Sedimentar), Geology, 51 (1987) 165-180 165

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., A m s t e r d a m - Printed in The Netherlands

GORDO MEGABED: A POSSIBLE SEISMITE IN A TORTONIAN

SUBMARINE FAN, TABERNAS BASIN, PROVINCE ALMERIA,
SOUTHEAST SPAIN

KICK KLEVERLAAN *
Geological Institute, Unwersity of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130,
1018 VZ Amsterdam (The Netherlands)
(Received January 16, 1986; revised and accepted June 10, 1986)

ABSTRACT

Kleverlaan, K., I987. Gordo megabed: A possible seismite in a Tortonian submarine fan, Tabernas
Basin, Province Almeria, southeast Spain. Sediment. Geol., 51: 165-180.

The mainly Tortonian sediments of the Tabernas Basin contain the elements of a well-developed,
small submarine fan. Synsedimentary unconformities and randomly intercalated megabeds in both
basin-plain and fan-lobe deposits indicate tectonic activity during fan growth.
One of the megabeds, the Gordo megabed, overlies dislocated and deformed fan-lobe and basin-plain
deposits. The megabed, with a thickness of up to 40 m, has a sheet-like geometry and consists of four
superimposed sedimentary units. Unit I is a matrix-supported conglomerate and contains reefal lime-
stone debris, metamorphic rocks and, mainly at its top, large slabs of ripped-up fan sediments up to 60 m
across. The irregular surface of the Unit is filled in by Unit II: a cobble-pebble conglomerate. This
conglomerate is covered by Unit III, a sandstone layer of 6 - 8 m thickness which grades into Unit IV. a
normal graded to massive mudstone. The extra basinal content of the megabed is conservatively
estimated at 0.9 k m 3, its total volume at 6 km 3.
From sedimentary structures and textures it is inferred that Unit I represents a deposit from a debris
flow, while Unit II consists of a complex mixture of deposits of debris-flow and turbulent-flow and Units
III and IV are deposits from a turbulent flow.
The megabed is interpreted to originate from a single catastrophic collapse along the basin margin.
Because of its exceptional volume, the sheet-like geomet~' and the random position within the fan
sequence the megabed is referred to as a seismite.
The depositional h i s t o ~ succeeding a tectonic triggering is envisioned as follows: the collapse of the
basin border evolved through stages of sliding and slumping into a debris flow; body transformation of
the debris flow produced turbulent flow. It is tentatively assumed that the debris flow outraced its
turbidite.

* Present address: Department of Earth Sciences, Free University, P.O. Box 7161, 1007 MC Amsterdam,
The Netherlands.

0037-0738/87/$03.50 ~? 1987 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

166

INTRODUCTION

Recognition of large mass-flow deposits which may cover almost an entire basin,
can be very difficult. This is a logical consequence of their thickness, which often is
in excess of the dimensions of the outcrop (see Figs. 5 and 6). Once recognized they
offer a powerful tool for basin analysis as they provide a unique basinwide marker.
Following Rupke (1976), beds that are exceptionally thick and have virtually
basinwide extent will be referred to as megabeds. Megabeds are known mainly from
modern deep-sea basins, which include among others: (1) the Grand Banks turbi-
dite; (2) Black Shell Turbidite; (3) Exuma Sound debris sheet and turbidites. From
the ancient basins only few megabeds have been described. Well known are (4) the
Contessa(-like) layers, and (5) the Eocene Hecho Group Megabeds. [(1) Heezen
and Ewing, 1952; (2) Elmore et al., 1979; (3) Crevello and Schlager, 1980; (4)
Parea and Ricci Lucchi, 1975; Ricci Lucchi, 1978; Ricci Lucchi and Valmori, 1980:
(5) Soler and Puigdefabregas, 1970; Ten Haaf et al., 1971; Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
1972; Rupke, 1976a, b; Johns et al., 1981].
This paper deals with a megabed, referred to as the Gordo megabed, intercalated
within sediments of a Tortonian submarine fan. Its striking features are the great
thickness of the bed (up to 40 m), underlying dislocated and deformed basinal
sediments, large intraformational clasts (up to 60 m across) and the vast extent of
the bed.

4. _~ , n5 FII...ABI~E,$ 4- 4- 4, + A]

c o n t i n e n t o l cg~s. t
EARLY ~4~OCENE (t4ESSmlAUJ

_ 41B~IJ~ g y p s u m deposits
2 EARLY MIOCENE (TORTONIAN)
contir~¢ntal an(:l m~rine cgls.~l
r~t fs, m r l s , turbid rtes, J

phyIlites, morbles ~>

PERiViO-TRIAS
b Ia CK SChists. gneiSSe~)
quartzites -4cb

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Tabernas area, showing location and distribution of the Gordo megabed
(black). N u m b e r s refer to localities of stratigraphic sections presented in Fig. 4. Position of paleocoast
and feederchannels are indicated. At the time of deposition of the Gordo megabed, the Sierra Alhalmilla
formed a submerged low relief (100-200 m), M a p is based on I G M E 1 : 50,000 series (1030, 23-42) and
author's own work.
 167

The aims of this paper are to describe the geometry of the megabed, its
composition and its vertical and lateral variations. From the sedimentary character-
istics of the megabed, depositional mechanisms will be inferred and the conclusions
therefrom will be discussed.
R E G I O N A L SETTING OF T H E G O R D O MEGABED

The Tabernas Basin is situated in the southeastern part of Spain and is one of the
intramontane basins of Neogene age in the Betic Cordilleras (Fig. 1). From the
Serravallian onwards the basin was formed by folding and faulting of the alpine
metamorphic basement. It was subsequently filled by Serravallian-Tortonian con-
tinental and marine sediments (Chozas Formation), Messinian marine sandstones,
marls and limestone reefs followed by gypsum deposits (Jacquin, 1970; Dronkert,
1976). At the end of the Messinian, uplift and erosion, which preceded the Pliocene
transgression, left a coarse clastic fan delta covering the older sediments (Postma,
1984). In the Tabernas area, the Chozas Formation contains littoral, slope and
submarine-fan deposits (Kleverlaan, 1982; Weijermars et al., 1985). The Gordo

STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF THE TABERNAS BASIN

Recent
Alluvial fan
conglomerates Pleistocene

200m Marine deltaic

conglomerates Pliocene
and mudstones
0
Gypsum

F Shallow marine sand

and mudstones
C
H Messinian
O
Z
Besinplain
A
turbidites
S and mud
F
O
R Late
M GORDO MEGABED Tortonian
A
Outerfan turbidites
T middlefan sandstone
I conglomerates
O Early
slope muds
N Tortonian

L Marine conglomerates
Alpine basement Serravallian

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Tabernas basin showing the position of the Gordo megabed. The
column is based on the stratigraphic succession near the centre of the basin (near location 4 on the
geological map).
168

megabed is intercalated in the submarine fan deposits, and is one of the oldest and
largest beds in a series of megabeds (Fig. 2).

DEPOSITIONAL SETTING OF THE GORDO MEGABED

Remnants of limestone reef complexes and abrasion platforms indicate a coast

fringed by coral reefs along the northern basin margin. The basin deepens toward
the south, according to a change in the plankton-benthos ratio of foraminiferal
assemblages. Foraminiferal assemblages further indicate a minimum paleodepth,
near location 3 of 600 m (Manuputty, pers. commun., 1982). This would imply a 6 °
paleoslope from the beach towards location 3. A southward-dipping slope is further
confirmed by vergence of soft-sediment slump folds in muds of a slope-facies
association (facies associations are in the sense of Mutti and Ricci LucchL 1972):
the distribution of facies associations: slope and innerfan in the north, outerfan and
basin plain in the south; paleocurrent directions measured from sole marks, clast
imbrication, foresets of ripples, and channel axis orientations - - which are predomi-
nantly towards the south and southwest; and a general decrease in grain size from
north to south, Tectonic instability of the basin is indicated by the following
features: in the Chozas Formation as a whole, individual beds (Fig. 9), and also
40-60 m thick packets consisting of up to 100 beds, have been severely disrupted
and dislocated; sliding and slumping phenomena occur in all fan-facies associations
(including the basin-plain association); megabeds are randomly intercalated within
the turbidite sequence, they do not overlie a thickening-upward sequence or underlie
a thinning upward sequence, and are not part of a channelized system.
The sediments that directly underly the Gordo megabed are deformed and show
features of sliding and slumping. This deformation decreases in magnitude down-
slope towards the south.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GORDO MEGABED

Geometry
The maximum thickness of the bed is 40 m. The megabed has been traced for
11.5 km in a north-south direction and from west to east for 17 km and was studied
in detail at several locations (Fig. 4). The total sediment volume of the megabed is
conservatively estimated at 6 km 3, taking its exposed width (17 km), exposed length
(11.5 km) and average (compacted) thickness (30 m). The volume of extra basinal
components is estimated at 0.9 km 3.

Sedimentary features
The Gordo megabed has been subdivided into four sedimentary units (see Fig. 3).
The sedimentary characteristics of the units are presented in Table 1. Lateral
variations (along current direction) of these features are shown in Fig. 4.
 169

unit IV M u d s t o n e

unit III G r a d e d sandstone

nit II C o b b l e - p e b b l e
conglomerate

~'1 unit I Matrix-supported angular.

boulder conglomerate

Fig. 3. Idealized complete sequence of Gordo megabed showing the four units described in Tablc I.
lntraformational clasts are black shaded and consist of basin-floor sediments. Extraformational clasts are
left in white; mainly schists and gneisses from the northern coastal zone. The matrix is mainly sandy
mud.

Description of units I-IV, and interpretation of the depositional mechanisms

Unit I

Geometry. Unit I has a m a x i m u m thickness of 30 m. The unit forms a sheet-like

deposit with an irregular thickness, alternately swells and almost pinches out over
distances varying from 50 to 1000 m (Figs. 5-7).

B e s i n w a r d - -

s~w .
fanfrln9~ outer fanlobe o u t e r fanlebe outer tanlobe
NNW
5 ~llpl3srt s 4~ 3 lobe fringe 1

~ o5
Lo~;©0g

. . . . . . . . .

unit I unit II bnft I11 unlt~ IV ~

10

Om
outer fonl¢
deposes

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic columns of the Gordo megabed. Underlying deposits reflect increasing distance from
source from lower slope to basin plain. Numbers refer to localities given on the geological map in Fig. t.
170

TABLE 1
Sedimentary features of the Gordo megabed
Unit I Unit II Unit III Unit IV
Fabric Chaotic or matrix- Matrix- or clast- Grain supported Grain supported
supported supported
Matrix content Sand and mud Mud
Maximum-, mean diameter of 3 m, 30 cm 30 cm, 3 cm 3 cm
the extraclasts
Maximum-, mean diameter 60 m, 4 m 2 m, 20 cm 20 cm, 2 cm
of thee intraclasts
Grading Non, or inversely Poorly graded
Poorly to well Normally graded
graded graded
Internal stratification Diffuse whirls Undulating, para- Horizontal and Massive, some
llel or none ripple sets vague lamination
Fluid-escape structures Possibly'? Some mainly Abundant in T b
pipes and T~,;dish and
pipe structures
Lower bounda~ Erosively cutting, Filling-up the Undulating Flat
loadcasts and large irregular, upper
mud-flames; complex surface of unit I
mixing with slumped
substrate

Composition and fabric. U n i t I is a b o u l d e r c o n g l o m e r a t e s u p p o r t e d b y a m a t r i x of

s a n d y m u d . It c o n t a i n s gneisses, quartzites, b l a c k schists, slabs of reefal l i m e s t o n e
a n d shell debris. These c o m p o n e n t s are all a n g u l a r to s u b - r o u n d e d . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
the c o n g l o m e r a t e c o n t a i n s virtually u n d a m a g e d Pecten, Balanus a n d o y s t e r remains.
T h e m e t a m o r p h i c clasts have an u p p e r size limit of 3 m a n d are evenly dispersed.
V e r y large clasts (up to 60 m across), consisting of severely d i s t o r t e d basin
s e d i m e n t s (intra-clasts) occur p r e f e r e n t i a l l y n e a r the t o p of unit I. These clasts
p r o t r u d e , giving unit I a rugged u p p e r surface. T h e s a n d y m u d m a t r i x increases
b a s i n w a r d from 15 to up to 70 vol. %.

Beddingplane and internal structures. Overfolds, i n t r u s i o n s (flame-structures) a n d

l o a d structures often occur at the base of the unit. O c c a s i o n a l l y large-scale u n d u l a t -
ing b a n d i n g occurs. This b a n d i n g is visible b y the presence of aligned clasts parallel
to this b a n d i n g , a n d in some instances b y f i n e r - g r a i n e d levels. T h e unit does n o t
show a n y grading, a p a r t from the p r e f e r r e d p o s i t i o n of the larger intraclasts.

Interpretation of the depositional mechanism. Clasts " f l o a t i n g " in a m u d d y m a t r i x

a n d the lack of g r a d i n g are suggestive for d e b r i s flow. Preservation of delicate fossils
a n d i s o l a t e d b l o c k s p r o j e c t i n g f r o m the t o p of the b e d are ( a c c o r d i n g to Enos, 1971)
i n d i c a t i o n s of l a m i n a r d e b r i s flow. T h e large p r o t r u d i n g intraclasts, which have a
 171

5 4 3 mex. diem. 2
I , , of intraclest II
I i
~ ~ matrix in vol. 0/0 /
abrupt transition / //
f " 11 111 gradual transition / / 90m
rom Umt - from Unit 11-111 / ~I_
lower part lower p a r t ~ ~
Unit 111 laminated sst Unit 111 massive sst ~ /

60
~ ~ IVII I 15°/o

30

Basinward Om

I 9kin i

Fig. 5. Reconstruction of the geometry, parallel to flow of the Gordo megabed. Prominent features in
down-current direction are decrease in size of the intraclasts, decrease in distortion of underlying
sediments, increase of matrix content (up to 70%), loss of the massive lower part of unit III. Numbers
refer to localities given on the geological map in Fig. 1.

much lower density than the metamorphic clasts, indicate buoyancy as an important
support mechanism, at least for the intraclasts. On the other hand, the even
dispersion of the metamorphic clasts seems indicative of support by matrix-strength
during a late state of flow, while at an earlier stage of flow-dispersive pressure may
have been responsible for the even distribution of the metamorphic clasts.
The finer-grained levels and the clast alignment, both defining the vague banding
in the conglomerate, may indicate zones of shear. The finer-grained levels may be
produced by the dispersive pressure acting on the grains in such zones (Bagnold,
1954). The banding may point to freezing of discrete layers and differential
movement of these layers within the conglomerate bed in a late stage of flow (cf.
Postma et al., 1983; see also Fig. 6).
Downslope increase of matrix volume and decrease in size of the intraclasts may
be due to progressive abrasion of these intraclasts and incorporation in the matrix,
as Howell and Link (1979) suggested. However, delicate shells remain unbroken, so
settling of the metamorphic clasts may have contributed to the increase in matrix
volume.

Unit H
Geometry. The thickness of unit II varies from 0 to 4 m. Unit II fills up the irregular
surface of unit I (Fig. 8).
172

Fig. 6. Location 4. Matrix-supported unit I conglomerate. Arrows indicate thin finer-grained layers
formed by early post-depositional sheafing of the bed. Flame intrusion occurred after the shearing
stopped as the shear zones abut against the flame. Hereafter the deposit as a whole underwent ~onle
left-lateral movement. Flow was from fight to left. Outcrop dimensions only allow exposure of unit I.
Note: geologist for scale (ringed).

Composition and fabric. U n i t II is a c o b b l e - p e b b l e c o n g l o m e r a t e . Clasts are of the

s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n as in unit I. T h e unit d i s p l a y s m u d - s u p p o r t e d as well as
c l a s t - s u p p o r t e d levels. I n general the m e t a m o r p h i c clasts show n o r m a l g r a d i n g a n d
the less d e n s e i n t r a c l a s t s are n o t graded. T h e m e t a m o r p h i c clasts are t y p i c a l l y one
o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e smaller t h a n the intraclasts.

Bedding plane and internal structures. T r a n s i t i o n f r o m unit I to unit II is g r a d u a l a n d

n o n erosive. I n t e r n a l structures are greatly v a r y i n g a n d m o s t l y o n l y m a d e visible by
p a r a l l e l o r i e n t a t i o n of the intraclasts (e.g., p a r a l l e l to the u n d u l a t i n g b e d d i n g plane),
s t r e a m l i n i n g a r o u n d large ctasts or d e l i n e a t i n g semicircular patterns. I n t e r n a l struc-
tures m a y also b e t o t a l l y absent.

Interpretation of the depositional mechanism. Lateral v a r i a t i o n s in fabric a n d struc-

tures of unit II seem to occur at r a n d o m . F o r e x a m p l e they are not related to a
p r o x i m a l versus distal c h a n g e in d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d therefore it is
i m p o s s i b l e to infer one unique d e p o s i t i o n a t m e c h a n i s m . M u d s u p p o r t a n d clast
 173

Fig. 7. Location 2. Upper part of unit I ( l ) with a large partly exposed clast consisting of slumped layers
of lobe fringe deposits covered by graded sandstone unit III (3) and mudstone unit IV (4). The basal
conglomerate is exposed updip across the river, and is not visible on the photo. Flow was from left to
right.

a l i g n m e n t i n d i c a t e l a m i n a r debris flow while g r a d i n g a n d clast s u p p o r t m a y i n d i c a t e

t u r b u l e n t flow. T h e unit p r o b a b l y represents n u m e r o u s t r a n s i t i o n s from l a m i n a r to
t u r b u l e n t flow.

Unit III

Geometry. U n i t I I I has a rather c o n s t a n t basin-wide, thickness of a b o u t 5 m.

Composition and fabric. U n i t I I I represents a n o r m a l l y graded, g r a i n - s u p p o r t e d

s a n d s t o n e sequence.

Bedding plane and internal structures. T h e base of the unit is slightly u n d u l a t i n g a n d

its c o n t a c t with the u n d e r l y i n g unit II varies (distally to p r o x i m a l l y ) from g r a d a -
t i o n a l to a b r u p t . T h e lower half of the unit is structureless p r o x i m a l l y , while distally
it is l a m i n a t e d . A t some locations, the lower half of unit III d i s p l a y s thin ( 5 - 1 0 cm)
zones consisting of p a r a l l e l - o r i e n t e d , elongate intraclasts. T h e u p p e r half of unit I I I
shows repetitions of slightly u n d u l a t o r y l a m i n a t i o n s a n d sets of c l i m b i n g ripples,
r e s e m b l i n g B o u m a B - C - B - C sequences. A t some l o c a t i o n s these sequences m a y
t r u n c a t e w a t e r - e s c a p e structures (A- a n d B-type pillar structures a n d dish struc-
174

tures; Lowe, 1975). In turn, w a t e r - e s c a p e structures often d e s t r o y all i n t e r n a l

structures.

Interpretation of the depositional mechanism. The a b s e n c e of m u d a n d t h e n o r m a l

g r a d i n g c o m b i n e d with the l a m i n a t i o n s a n d c l i m b i n g - r i p p l e sets are suggestive of
t u r b u l e n t flow. T h e massive structureless lower half o f the unit p r o b a b l y reflects
s u s p e n s i o n s e d i m e n t a t i o n f r o m a heavily l o a d e d (highly c o n c e n t r a t e d ) t u r b i d i t y
current, while distally its a b s e n c e reflects progressive d i l u t i o n of t h e flow by
s e d i m e n t a t i o n . T h e repetitive sequence of B o u m a divisions m a y p o i n t to an oscilla-
t o r y decline of the flow regime of the d e p o s i t i n g c u r r e n t ( R u p k e , 1976). T h e
c l i m b i n g - r i p p l e sets p o i n t to swift s e d i m e n t a t i o n from a n o v e r l o a d e d t u r b u l e n t flow
( K u e n e n , 1967). R a p i d s e d i m e n t a t i o n is also i n d i c a t e d by the s y n s e d i m e n t a r y
w a t e r - e s c a p e structures.

Unit I V

Geometry. U n i t I V has a b a s i n - w i d e thickness of 2 m.

Fig. 8. Location 2. Transition zone (unit II) between the basal matrix-supported conglomerate (unit 1~)
and the graded sandstone (unit III). Depressions between the intraclasts, which stick out from the top of
the conglomeratic unit I, are filled by unit II: a conglomerate which here displays grading of metamor-
phic extrabasinal components and no to poor grading of the components with less density: the intractasts
(light-coloured on this picture). Unit II grades into massive-graded sandstone (unit III). Flow away from
observer obliquely to left. Note: hammer for scale.
 175

Composition. The unit is a normally graded or massive siltstone.

Beddingplane and internal structures. The base of the unit is flat and the transition
from unit III to unit IV is very gradual. The unit is mainly structureless with vague
laminations occasionally occurring in the lower half. Burrows are present only at the
top of the unit.

Interpretation of the depositional mechanism. The gradual transition from unit Ill to
unit IV, and the normally graded bed, indicate deposition from the waning
turbulent flow which also deposited unit III; thus the unit would represent the
Bouma D, E t and Ep devisions. Burrows at the top of the unit indicate deposition as
a single bed rather than long-sustained normal pelagic sedimentation.

The following features suggest that the Gordo megabed was deposited during one
major event: the megabed as a whole is normally graded; there is no erosion
between units I and II; hemipelagic or bioturbated intercalations are absent; the
exceptional occurrence of the deposit and its sheet-llke geometry covering different
units of the fan complex.

Fig. 9. Location 2. Two slumped layers of lobefringe sediments. Lower layer is almost completely
homogenized. The slumped upper layer is composed of six t u r b i d i t e - m u d couplets. Deformation is not
due to loading as can be inferred from the thin turbidites that erosively cover the beds. Therefore it is
suggested that this p h e n o m e n o n represents tectonically induced synsedimentary deformation of the
basinfloor.
176

In summary

The megabed contains superimposed deposits from debris flow (unit I) and
turbulent flow (units III and IV), while unit II seems to be transitory between debris
flow and turbulent flow. The exceptionally large volume of the megabed may have
been deposited in a single event. Proximally, large-scale deformation of the sub-
strate occurs immediately beneath the megabed (Fig. 5).

DISCUSSION

The origin of the megabed

The following data indicate an origin from the littoral zone: the metamorphic
clasts are from the Nevado-Filabride complex which indicate transport from the
north. Reefal limestones and littoral fauna indicate a shallow marine origin. The
upper size limit of the metamorphic clasts indicates sorting which may have
occurred in the littoral zone before transport to their present site.
A basin-margin collapse along an active fault may account for the absence of a
point source for the megabed.

Sediment transport

Heezen and Ewing (1952) and Hampton (1972) envisioned a sequence from
landslide through debris flow to turbidity current. As discussed earlier, the Gordo
megabed probably originated from the collapse of the littoral zone. Deposition
largely bypassed the basin slope as can be inferred from the almost complete
absence of the megabed in slope sediments. Incorporation of water probably
increased flow mobility (Hampton, 1972), whereas the successive break-up of
incorporated muddy basin sediments increased the cohesive strength of the flow.
These factors, combined with the momentum of the large sediment mass. explain
the basinwide extension of the debris-flow deposit.

Volume

Clasts derived from beyond the basin comprise 0.9 krn3 of the total volume. Since
the megabed is inferred to have been deposited in a single event, instant mobiliza-
tion of a slab of coastal r n a t ~ a l would have been required. For example a slab
occurs with dimensions of 17 km parallel to t h e coast (the width of the megabed
outcrop), 1500 m toward the coast and 35 m thick.

Triggering mechan&m

Earthquakes have been involved as the triggering mechanism for many slumps,
debris flows and turbidites (e.g., Heezen and Ewing, 1952; Seed, 1967, 1968:
 177

Kastens, 1984). The resulting deposit, a seismite, has a number of characteristic

sedimentary features according to Mutti et al. (1984). The Gordo megabed fits their
description of a seismite: (1) it probably has been deposited in a single event; (2) it
has an anomalous thickness and volume; (3) it occurs as a random intercalation
within and across the basin plain and deep-sea sequence; (4) it comprises a very
distinct sheet-like deposit; and (5) it is not the result of a long-lived channel-lobe
turbidite system. Moreover, as stated before the basin was tectonically unstable.
Therefore a tectonic event seems a more probable cause for the initiation of the
G o r d o mega bed than, for example, slope failure through overburden. Slope failure
after a eustatic sea-level drop also seems unlikely, as a sea-level drop would have
changed the distribution of fan sedimentation patterns; they are the same im-
mediately below and above the megabed.

Deformation of the substrate

Figure 3 shows that the substrate immediately below the megabed has been
dislocated and deformed. As can be inferred from the order or superposition, this
deformation could be the direct result of the same earthquake that initiated the
megabed. As suggested by Seed (1968) this earthquake simultaneously could have
caused a wave of liquefaction in the fan sediments. The oncoming sediment mass
may have further deformed the liquefied sediments. A similar process of deforma-
tion is described by Prior et al. (1984) from a submarine debris flow resulting from a
delta-front slope failure in Kitimat, British Columbia. Based on acoustic profile
data and volumetric calculations, they concluded that large areas and volumes of
sea-floor sediments appeared to have been put into motion due to loading and
pushing of the delta-front sediments. Furthermore, remoulding and incorporation of
the soft bottom sediments of the fjord into the debris mass, resulted in destruction
of the original sea floor.

Geometry

Prior et al. (1984) observed in a modern submarine debris flow that parts of the
debris lobe were composed of complex, low-relief hummocks and undulations, with
some indication of irregularly shaped segments bounded by shears. These findings
are in agreement with the swelling and pinching-out geometry of unit I.

Repetitive Bouma sequences

Murty (1979) described large oscillations in water level, with waves of maximum
range (crest plus trough) of 8.2 m, which lasted about one hour after the 1975
submarine slide of Kitimat Inlet in British Columbia. This slide only contained
3 × 1 0 6 m 3 of sediment, its dimensions being estimated at a height of 24 m and a
178

length of 305 m, at an average water depth between 119 and 146 m. The inferred
dimensions of the Gordo slide (35 × 1500 m) suggest that large water oscillations
must have occurred after the initiation of the slide. Possibly this wave action
mobilized nearshore sediments. Subsequent basinward transport may account for
the repetitive Bouma sequences which indicates a surging flow behavior. Surging
may also have been caused by lateral migration of the mass flow, waves of different
concentration within the flow maximum, or retrogressive flow slide if the slide scar
repeatedly caved-in up slope (Andresen and Bjerrum, 1967; Shaw and Archer, 1977;
Picketing, 1979; Postma et al., 1983). Rupke, (1976), Ricci Lucchi and Valmori,
(1980) and Pickering and Hiscott, (1985) proposed rebounding of a turbidity current
against a slope dipping in an up-current direction. This cannot be the case with the
Gordo slide as (up to now) no reversals in interpreted current directions have been
found.

Debris flow- turbidite sequence

Hampton (1972) found in experiments that, at the head of a debris flow, mixing
of water is capable of generating a turbidity current. On theoretical grounds he also
suggested turbidite generation by the mixing of water directly into the body of the
debris flow (surface transformation; Fisher, 1983). Flume experiments show a
lateral relationship of the deposits from the debris flow and its turbidite. The
megabed, however, shows a turbidite that overlies the debris flow deposit, and not
merely the tail of turbulent flow as is suggested by the massive sandstones in the
proximal part. As discussed above, rebounding of the turbidity current against a
slope dipping in an up-current direction is unlikely. The debris flow never overlies
the turbidite deposit, therefore it is tentatively suggested that the debris flow
outpaced the turbidite. A similar explanation has also been suggested for deposits in
modern basins by Crevello and Schlager (1980) and Kastens (1984). A debris-flow
deposit with a turbidite on top has been described by Crevello and Schlager (1980).
In the Exuma Sound (Bahamas) they observed that the turbidity current, after 150
km of travel across the basin floor still had a minimum thickness of 130 m. The
resulting turbidite deposit has a basin-wide thickness of 2 m. Likewise the turbidity
current of unit III may have been very thick relative to the thickness of the debris
flow. Drag, resulting from body resistance at the head of the turbidity current, may
have outweighed the gain in viscosity of the turbidity current with respect to the
debris flow. Possibly the effect of return flow of the watermass, which was deplaced
by the mass flow, may have decelerated the turbidite cloud.

CONCLUSIONS

Gordo megabed is inferred to result from collapse of the northern basin margin.
The megabed shows all the features of a seismite. As the basin was tectonically
 179

mobile during fan sedimentation, an earthquake may have triggered the basin
margin collapse. According to its sedimentary features the megabed is composed of
a debris-flow deposit with a turbidite on top. The debris flow extensively deformed,
remoulded and incorporated sea-flow sediments within it. Intriguing is the super-
position of the debris flow deposit with a turbidite on top instead of the juxtaposi-
tion one would expect on the basis of experiments. It is tentatively proposed that
the debris flow outfaced its turbidite. Their sheer size often prohibits recognition of
composite megabeds.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. George Postma and Drs. Thomas B. Roep for their
helpful criticisms of the manuscript. This paper greatly benefited from their com-
ments and suggestions. The paper represents part of the author's D. Phil. Thesis
supervised by Th.B. Roep and Prof. Dr. W. Schlager.

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