase the distance of the sidewalk from the road for safety (NAHB et al., 2001).
- Install sidewalks at a two percent slope to direct storm flow to bioretention swales or bioretention cells—do
not direct sidewalk water to curb and gutter or other hardened roadside conveyance structures (Hinman, 2005: 40)
- The driveway could be built using pervious pavers and gravel that in turn reduce the travel speed and
absorb the excessive runoff (Ghode, 2007: 164).
- Reduce imperviousness by using landscaping to break up expanses of impervious surfaces (Guillette,
2010:4).
- Using shared driveways whenever possible, but especially in sensitive areas. This may require a
subdivision waiver (Prince George's County, 1999: 32).
- Minimizing building setbacks to reduce driveway length (Prince George's County, 1999: 32).
- The green-shaded, narrow, dead-end streets save money on infrastructure, use less land, reduce urban
runoff, keep the neighborhood cooler in summer, and create a quiet and safe public area where neighbors meet
and children play” (Francis, 2001: 35).
- Vegetated pervious material should be used to pave the driveways leading to a reduction in runoff and
increase in travel time.
- Reduce cut and fill on the site by avoiding placement of roads and streets on steep slopes.
- Provide paths in open space areas to increase connection and access for pedestrians and bicyclists
(Ewing, 1996:11).
- Narrow lot frontages and cluster homes to reduce the need for more roads (Foss, 2005: 4).
- Other street design techniques include replacing conventional intersections with traffic circles around rain
gardens. This technique safely slows traffic, reduces runoff, and provides aesthetic benefits. A rain garden can also
be added to a cul-de-sac to achieve similar results (Foss, 2005: 4).
- Alleys should be the minimum width required for service vehicles, constructed of permeable paving
materials, and allow any surface flows to disperse and infiltrate to adjacent bioretention swales, shoulders or yards.
Strategies to reduce total impervious area associated with alleys include: (Hinman, 2005: 37)
o Maximum alley width should be approximately 3 to 3.65 meter with 4.25 to 5 meter right-
of-ways respectively.
o Several permeable paving materials are applicable for low speeds and high service
vehicle weights typically found in alleys including:
 Gravel pave systems.
 Permeable concrete.
 Permeable pavers.
 Systems integrating multiple permeable paving materials.

Fig. 10. Vancouver, BC Country Lane alley uses a combination

of concrete wheel strips, permeable pavers, reinforced plastic grid
with grass, and under-drains to attenuate storm flows and create an
aesthetic design objective.

Source: (Hinman, 2005: 37)

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Fig. 11. using multiple permeable paving materials;

Source: www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/agecon/WECO/lid-curriculum/chapters/01/01-intro.php)

- Sidewalks should be horizontally sloped to drain toward roadside grassed swales and away from front
yards. (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 92).
- Disconnect or break-up continuous or contiguous impervious surfaces – establish breaks and planting
strips in paved parking areas, roads, driveways and pedestrian/plaza areas (Washington State Parks and
Recreation Commission, 2009: 12).
- Increase the distance between the street and sidewalk to increase the likelihood that the grassy strip will
be able to capture and absorb sheetflow from the sidewalk (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 92).
- Create pedestrian routes to neighborhood destinations that are direct, safe, and aesthetically pleasing
(Foss, 2005: 4).
- Grade the sidewalk such that runoff drains toward the front yard and not the street.
- Several types of traffic calming strategies are used on residential roadways to reduce vehicle speeds and
increase safety. These design features also offer an opportunity for storm flow infiltration and/or slow conveyance
to additional LID facilities downstream (figure 12) (Hinman, 2005: 36).

Fig. 12. Combination stormwater management and traffic calming.

(Note: These areas are slightly lower than road surface). Source: (Hinman, 2005: 38)

- A variety of alternative pavements can also meet different traffic, regulatory, climatologic, and
aesthetic concerns. In addition to their environmental benefits, alternative pavements such as brick can
add visual appeal and character to residential properties. In recent table (table 3) functional comparison of
various types of alternative pavements is shown.
Table 3. Functional comparison of various types of alternative pavements

Source: (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003:93)

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5.3. Intersections
Intersections create large areas of impervious surface within residential subdivisions. Reducing the overall
size and width of intersections can decrease the volume of storm water runoff.
One of the best ways to reduce the impacts of impervious areas within intersections is to incorporate a
traffic circle into the middle of the intersection. A traffic circle in the center of an intersection serves a variety of
functions. First, it can slow traffic through the intersection and community, making the area safer for pedestrians
and vehicles. Second, storm water generated by the impervious areas of the intersection can be routed to a
bioretention area sited in the center of the traffic circle where it is detained and treated. Finally, traffic circles can
add character to a neighborhood and create visual interest along the streetscape (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 84).
Traffic circles are usually smaller than their counterparts, the traffic roundabout. While traffic circles are
more appropriate for lower-speed, smaller-volume residential intersections, roundabouts are better suited for
collector streets that serve higher traffic volumes. Generally, traffic circles are 4.6 to 6 meter in diameter and
require no additional street space than standard intersections. The center can be planted with a variety of native
plants that are well suited for harsher street conditions and whose root structures will tolerate periodic inundation
with water and provide superior nutrient uptake (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 84).

LID Alternative Design Considerations

- Certain traffic-calming measures, such as roundabouts or traffic islands, can be designed as vegetated
bioretention islands that retain and treat street runoff.
- Usually, a roundabout can raised and includes curbs and areas planted with grass or vegetation.
- The turnaround could be connected to the common trial running all through the site thus creating easy and
quick pedestrian and bike connection within the site (Ghode, 2007: 163).
- Where street grades allow, roundabouts can be converted into bioretention areas. Such Bioretention
areas can be bordered by either curb cuts or flush-mount curbs that allow water to exit an intersection efficiently
and enter the treatment system. Either treatment method allows for a transition between the street pavement and
vegetated and mulched areas (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 87).
- Slopes of the roads should steer runoff water towards the center of roundabout that can contain a natural
design pond or little pool for gathering and using rain waters. In such cases using under drains and/or emergency
overflow areas to prevent excessive ponding or flooding is vital.

5.4. Cul- De- Sacs

Dead end streets with excessive turn around area (particularly cul-de-sacs) can needlessly increase
impervious area. In general, dead end or cul-de-sac streets should be discouraged; however, a number of
alternatives are available where topography, soils or other site specific conditions suggest this road design
(Hinman, 2005:34). Also given homebuyer preferences for residential cul-de-sac properties, many developers try to
incorporate as many cul-de-sacs as possible into new developments (Nataluk and Dooley 2003: 84). Approximately
9.15 meter (30 foot) radius turnarounds are adequate for low volume residential roads servicing primarily
passenger vehicles (Hinman, 2005: 34). A 12.2 meter (40 foot) radius with a landscaped center will accommodate
most service and safety vehicle needs when a minimum 6 meter internal turning radius is maintained (Schueler,
1995). Cul-de-sacs with center vegetated islands can reduce the expanse of paved surface and treat the runoff
from the remaining pavement. Islands in cul-de-sacs should be designed as bioretention or detention facilities.
Either a flat concrete reinforcing strip or curb-cuts can be utilized to allow water into the facility.

Fig. 13. Comparison between the

Fig. 14. "T-" or "Y" or "Hammerhead"
standard (left) and the bioretention Cul-
turnarounds
de-Sac (right).
For dead-end streets serving fewer than ten houses, another option for reducing the expanse of impervious
surface is "T-" or "Y" or "Hammerhead" turnarounds (see Figure 14). These designs function much as cul-de-sacs
but, due to a reduction in the area of paved surface, cannot accommodate bioretention areas in their centers.
(Nataluk and Dooley 2003: 85).
The loop road or looped turnarounds configuration is another alternative to the dead end street and provides
multiple access points for emergency vehicles and residents (see figures 15). This kind of turnaround can be used
for providing access to a small number of lots while limiting the expanse of impervious surface. For similar
impervious surface coverage, the loop road has the additional advantage of increasing available storm flow storage
within the loop compared to the cul-de-sac design.

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Fig. 15. The loop road or looped turnarounds configuration

LID Alternative Design Considerations

- Where cul-de-sacs are used, provide pedestrian paths to connect the end of the street with other
pathways, transit or open space (Ewing, 1996: 12).
- Cul-de-sacs can be designed with center vegetated islands. As with intersections, the islands can be
constructed as bioretention areas that detain storm water and filter urban pollutants such as grease, oils,
hydrocarbons, and nutrients. For safety reasons, bioretention areas should be designed with underdrain and
emergency overflow systems that safely convey peak flows into conventional storm drains (Nataluk and Dooley,
2003: 84).
- Cul-de-sac designs with center bioretention islands should, at a minimum, retain approximately 5.5-meter
pavement widths around the island (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 85).

5.5. Parking
No other decision can affect the final width of streets and ultimately the generation of storm water runoff as
much as parking requirements (Nataluk and Dooley, 2003: 86). Reducing the amount of space for parking —
especially in suburban areas where garages and driveways typically offer more parking than needed — can have a
significant impact on reducing the amount of stormwater runoff. The land saved provides space for larger yards or
increased open space. Where parking is necessary, permeable surfaces such as porous asphalt and concrete,
gravel, or grass allow stormwater to be absorbed (Foss, 2005:4).
Reducing on-street parking requirements to one side, or even elimination of on-street parking altogether,
has the potential to reduce road surfaces and therefore overall site imperviousness by 25 to 30 percent (Sykes,
1989). Two-sided parking requirements are often unnecessary to provide adequate parking facilities for each lot
(Prince George's County, 1999: 31- 32).

Fig. 16. Left: 5.5 meter street with parking on one side.
Right: 6.7 to 8 meter street with parking on both sides.
Source: (National Association of Home
Builders et al., 2001)

LID Alternative Design Considerations

- Assess parking demand ratios to determine if ratios are within national or, if available, actual local ranges.
- Reduced On-Street Parking: Parking provided only on one side of the road has a potential to reduce
overall side imperviousness by 25 to 30 percent (Prince George's County, Maryland 1999: 31)
- Increase the amount of interior landscaping for parking lots devoting ten percent of all parking and loading
areas to interior landscaping, change dimension of parking spaces and aisles to allow at least 1.86 square meter of

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interior landscaping per parking space, or about twelve percent of a space, or plant one tree for every four parking
spaces minimizing the amount of unpaved land in a parking lot.
- Using pervious materials on new parking areas.
- The use of Bio-filters, or vegetated/grass swales are encouraged at the edges of parking lots to collect,
filter, and distribute storm water runoff from parking lots. Bio-filters should either be designed to accommodate
large storms, or have overflow storm drains where runoff from large storms may bypass the bio-filter and enter the
underground drainage system. Catch-basins can be used to direct runoff to the vegetated swales (Brooklyn
Planning and Zoning Commission, 2010: 19).

Fig. 17. A landscaped Island with LID

- Shared parking and grass paved overflow parking are other techniques to meet minimum parking
requirements.
- Use a diagonal parking stall configuration with a single lane between stalls (reduces width of parking isle
from 5.5 to 7.3 meter and overall lot coverage by 5 to 10 percent) (Schueler, 1995).
- Where density and land value warrant, or where necessary to reduce total impervious area below a
maximum allowed by land use plans, construct underground, under building or multi-story parking structures
(Hinman, 2005: 42).
- There are some parking design guidelines which have simultaneously LID effects; they are as following:
(Brooklyn Planning and Zoning Commission, 2010: 19-20)
o When appropriate and not detrimental to safety or commerce, parking lots should be visually
buffered from streets and adjacent properties using earth berms or landscape screens. Buffering
materials can include trees, shrubs, and fencing that matches the local character.

Fig. 18. Berms are a creative way to screen parking lots from the main corridor

o All surface parking lots should receive a perimeter/interior landscape treatment for visual
enhancement, pedestrian safety, guide circulation, shade, planting islands or raised beds, reduce
impervious surfaces, and erosion control.
o Surface parking lots should be screened in ways that allow buildings and landscaping to be the
primary focal elements viewed from the street.
o Protect end row parking from turning movements of other vehicles with curbed landscaped areas.
o Use concrete, stone or similar curbing to contain landscape materials and provide protection from
vehicles.

5.6. Drainage systems

The total site imperviousness has been minimized and a preliminary site plan has been developed,
additional environmental benefits can be achieved and hydrologic impacts reduced by disconnecting the
unavoidable impervious areas as much as possible (Prince George's County, 1999: 33).
Another important issue is the time of concentration (Tc). Tc in conjunction with the hydrologic site
conditions determines the peak discharge rate for a storm event. Site and infrastructure components that affect the
time of concentration include: (Prince George's County, 1999: 33)
 Travel distance (flow path)

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 Slope of the ground surface and/or water surface

 Surface roughness
 Channel shape, pattern, and material components

Wherever possible, LID designs should use multifunctional open drainage systems in lieu of more
conventional storm drain systems. To alleviate flooding problems and reduce the need for conventional storm drain
systems, vegetated or grassed open drainage systems should be provided as the primary means of conveying
surface runoff between lots and along roadways (Prince George's County, 1999: 36).

Fig. 19. Example of roadway bioswale Fig. 20. Minimal impact stream crossing. Locate
in urban area. abutments outside of active channel or channel migration
Source: zone. Cross at approximately 90° to channel to minimize
(www.werf.org/livablecommunities/tool shading and other disturbances.
box/gst_design.htm) Source: (Metro: 2003)

Road crossings place significant stress on stream ecological health by directing concentrated storm flows
and contaminants to receiving waters, fragmenting riparian buffers, altering hydraulics, and disrupting in-channel
processes. Culvert and bridge design that place supporting structures in the floodplain or active channel confine
stream flows (Hinman, 2005: 43).

LID Alternative Design Considerations

- Maximize overland sheet flow by maximizing the use of open swales and by not using slopes steeper than
10 percent, except for vegetated side slopes in combination with stone or concrete or highly resistant vegetative
center sections (Ghode: 2007: 105).
- To increase the time it takes for rooftop and
driveway runoff to reach open swale drainage
systems, bioretention facilities, along with infiltration
trenches, dry wells, or cisterns that are strategically
located to capture the runoff prior to its reaching the
lawn are used. In addition, strategic lot grading is
designed to increase both the surface roughness
and the travel length of the surface runoff (Ghode:
2007: 105).
- Use green street with storm water
filtration/infiltration in the centre median (Figure 21).
- Techniques that can affect and control the
time of concentration (Tc) can be incorporated into
the LID concept by managing flow and conveyance
systems within the development site are as
following: (Prince George's County, 1999: 33- 34)
o Increase and lengthen flow paths.
o Lengthen and flatten site and lot slopes.
1
o Maximize use of open swale systems.
o Increase and augment site and lot
vegetation.
- Limits maximum impervious surface
coverage per lot (Guillette, 2010: 4). Fig. 21. Green Street with Storm water
- Disconnecting the unavoidable impervious filtration/infiltration in the centre median Source:
areas as much as possible. Strategies for (Girling and Kellett, 2005: 110).
accomplishing this include: (Prince George's County,
1999: 33)

1
- Open swale. Earthen channels covered with a dense growth of hardy grass

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o Directing flows from paved areas such as driveways to stabilized vegetated areas.
o Breaking up flow directions from large paved surfaces.
o Carefully locating impervious areas so that they drain to natural systems, vegetated buffers,
natural resource areas, or infiltratable zones/soils.
- Design considerations for minimizing road crossing impacts include: (Hinman, 2005: 43)
o Eliminate, or reduce to an absolute minimum, all stream crossings.
o Where stream crossings are unavoidable, bridges are preferable to culverts.
o Locate bridge piers or abutments outside of the active channel or channel migration zone.
o Utilize the widest possible culvert design to reduce channel confinement.
o Minimize stream bank armoring and establish native riparian vegetation and large woody debris
to enhance bank stability and diffuse increased stream power created by road crossing structures.
o All crossings should be designed to pass the 100-year flood event.
o Cross at approximately 90 degrees to the channel to minimize disturbance.
o Do not discharge storm flows directly from impervious surfaces associated with road crossing
directly to the stream-disperse and infiltrate storm water or detain and treat flows.

5.7. Site and Lot Vegetation

Trees can shade homes, streets, parking areas, sidewalks, and paths, adding to the visual appeal of
communities and helping to reduce heat island effects. Trees can also be used as a stormwater management tool
in addition to providing more commonly recognized benefits such as energy conservation, air quality improvement,
and aesthetic enhancement. Tree surfaces (foliage, bark, and branches) intercept, evaporate, store or convey
precipitation to the soil before it reaches surrounding impervious surfaces. In bioretention cells or swales, tree roots
build soil structure that enhances infiltration capacity and reduces erosion (Metro, 2003). Appropriate placement
and selection of tree species is important to achieve desired benefits and reduce potential problems such as
pavement damage by surface roots and poor growth performance (Hinman, 2005: 44).
On the other hand revegetating graded areas, planting, or preserving existing vegetation can reduce the
peak discharge rate by creating added surface roughness as well as providing for additional retention, reducing the
surface water runoff volume, and increasing the travel time.
Developers and engineers should connect vegetated buffer areas with existing vegetation or forested areas
to gain retention/ detention credit for runoff volume and peak rated reduction. This technique has the added benefit
of providing habitat corridors while enhancing community aesthetics (Prince George's County, 1999: 38).

LID Alternative Design Considerations

- Direct runoff into or across vegetated areas to help filter runoff and encourage groundwater recharge.
- Provide dense vegetation cover wherever possible and temporarily use annuals for covering mild slopes
until permanent covers are established (Ghode: 2007: 105).
- Use native plants (or adaptable species) to establish an adaptable and low maintenance landscape that
requires less irrigation and are appropriate for the climatic conditions.
- When selecting species, consider the following site characteristics: (Hinman, 2005: 44-45)
o Available growing space.
o Type of soil and availability of water.
o Overhead wires.
o Vehicle and pedestrian sight lines.
o Proximity to paved areas and underground structures.
o Proximity to neighbors, buildings, and other vegetation.
o Prevailing wind direction and sun exposure.
o Additional functions desired, such as shade, aesthetics, windbreak, privacy screening, etc.
o Longevity or life-span (ideally a street tree will be “long-lived”, meaning it has a life span of 100
years or more. However, the longevity of a tree will need to be balanced with other selection
priorities).
o Tolerance for urban pollutants.
o Growth rate.
o Canopy spread and density (trees that provide a closed street canopy maximize interception and
evapotranspiration).
- Preserve, or design into the infrastructure, naturally vegetated areas that are in close proximity to parking
areas, buildings, and other impervious expanses in order to slow runoff, filter out pollutants, and facilitate infiltration
(Guillette, 2010: 4).
- Remove curbs and gutters from streets, parking areas, and parking islands to allow storm water sheet flow
into vegetated areas (Guillette, 2010: 4).
- Grade to encourage sheet flow and lengthen flow paths to increase the runoff travel time in order to modify
the peak flow rate.
- The front yards natural plants can be used for creating a landscape corridor up and down the street.

6. CONCLUSION

As discussed Low Impact Development is a new growing approach to environment friendly urban design
and planning. This article has attempted to make it clear and analyze the role of low-impact development (LID) in
sustainable site planning and design with emphasis on circulation design process. In fact as reconsidering
traditional methods for planning and accommodating pedestrian and vehicular circulation is part of a cadre of better
site design techniques and can simultaneously reduce development costs, protect the environment, and create

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win-win situations for builders, municipalities, and residents, this issue has be chosen as one of the most important
and affective elements of LID approach in urban design and planning process.
For this purpose it has reviewed and analysis the existing low impact development principles and strategies
to find some alternative design considerations which can help in creating a sustainable urban circulation design.
The integration of LID circulation design principles which is so practical in urban design and planning
process, results in a much clearer understanding of the concept of site-specific sustainability, as well as a better
grasp of how to steer the conventional development procedure closer to more sustainable site development
practices. The essence of this paper lies in guiding development towards more sensitive environmental practices
resulting in Low-Impact Developments.

At the end some different Low Impact Development challenges which can limit its broad use are listed as
following:

• Many municipal planners, consultants and the general public are unfamiliar with the benefits of LID
practices and how to utilize them in different environments.
• Usually there is no serious attention to environmental issues in developing countries and this kind of
approaches remains just as a theoretical research.
• Existing rules that guide the design and construction of new developments often lack the flexibility to
implement LID solutions. There is also a lack of proper zoning and land use planning within a city along with the
use of low-impact development principles.
• Mechanisms should be in place through which planners can evaluate the environmental consequences of
existing zoning ordinances and improve the scientific basis of future decision making in order to mitigate negative
effects of development in suburban ecosystems.
• Some LID tools require maintenance by homeowners and local public works departments to function
properly and this needs citizens educating and training programs.
• Use of filtration practices can threaten groundwater quality if high levels of soil contaminants are present.

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