¢ATENA

ELSEVIER Catena 21 (1994) 99-129

Element concentration and formation of ore deposits

by weathering
Ida Valeton 1
Geologisch Paldontologisches lnstitut und Museum, Universitilt Hamburg, Bundesstraf3e 55, D-2000
Hamburg 13, Germany

Abstract

Most important supergene ore or mineral deposits are those of AI, Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Co, and
residual minerals: Au, PGE, REE, Nb, W, Sn, Cr, Ti-minerals, phosphates, diamond. During
earth history, directed trends of weathering are observed which depend on the following
parameters: tectogenesis and morphogenesis, and evolution of the atmosphere and the bio-
sphere. Several - - at least three - - cycles of weathering can be distinguished during Early
Precambrian, Late Precambrian-Paleozoic, and Meso Cenozoic times. The weathering cycle
of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic times is described here. Each weathering cycle starts under special
world-wide conditions which are marked by monotonous and flat relief, by greenhouse effect,
and by an initial lateritic sequence followed by increasing differentiation of the weathering
sequences.
The initial lateritic weathering provokes the main process of rock decomposition developing
profiles with a thickness of several tens of metres. The vertical and lateral variations of the
profiles and, therewith, the quality pattern of ore deposits mainly depend on:
1. morphology and drainage during the initial weathering; low drainage activity which causes
very thick saprolites with a lower smectitic and an upper kaolinitic zone. Optimal drainage
restricts saprolite evolution favouring the formation of thick Box-horizons;
2. lateritic cementation by chemical displacement and neoformation of textures during a
progressive stage of lateritisation;
3. Mid-Tertiary to Quaternary changes of climate and morphology produce a laterite
degradation, followed by erosion and/or resedimentation accompanied by mainly lateral,
mechanical and/or chemical displacement of element or mineral concentrations.
The evolution of laterites on parent rocks with preconcentration of certain elements leads to
their destruction and reorganisation of geochemical provinces in new supergene element
associations by relative or absolute enrichment creating special supergene geochemical
provinces.

i Present address: Auf dem Heinberg 56, D-21438 Brackel, Germany.

0341-8162/94/$07.00 ~ 1994 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

S S D I 0341-8162(93)E0033-V
100 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129

I. Introduction

Weathering comprises all processes of rock- and mineral alteration at the surface of
the earth which take place in contact with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the
biosphere. It includes mechanical, chemical and biological processes interacting in
time and space with each other.
Lateritic types of paleosols developing supergene ore deposits - - are: controlled
by an element preconcentration in the parent rocks, by special climatic periods during
earth history with a greenhouse effect allowing intense lateritic weathering during
limited time intervals, and by times of a world-wide tectonic setting leading to

Mean global Mean global

temperature precipitation Intensity Of bauxite formation
present present
c ~ [ : w a r m dry wet
MQ
Quaternary J ~ [
1 8 - -
Pliocene i -~ (
Miocene I' - J///~
J
Ol,g;&n~ -: |
/ r%c
Eocene
Pa~ocene ~ = ={-
65
retaceous ' i

3uraSs~c 1 I
4
Triasstc .-~Thikhvin bauxite
225 •" , ~ J / l ~ r s t bauxtte
Permian
--~ Carl:x3niferous:
-.~ ~
Devonian
_
,ilurian I \
! ' Lateritic bauxite
mdowc ian r
<~6 C:ambrian
c570 = I 1 1
10 100 1000
1000~ Mt/Mo
/
/ j

2000j

3000!-
!

i
%
\

4000 !
I
460O 1

Fig. I. Generalized temperature and precipitation curves of the Phanerozoic and the distribution of bauxite
in time (completed after Frakes, 1979); cross-ruling indicates the most favourable climatic periods for
laterite and bauxite formation (Bardossy and Aleva, 1990).
 1, Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129 101

peneplanation processes at the earth surface which permit the evolution of ore-bear-
ing weathering cycles (Fig. 1).
Lateritic soil profiles dominate during times of intense supergene rock decomposi-
tion by extraction of silica and related chemical elements. Their formation is espe-
cially well developed on land surfaces under synchronous peneplanation. Dependent
on the ground-water conditions, a laterally differentiated catena can be developed.
Intense chemical weathering leads to a relative element concentration in one place and
to an absolute accumulation of stable elements or depletion of mobile elements and
their concentration in other places. In the course of such a weathering cycle, generally
three different modes of element concentration can occur:
- Residual enrichment (relative enrichment) of elements which have a lower
chemical mobility than others which are removed by leaching processes (in-
situ deposits). Besides absolute accumulation of elements within in-situ profiles
are abundant.
Absolute accumulation of relatively mobile elements frequently takes place
outside of the in-situ profiles (laterite-derived chemical sediments).
- Mechanical redeposition of material which was individualized due to its high
chemical stability (heavy minerals, clays, pisolites, and clasts of weathering
products) leads to laterite-derived clastic sediments.
The most important supergene ore or mineral deposits are those of AI, Fe, Mn, Cu,
Ni, Co, and in-situ residualminerals (placer): Au, PGE, REE, Nb, W, Sn, Cr, Zr, Ti-
minerals, phosphates, diamond. Beside this sedimentary clays, oolitic Fe- or Mn-ores
may be of high economic value. Many well preserved deposits were formed during
End-Mesozoic-Cenozoic time. The preservation of older deposits is highly relictic
and thereby only of sporadic preservation (Section 6).

2. Processes of element concentration during weathering

During the initial phase of lateritic soil-formation, processes of continuous dissolu-

tion and recrystallisation of the lateritic minerals under preservation of relic textures
of parent rocks prevail. The high mobility of elements during this initial phase
produces a continuous sequence of mineral neoformation. The very high porosity
(20 to > 60% pore space) resulting from the dissolution of weatherable minerals can
be decreased by synchoneous or later cementation. The subsequent phase of soil
degradation leads to a destruction of Al-oxihydrates, Fe- and Mn-minerals and to
a vertical collapsing of the weathering profiles initiating a mechanical displacement.

2.1. Initial in-situ profile

The initial lateritic weathering is the main process of rock decomposition develop-
ing profiles with a thickness of several tens of metres. Supergene mineral alteration
during ferralitic weathering is characterized by a clear vertical soil zonation showing
several distinct horizons which build up an initial in-situ-profile (Table 1).
102 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129

Table 1
Vertical subdivision in soil horizons

soil horizon main minerals

Box-horizon zone of oxides or oxihydroxides of A1, Fe,

-- lateritic iron oxidation Mn, Ni (in goehtite), phosphates
crust or bauxite

Btr-horizon zone of layer silicates, e.g. kaolinite,

saprolite reduction smectite, talc, serpentine,
Ni- and Cu-layer silicates

B/C-horizon zone of native metals, e.g. Ag, Cu, sulphides,

transition zone cementation sulphates, carbonates of Cu, Ni, REE,
layer silicates, Mn-oxides, silica

C-horizon alteration
- fresh parent rock along joints

Parent-rock mineralogy and stability of supergene minerals produce main or

important ore deposits in the various weathering horizons. The processes in the
saprolite are characterized by break-down of mafic minerals, feldspar and foids
under reducing conditions and by pseudomorphic neoformation of oxidic iron miner-
als and kaolinite, and in the lowermost part under bad drainage, of smectite, chlorite
and maghemite. Well preserved relic textures and high porosity are typical. The
oxidation zone (bauxite as an example) is formed by break-down not only of primary
minerals, strong corrosion of quartz and other stable minerals, but also by decom-
position of layer silicates. Neo-formation of several generations of either hematite or
goethite, neomineralisation of gibbsite and, in case of intense neo-formation of
texture, also cortex formation as boehmite or diaspore take place. The primary
texture disappears step by step. Cementation lowers the porosity.
Lateral variations of the profiles and, therewith, evolution of a vertical and lateral
quality pattern of ore deposits are mainly depending on the morphology and drainage
during the initial weathering. Low drainage activity causes very thick saprolites with a
lower smectitic and an upper kaolinitic zone. Optimal drainage restricts saprolite
evolution favouring the formation of thick Box-horizons resting directly above the
parent rock. Lateritic cementation by chemical displacement and neoformation of
textures (spongy, dense, pisolitic etc.) which take place during progressive stages of
lateritisation, also influence quality parameters.
Bauxites p.e. formed under different tectonic situations and therewith, under var-
ious conditions of morphology and drainage during initial weathering, they present
good examples for the vertical and lateral differentiation of the profiles. Fig. 2 shows,
from the left to the right side, bauxites formed in uplifted areas with an underdeve-
loped saprolite due to optimal drainage conditions above the ground-water level; in
the middle, a well zoned profile with either a smectitic or a kaolinitic saprolite covered
by a thick Box-horizon showing a vertical separation of a zone rich in aluminium and
 1. Valeton/Catena21 (1994) 99-129 103

Q
A

ground-water
A
enrichment of ~ B. . o. x. (. f. e + , ~. . .,. . ". , j ,' &
,, - - z . . . . . . . i"z r / / / / / / / 2 - ~ A table
rno~n e l e m e n t s C v v v v v v v v
o~o, ...'~i*....-.........~......-........~..'.:-:_~__~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~. . . . ~oO--_-o-% 0o, o,....._-:...._.:...:-.:
.o-.-.-*--- ...-~
:.:..~
0~13

moin e4ement s
v e r t i c a l Q n d IGterQI
removoI ~ Fe. SL Fe
hr~pregr~Qt~o ~" GW--

v e r tlcQI d i f f e r e r 4 i Q t ] o n
of QlterQtlOn p r o f i l e weok extreme good weo, k

direction of ct13~noge downward rnQin[y u p w a r d uDwQrd

rnoin[y relic - rnQin[y rleoformatior~ n~,nly neofor•atlon

textures rr~j nty n e o f o r m o t i o n
- m~:lirty relic

gt,go ( h e ) - he, ko - k,3.(he)

mineroiogy - c~i ( b o , d 0
- KC, - kdl(di, bo)

Fig. 2. Relationshipbetweenground waterand type of alterationprofile(after Valeton, 1983). (l) formation

of bauxite at various levels above the water table, without separation of AI and Fe; (2a) low-silica bauxite
and (2b) high-silica bauxite; top of the section near the surfaceof the ground-waterlevel; strong separation
of A1 and Fe: (3) formation of ftintclay below ground-waterlevel by total extraction of Fe.

a zone rich in iron which is formed near the ground-water surface; and at the right
side, a profile which evolved below the ground-water table with only a thick saprolite
and no Box-horizon above.

2.2. Degradation of in-situ profiles and resedimentation of laterite-derived material

Climatic and tectonic changes can induce an overprinting of laterites leading to

their degradation, erosion and/or resedimentation of laterite-derived material which
are accompanied by mainly lateral, mechanical and/or chemical displacement of
elements or minerals. The hydrological and climatological conditions of the initial
evolution oflateritic profiles are interrupted by tectonic movements, and degradation
of lateritic profiles in a changed environment starts (Fig. 3).
The destabilisation of the ferralitic mineral association leads to the destruction of
the lateritic in-situ profiles. Relative enrichment of quartz, heavy minerals, kaolinite,
and silica takes place. The normally hard and compact Box-horizon is transformed
into a residual breccia and finally into a soft soil material. It is covered by the actual
top soil.
Accompanying leaching and/or mechanical erosion produce chemical or mechan-
ical, laterite-deriving sediments.
Mainly chemical sediments are formed:
1, On carbonate platforms and on platforms with sandstone clay association or
104 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129

recent solt
residual layer
.~:v..:.!?]~j~ ~ rich in quartz and heavy m,nerals
..:.- :y-" O" - ' . . . " . ' . . ' : : : . .
eluviat horizon
)" " -.o,,~ ,..':~6.
~ ~ ~ fractured bauxite, direct glbbS;tisation,
~/~//7~./-~t~ ~ ~
g~ ~ . ~ ' / ~ , YK.~Q//~L~, ..~"t'~,~ ~ matrlx-kaol nite 9oethite

~ ~ / ~ ' ~ , ~ / hematite and goethite

.~
0 ~
U

Fig. 3. Model of the polygenetic history of the ferralitic weathering profiles of the Cataguases region/Brazil.
The profile shows, in the middle part, the bauxitic Box-horizon passing downwards into the fresh parent
rock without a saprolite in between. The actual bauxite distribution is found in relictic inselbergs with slopes
covered by several generations of talus material. In the top part, the former massive bauxite is destructed
into a residual breccia by a subsequent soil-forming process (bauxite degradation). It is covered by a soft
yellow material and topped by a dark podsol profile (Valeton, 1985).

on basalts. Examples are flintclay, bauxites, manganese ore (Postmasburg/

South Africa).
2. On unconformities with calcretes. Examples are: uranium deposits in Yeelarie/
Yilgarn/Australia, REE-lanthanide in Curitiba/Brazil.
3. As precipitations by g r o u n d water. Examples are silcretes (Australia, South
Africa), Au, R E E (Australia).
Mainly mechanical sediments occur as residual and heavy-mineral deposits (var-
ious types o f Au, PGE, W, Sn, diamond, REE, Nb, Cr, Zr, Ti), smectite--kaolinite
bauxitic material, oolitic iron and manganese ores, phosphate-pebble ores (Florida,
Bone Valley Formation).

3. |n-situ deposits

3.1. B a u x i t e s

Bauxite originating from all kinds o f rocks with a content o f more than 15 weight
% o f A120 3 has got the m a x i m u m o f its formation during the End-Mesozoic Early
Tertiary times (Fig. 1) with a second m a x i m u m during Miocene-Pliocene times
(mainly on basalts). The oldest bauxites are k n o w n from Late Proterozoic and a
clear peak o f bauxite formation is observed during Upper D e v o n i a n Carboniferous
period. The tectonic frame leads to the destinction of three types of bauxite deposits:
 I. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129 105

bauxites formed in uplift areas, bauxites formed on subsiding platforms, and bauxites
on platforms over carbonate rocks or as intercalation in clastic rocks. Grubb (1973)
and Hutchison (1983) proposed similar subdivisions. Grubb used the terms high-level
or upland bauxite and low-level peneplain-type bauxite for the two first types of
bauxites, because the two types of bauxites are formed on peneplained land surfaces
and were subsequently tectonically dislocated in high- or low-level positions.

3.1.1. Bauxites in uplift areas

They occur on various rocks like charnockitic basement,basalt, alkaline rocks,
gneisses, phyllites. They are developed on peneplained or hilly half-orange land
surfaces mainly of End-Mesozoic to Lower Tertiary in age, but also as "low quality
bauxite" on Miocene basalts. They can form continuous blankets, but normally, the
younger erosion cuts down the surface in inselbergs.
The bauxites of SE-Brazil are taken as an example (Valeton et al., 1991). The initial
evolution of the vertical profiles depends on drainage conditions: well drained top

Locality 6, Section (Pit) 1660 (parent r o c k ; amphibolite)

(m) Sample Ng.
¢ ,
i

i
i i

. i
• : '~ D

~ ~Dh

i
i f
• I
i t

I ;i

I~ r o 20 ~.o 6~3 0 s0 100

o jolnt fillings oS]021Ai203AP-e203(wt, Oto) Kd]neral composition (wt.%)
6'}'/.'
TiO 2 (Wt.°lo)

Fig. 4. The evolution of a typical bauxite profile, its texture elements, its chemistry and its mineral
composition. The profile corresponds to an entire bauxite profile without saprolite below: in a badly
drained area, a saprolite below the bauxite can be developed. Cataguases area/Southeast Brazil (Beissner,
1989).
106 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129

areas of the half-orange hills or border areas are characterized by a lack of saprolite.
Bauxite is directly formed from fresh rock; kaolinitic saprolite becomes intercalated
with decreasing drainage (Figs. 2 and 3). The whole profile shows well preserved relic
textures indicating a direct one-step transformation of the parent-rock minerals into
kaolinite and goethite in the saprolite and into gibbsite and goethite in the bauxite.
The goethite contains up to 33 mole % AIOOH. Stable relic minerals (heavy minerals
or quartz) are always present.
The further postbauxitic uplift, connected with an environmental change, provokes
the degradation of the lateritic bauxite leading to polygenetic profiles. New climate
and drainage conditions lead to the instability of gibbsite and iron minerals and to
their dissolution, to a relative enrichment of silica and layer silicates. The strong
dissolution favoures the formation of residual breccias grading topwards into soft
soils (Fig. 4). Descendent and lateral mechanical illuvation and chemical mobilisation
produce an upper eluvial horizon and infiltration and cementation in the actual
groundwater level. Times of strong erosion interrupted the process of soil formation
several times. Recent soils cover the bauxites (top soil) (Fig. 3).

3.1.2. Bauxites on subsiding platforms

Subsiding platforms, in the outer part covered by marine sediments, form several
tens of metres thick lateritic weathering profiles in the terrestrial and marine-terres-
trial parts of the platform. Bauxite-bearing lateritic weathering profiles evolve on
various types of parent rocks (metamorphic rocks, basalts, alkaline rocks, sedi-
ments). Large bauxite deposits occur as bauxite belts along the new-formed oceanic
coast lines which are built up during the Mesozoic in Australia, Indonesia, India,
parts of Africa, Brazil (Fig. 5).
As these platform borders are submitted to a contemporaneous tectonic activity,
the formation of the bauxite belts does not correspond to quiet times but to times of
mobility. The formation of in-situ bauxites and associated laterite-derived sediments
is connected with tectonic activities and related marine trans- and regressions. The
weathering crust is therefore attacked by synchronous strong changes in the ground-
water level (rise during transgressions), by reworking of laterites and by redeposition
of laterite-derived material as laterite-derived facies (LDF).
The Gujarat peninsula in the western part of India is a well studied area (Valeton
and Wilke, 1993). It is shown here as an example of the seaward-tilting trap basalt, the
in-situ laterite bauxite formation on its top (time of transgression), the reworking of
laterites in the continental hinterland, and the redeposition of L D F in the seaward
foreland, its renewed in-situ bauxitisation on top of the L D F (Figs. 6A and B). In the
marine terrestrial transition zone, several sequences with in-situ bauxite horizons can
follow in vertical direction.
The weathering profiles are characterized by a very distinct vertical zonation of
clearly limited soil horizons (Fig. 7). The transition zone at the base is marked by
chloritisation and serpentinisation of the mafic minerals. The saprolite, a zone of
reduction, can be subdivided by the character of its content in layer silicates and by
the reprecipitation of the mobilized iron. There is a lower smectitic saprolite with
neoformed maghemite-hematite and still a high content of silica, alkaline and earth
 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129 107
70 75 60 85 90
I -I I 1 I

..~, ~.
3o e~" ~" 6%, 30

Delhi
n

25 _¢¢, e., 2s
,7 ,.'.7::.:.?,
°o z" " " ~"""i~ ~'"~ ~- " ..............
o~ ,,~?:.~ :.: :.:.:.T ,.<'.b~.-' " ""~¢' I

/ "~.b:. . . " . . . : - . ..,-_

/ ~......., : :.::::::::" './"
I , ....,.....,..... ,,..~,
, t4j .,...........:.{. ~..~

// "~

0O // ~ [-[]T~ AreQ of younger

• erosion
0 ~ ~ Tertlory, monne
c~o° • Eo = Eo cene

tt • • Bauxite Deposit
10 ~ Deccon TrQp ~o

0 100 500 km
1 i i

70 75 80 85

Fig. 5. Distribution of the Lower Tertiary bauxite belt on trap basalts and on sedimentary Lower Cretac-
eous on the Deccan peninsula and in Gujarat, partly recovered by marine Eocene or Miocene (map of the
Geological Survey of India, Valeton, 1983).
108 1. Valeton/Catena 2 l ( 1 9 9 4 ) 9 9 + 129
N

CA)

[i = ill 'ill
I I 1 I I Hiocene limestone
Ii I I I I
{I. :I t
d I ~1 I I { I I
i ' oreyclaystones

¢ "'"'"" ........ "" "'"'" " ' 1 ..... bright claystones.

~: root horizons
¢ ,ip i , , l l l H I I m l . . I'I*I'.,,-|-,UL.--r lel~*

i11 +oo+,+
bauxite
kaolinitic
- saprolite
-- - - m_

-~ ~- --" "-'- Laki

-- -- -- -'- -'- shales
I ~ ~ 19m

~ ~ ,ontic shale . . . . . . . . . , . . . v:.. 6m

- ,, • :.-.:_......:

_" ~ ~ :+. clayey sandstone ~:i~

I o o 0 O " ~ . . . . . . . ~--

o •
-:- : :° :: o~r. cayo,con,lo°era';~+ I . . . . . .
o 0 -- • '
I,+'o;.
ttllilt . +
III iron crust
I section 2

+ " l;i!! i! G]l --++oo.o°,:

o+-
- - ~ - - O - - saprolite, kaolinitic.
partly with boulders

- • " ."
- . : . ~ 2 : ~_ smectitic saprolite

~: :. ~.,, :; ;." :; altered Trap

v v v v v v v Trap basalt
V Y V V V V V

eneralized section 1 {B)

Ratsrdia river section
 I. Valeton/Catena21(1994)99-129 109

HORIZON HINERA L S TEXTURE

" local synonyms ' and other cnaracterlshcs

ferricrete new-formed t
hi(Jhl) porou~ ,a,er~ou~ r~(1 ro o~r. , e 0
B o, t~ j_rS%- 52,_L,_- . . . . . .

new-formed t
Q,~oP~, r f u,d~ r ;~.~,I~ ~re{ciaTed
ox at ' bauxite "' re(;(l i ~a ~,ngle 9ra,ns
porous hard r e d d l s h - b r o w r ?etlow, cream

- ~ ~-i-- kaolinitic saprolife vesicular f

~/~
L OX l~ifh nests of lerr,(refe . aiu{refeJ
.~ae • , , d ~of~ • hl,d
/ ' transition - zone "

kaolinitic sapro[ite wn,le ~olr o n~e pa, tl~ e d

Bt~ reLic f ~ Lo~,, ~a,.,

• tithomarge ..

. smectitic saproLite relic t.

gree~ 9re? ~I~(,~ . ; ' ~ ~o~gue

B~"rs ~ '" b e n t o n i t e "

B / C ,,, ,s-', altered ~vfv i v ~ ~ ru~b1~ d~rW greT

: ~ parent rock
v F' t r a p - b a s a l t ")

[ ~ ~v fresh

Fig. 7. Type section of a bauxite-bearing laterite and saprolite over basalt on down-warping platforms and
its pronounced vertical zonation (Wilke, 1987). Genetically, the soil horizons belong to one profile with a
lower clayey (t) and reducing zone (r) and an upper oxidation zone (ox).

a l k a l i n e earths. It grades i n t o a n u p p e r k a o l i n i t i c saprolite c o n t a i n i n g h e m a t i t e a n d

goethite ( a n d also genetically m u c h y o u n g e r precipitates). T h e saprolite shows a
perfect p r e s e r v a t i o n o f the relic t e x t u r e s . T h e oxidic B o x - h o r i z o n is vertically s u b d i -
vided i n t o a lower white to yellow gibbsitic h o r i z o n a n d a n u p p e r ferricrete built u p o f
gibbsite or k a o l i n i t e a n d m a i n l y o f h e m a t i t e - g o e t h i t e as i r o n m i n e r a l s .
A m u l t i s t e p m o b i l i s a t i o n o f i r o n a n d a l u m i n i u m c r e a t e d a large variety o f neo-
f o r m e d textures like dense, s p o n g y , vesicular, or pisolitic. T h e A l - r i c h cortex o f
pisolites is n o r m a l l y f o r m e d b y b o e h m i t e a n d , to a lesser extent, by d i a s p o r e . T h e
g o e t h i t e c o n t a i n s u p to 30 m o l e % A 1 O O H . Fig. 8 p r e s e n t s the m a i n c h e m i c a l corn-

Fig. 6. (A) Schematic profiles of the Upper Mesozoic sediments and trap basalt, with three bauxite-bearing
laterites (see crosses), covered in part by transgressive marine nummulitic limestone (Eocene). Note
faulting, tectonic, southward inclination during Eocene, land erosion and sediment transport from north
to south in Kutch/India. (a) Strong reworking of the lateritic cover in the north and southward resedimen-
tation as LDF (laterite-derived formation as "Laki" sediments) on the subsiding shelf. (b) Bauxite forma-
tion in several subsequent sequences on the kaolinite-bearing Laki sediments, due to continuous tectonic
uplift. (c) Subsidence and marine transgression from the south (Wilke, 1987). (B) Standard profile of the
three subsequent weathering sequences I, II, III) at the Indian land surface in the Ratadia river section,
Kutch, not to scale (Iwanoff, 1985).
110 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129

Weight %
Si02

Rare frequent
boehmite- forrnation

Fig. 8. Triangular diagram representing the chemical composition of the different horizons of the laterite
bauxite profile, and the effectsof the chemical processes, Gujarat, India (after Valeton, 1972).

position of the different soil horizons, showing the separation of silica, iron and
aluminium. Economically important amounts of trace elements can be enriched
together with aluminium, like titanium, gallium, germanium, gold, and others.

3.1.3. Bauxites on carbonate platforms and bauxites intercalated in clastic sediments

This type of bauxite - - partly named karst bauxite - - is wide-spread in the
Mediterranean and in the West-Indian part of the world. The bauxites are connected
with platform evolution in the orogene mountain chains and in other tectonic mobile
shelf areas. They occur as intercalations in carbonate sediments and on top of clastic
sediments during the Mesozoic-Early Cenozoic time in the Mediterranean and dur-
ing the Miocene-Pliocene in the Caribbean. The parent materials for bauxites are
laterite-derived sediments from elevated hinterland lateritic surfaces. They may be of
various consistence: colloidal, fine to coarse elastic or pisolitic, or may even contain
large boulders. Bauxites are formed from L D F deposited on nonkarstified platforms
in the former marine and on karstified limestones in the terrestrial areas. The tectonic
mobility is responsible for karstification, for the distribution- and facies pattern of
L D F and for intensity and type of diagenetic transformation of L D F into minable
bauxites.
A model for the paleogeographic situation in Central Greece during nickel-laterite
evolution on ophiolites and bauxite formation on laterite-derived facies covering the
carbonateplatform of the foreland, was worked out by Valeton (1985). In the Meso-
zoic coastal area from the land to the seaward side in several sequences, bauxite events
occur, which are each related to a transgressive phase (Fig. 9). The relationship
 • [ amla
EO~OE4
~ " CEN.~RAL GREECE

~z o
km ~ Amftk
0=501o0 ;:~:~.ego':~-',.,~,~'*"~
E

upper ?
CRETACEOUS ~ B 3-
lower
•. , 4 . . . B 2 < ~
upper
JURASSIC ~ ..... B l - - LEGEND
~ower
PROFIL/SURFACE
~ FE-NI- LATERITES / AUTOCHTHONOUS 4~
-'q REGRESSION
~,- TRANSGRESSION LATERITES ALLOCHTHONOUS, FREQUENTLY
~ TRANSFORMED INTO IN- SITU BAUXITES
I
SILCRETES

F7] BAUX,TES
B1-B3 B3
CRETACEOUS- JURASSIC LIMESTONE

[~ OPHIOLITES
. ~ I:'~ FOSSIL RIVER SYSTEM

~ TALUS M A T E R I A L

Fig. 9. Model of sequences of marine re- and transgressions during Jurassic and Cretaceous times on a carbonate platform of the alpine orogene in Central
Greece and Euboea. The bauxite formation is related to the coastal areas and to the times of beginning transgression. During three times of regression and uplift
of the terrestrial hinterland, the laterites on ophiolites and surrounding rocks were reworked in the northeast and deposited as "laterite-derived facies" (LDF) in
the southwest. Due to the rise of the ground-water level during the subsequent transgression, the L D F was transformed into bauxite. Marine carbonate
sequences represent the m a x i m u m of the transgression (Valeton, 1991).
112 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 9 9 - 1 2 9
Envlronmento! units
continent sea

1~12t 3 ,415,6, 7 ~, 9
l
, to , II

~._~
Million years
0 - -- ~uat
n a r y~r -
Oliocene Pannonian
I~;ddle
2 0 - Miocene Lower
C h a t t ian
- Oh'gocene.Rupel/an
x x x-------~ J ~ e e
0- ~ Pr/ebon;on
Lutetian
Cu '5ia n
ornoc l'an .
60 Poleoeene Montian
~ n/an .
tt-lchtlon
JP h o ~ NagYt;'rkfnY
Camponian
dO Sonton/an
Coniacion
Turonian r # ! ~
I00 ~ Cenoman/an
Albion
Apt~an
Barrern;an
220 HauterJvian
Valanginion

Bert~as;an
2~(/ - llthonton
K/rnrner/dg;qn
Oxfordian
760 -
ca Col(arran
"~ i B a t h onion
- ~ Bajo~ia~
",~o[enloc
7~0 - ~, : Toarc/on
I L P~/ensboch;on
_j ~ E,/nemur,on
[ I Hettan~I/an
200 J ~ R'~oet,'&-
| ~ LNo,.;a~

Fig. 10. Diagram showing the connection between sea-level changes and bauxite formation duringthe
transgressive phase -- on the carbonate platform of Hungary (Haas, 1984).

between tectonic activities, marine transgressions and the time of bauxite formation
for the Hungarian bauxite deposits is given in Fig. 10.

3.2. Kaolinitic saprolite

The alteration of both igneous or sedimentary rocks produces weathering profiles

with a thick kaolinitic saprolite which forms important in-situ kaolin deposits
 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129 113

(Fig. 2). Diagenetic transformation of LDF under intense leaching and extraction of
iron leads to hard high-Al clays with a conchoidal fracturing which are called flint-
clay. Kaolinitic clays and flintclays are an important raw material for ceramics and
high temperature refractory material.

3.3. Lateritic iron ores

On iron-rich parent rocks lateritic weathering can produce a significant additional

concentration of iron due to the leaching of silica. The economically most important
occurrences of supergene altered iron ores, mainly on the Precambrian banded-iron
formation, are in the CIS, Brazil and Australia, followed by India, Canada and the USA.
The oldest alteration is shown by Morris (1985) and others to be about 2000 Ma
old, followed by folding, faulting and partly deep erosion. The mineralogy of the
preexisting BIFs was extremely monotonous, composed mainly of a quartz-magne-
tite. Following Morris (1985), the typical Hamersley deposits consist of a high-grade
ore with well preserved relic textures. It was folded and partly eroded and cut by a
Late Mesozoic land surface. Three major periods of supergene iron-ore formation are
suggested, around 2000 Ma, Middle Late Proterozoic to Late Cambrian, and Meso-

content moin elements

30 40 50 BO ?0 60 90 tO0
; G oct h~le. I I t I ] I

2O
Hemollte
Mognel~le LO
Gibbsite

Hematite,
Goothite.

Quarlz.
Hemolile.
K~llnhe
~oelh,tel

Hemot,te,
,~ga tl

Fig. 11. Weatheringprofile on a Late Mesozoic planationplain over BIFs, its main mineral composition
(left) and its chemical composition (right), profile Joao Pereira, Iron Quadrangle/M.G. Brazil (Weggen,
1986).
114 I. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129

Cenozoic. Examples of lateritic iron ores as boulder and pebble in Late Proterozoic
conglomerates are preserved in the Hamersley iron province, Australia, in Brazil and
Goa/India.
During Late Proterozoic and Paleozoic times, a second period of deep weathering
attacked these ore bodies. The third world-wide significant weathering event is related
to land surfaces belonging to the End-Mesozoic-Early Tertiary times. The alteration
profiles are characterized by surface-related mobilisation and extraction of silica (Fig.
11, right) and by attack and break-down of hematite. This zone corresponding to
saprolites in other laterites, is a friable, soft, mainly hematitic iron ore with well
preserved relic textures (Fig. 11, left). It is topped by a zone of strong leaching and
oxidation of iron leading to increasing amounts of goethite with topward increasing
Al-content, associated with traces of kaolinite, gibbsite and Al-phosphates (Fig. 11,
right) The topmost part forms a residual breccia, also called "canga" or carapace.
High quality iron ores form the raw material for the iron industry, low quality iron
crusts can be used for construction of roads, buildings and bridges.

3.4. Manganese laterites

Similar to iron the secondary concentration of manganese is strongly controlled by

a preconcentration in parents rocks. Manganese laterites are mainly formed on the
following types of Precambrian manganese parent rocks, on (1) banded high-tem-
perature manganese oxides, (2) Mn-carbonates (rhodochrosite) and (3) gondites
which are highly metamorphic Mg-silicate-bearing rocks with braunite, tephroite,
rhodonite, spessartite, (4) rarely Mn-sulphides with alabandite, hauerite.
Manganese laterites are developed on the Lower Tertiary land surface of Africa
over Precambrian rocks: Upper Volta, Congo, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Ghana
(Grandin, 1976; Grandin and Perseil, 1983), on the Brasilian shields: Lafaiete,
Amapa, Azul (Beauvais et al., 1987), Bahia, and the Guiana shields, and on the
Precambrian of the Deccan shield in India. The weathering profiles described by
Grandin (1976) and Nahon et al. (1985), which are formed on gondites of the
Ivory Coast (Fig. 12) or on metamorphic schists, show a clear vertical subdivision
of lower zones, comparable with the saprolite and of upper hard and compact zones
of a residual block or gravel layer. The 10 to 30 m thick profiles can be vertically
subdivided into a:
- manganiferous pebble layer,
hard manganiferous crust at the top,
soft oxidized layer underlain by a
clayey saprolite, and
fresh parent rock (gondite).
Weathering starts with a decomposition along structurally and mineralogically
weak zones and with the degradation and pseudomorphous replacement of the
dark minerals. The saprolite develops a lower, reduced clayey, greenish-grey transi-
tion layer. The textures of the parent rocks are well preserved by the outlines and
pseudomorphous replacement of their minerals. There tephroite, manganocalcite and
 I. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129 115

Manganiferous
pebble layer

Hard manganiferous Manganiferous pebble

crust layer layer mixed with
quartz, in the lower
part large blocks (>30 cm)
m
of manganiferous crust

Soft oxidized
layer
Hard manganiferous
crust layer

Black zones
Ochreous to
black zones

clayey saprolite of
vanous thickness with
reServed relic
xtures

Transition layer
parent rock
altered parent rock
Tephroite
Gondite

Fig. 12. Evolution of a lateritic weathering profile over gondite and over schists, rich in manganese (Nahon
et al., 1985).

chlorite weather into a mixture of Mn-oxihydroxides and kaolinite, topped by an

upper oxidized black to ochreous soft zone o f several metres.
The following mineral association with increasing weathering on gondites was
observed:

I II lII IV
nsutite nsutite
primary Mn minerals todorokite cryptomelane
lithiophorite
manganite
birnesite

On rhodochrositic parent rocks in Azul area/Carajas, Brazil, the following succes-

sion o f alteration minerals can be observed: rhodochrosite > cryptomelane(1) >
muscovite nsutite(1) > kaolinite pyrolusite > cryptomelane(2)-nsutite(2)-ramsdel-
lite > cryptomelane(3)-lithiophorite.

3.5. Nickel laterites

Nickel laterites are related to ultramafic parent rocks and their serpentinized
Table 2
Typical composition of a theoretical profile. Data given here are indicative (Troly et al., 1979)

Formation Colour Specific Moisture MgO SiO2 Fe203 a AI203 Cr203 Ni Co Alteration
gravity (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) stage (%)

Iron-crust Black-red 3 5% 0.1 1 75 6 5 0.3 0.01

Red limenite Ochre 2.2 20% 0.6 1 72 6 3.5 0.9 0.08
Yellow limenite Yellow 1.9 40 50% 2 3 70 5 2 1.4 0.10
Earthy ore Brown 1.7 35% 16 30 32 2 2 2.0 3.0 0.15 5
t~a
Soft saprolite Brown 1.8 2 25 30% 21 35 23 1.5 t.2 2.3 0.08 4
Ore with Brown to 2 2.4 22 25% 28 39 17 1 1 2.5 0.05 3 4
boulders yellowish
Rocky ore Pale grey 2.4 2.6 18-20% 33 43 12 0.6 0.7 3 0.02 2 3
green I
Fresh rock Greenish 2.6 3.2 5% 45 44 8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.01 0-1

aAll iron is given as Fe203.

 I. Valeton!Catena 21 (1994) 99 129 117

alteration products possessing elevated contents of the siderophile elements Cr, Ni,
Co, which occur in sulphides, spinels, olivines, pyroxenes, and other mafic com-
pounds. Most important mining areas with high Ni-reserves are: New Caledonia,
Canada, CIS, Indonesia, Cuba, South Africa, Australia, Greece, and the
Phillippines. Cobalt is of importance as a by-product. Primary nickel cobalt mineral
associations are concentrated in greenstone belts of the Precambrian shields, the
alpine-type ophiolitic belts, and basic alkaline rock complexes.
Mineralogically, two types of supergene Ni/Co-ores can be distinguished, deriving
from primary sulphides or from ultramafic rocks with nickel silicates.
In this context, only one example of supergene nickel ores on alpine-type ophiolitic
belts with ultramafic rocks and their serpentinized alteration zones will be presented.
the ore bodies are connected with the distribution pattern of ultramafic belts in
Southeast Asia, New Caledonia and Australia. These belts are related to the
alpine-type mountain chains and became folded, uplifted and exposed during differ-
ent times after their intrusion. In the European Mediterranean area, those massives
were already exposed during Jurassic or Cretaceous times. The exposition of most of
the Southeast Asian massives dates from Lower to Upper Tertiary or even Quatern-
ary times. Thus these laterites can be rather young.
A representative profile for the vertical zonation of the soil profiles is a nickel
deposit in New Caledonia (Fig. 13, Table 2). It indicates a very irregular parent-
rock surface, a tansition zone overlain by a saprolite of 30 to 40 metres in thickness
and with well preserved relic textures. The oxidation zone is built up of It yellow to red
goethitic material followed by a resiual, brecciated zone rich in layers or lenses of
pisolites, boulders and cemented material. The nickel content in the fresh parent rocks
is mainly related to spinels and to nickel-bearing silicates like olivine and orthopyr-
oxenes.
In the saprolite containing only traces or local parts of kaolinite, the dominating
group of layer minerals are nickel-bearing serpentines beside some talc, chlorites and
smectites. In the saprolite phyllosilicates represent the most important Ni-ore with a
Ni-content rising to 2 to 3%. Brindley (1978) called the Ni-bearing phyllosilicates
Depth [m]
0 Iron crust
Pisolites

10 Red limonite

,-~-~--~ Yellow lirnonite

Earthy ore
20.
Soft saprolite
Ore with boulders

i
30,

f:-S~. ,, Rocky ore

40"

Fresh peridotite
50. J 'l Bed rocl

Fig. 13. Evolution of a nickel laterite with a lower saprolite and an upper oxidic (limonitic) zone and its
chemical composition. New Caledonia (Troly et al., 1979).
118 1. Va~ton/Catena21(1994)99-129
with the end members pimelite, nepouite, serpentine, and kaolinite the group of
garnierite minerals.
In the oxidic zone, the nickel is related to goethite, and Schellmann (1978) proved
the isomorphic replacement of iron by nickel in the lattice of the goethite. The Ni-

Sulamericono plain

Y//t'," .~. . . . . ~. , , Vv'/////

sp
•. • :.:, ..-v. -...--..;7:;.,.~.;:..-....~...-=::..:'-.....~;.%:.-"..',2 "-'.~:'.,..~;. ':....%'. '.' .'::'.::.:- . .

sp

" v v v ~ v v v v ~ v v Vv v ~ v ~ 3

sp
/
/ ~

I;' ~ "

sp

"' ~h.._ vp

"//}/vv.,v
// --
vV v v W ~ v v e ~ "~ v v ,v//
~vr,~

Nickel L o t e r i t e
Silcrete ~ r e p r e c i p i i o f i o n of Fe
Saproli'te ~ "- 'lransportaiion o'f Ni

Fig. 14. Successive steps of formation of supergene nickel ore on serpentinized ultramafic rocks in Brazil
since the formation of the Lower Tertiary Sul Americano plain, from top to bottom: (1) The initial
weathering is related to the Lower Tertiary Sulamericano plain. A laterite rich in Ni-goethite is formed
in the upper part and silcretes precipitate in the lower part. (2) Beginning descendent displacement of nickel
at the end of Lower Tertiary. (3) The younger Velhas I-phase produces truncated profiles by incision and
erosion. Garnierite-like nickel silicates are formed in the saprolites. The slopes are covered by red boulder
material. (4) During the Early Quaternary Velhas phase-I1 the erosion leads to single inselbergs and
domes which are protected against further erosion by the now topping silcretes. Nickel and iron are
downward transported by solution. (5) The actual relictic inselberg landscape and the mechanical and
chemical displacement of iron and nickel in lower planation levels (Melfi et al., 1981).
 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129 119

content here attains values of 0.5 to 1.5% Ni. Co becomes enriched together with the
nickel.
In the top layer of residual material, the concentration of nickel decreases. The
chromium which is mainly located in the residual spinel, becomes enriched from the
bottom to the top of the profiles.
The decomposition of the primary silicates and also of the secondary M g - F e Ni-
silicates provokes a liberation of silica. In normal laterites, A1 is present for the
formation of the very stable kaolinite. In the ultramafic rocks, aluminium is practi-
cally missing and therefore the silica cannot be precipitated as aluminium silicate but
forms secondary impregnations in form of silcretes at the base of the weathering
profiles (Fig. 14).
Synchronous to slightly younger attack of the surface by incising valleys leads to a
lowering of various zones of the profiles and to a filling up of the valley floors with
loose pisolitic material. A later iron mobilisation produces younger ferricretes cover-
ing the valley floors. Further reworking at the flanks can fill up the river bed.
The first step during younger degradation is the destruction of the goethitic oxide
layer and the liberation of nickel from it. The nickel migrates vertically or laterally
downward the profile and precipitates as minerals of the garnierite group on the
contact betwen weathering profile and fresh rock. Parts of nickel can even impreg-
nate the soils of the lower and younger planation surfaces (Fig. 14) or cover slopes
and plains with nickel-bearing detritus. The next steps are the stepwise erosion and
lateral reduction of the inselbergs, which are finally protected by the hard and
resistant silcretes.

3.6. Supergene concentration over copper sulphides

There exist different types of primary copper preconcentrations: magmatic and

hydrothermal sulphide associations, porphyry copper ores, and sedimentary red-
beds or blackshales. Magmatic copper accumulations of Archean age occur in
Canada, Western Australia, Southern Africa. Porphyry copper mineralisation is
wide-spread in the circum-pacific mountain chains. Strata-bound copper deposits
are related to various levels of the Proterozoic in deltaic and shore-line sandstones:
Zimbabwe copper belt, Kilembe/Uganda, Palabora/South Africa, Udokan/Transbai-
kalian, Carajas/Brazil. These deposits are exposed since the End-Mesozoic or Ter-
tiary times to alteration and supergene ore concentrations. Exemplarily, the
supergene copper concentrations on top of sulphidic ores are described here. As
sulphidic ores include abundant pyrite and sulphides of lead, zinc, nickel, silver,
molybdenum in a large spectrum of minerals, these weathering profiles are represen-
tative for supergene alteration of sulphidic ore bodies in general. These profiles start
with (1) the protore or hypogene zone, and the profile above is built up of (2) a lower
pale and grey reducing zone, which is also a zone of supergene enrichment or cemen-
tation below the ground-water table, and (3) an upper multicoloured, dominantly red
and brown oxidation zone, or zone of leaching, above the water table (also called
"gossan" or "iron hat").
120 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129

Titley (1978) describes a polygenetic profile of supergene copper concentration over

porphyry copper ores in New Guinea (Fig. 15). The weathering is a pH- and Eh-
controlled dissolution and reprecipitation process in an aquatic system. The oxidation
of pyrite, the most common hypogene sulphide, initiates the weathering process and
creates extremely acid conditions. Newly-formed oxidic iron minerals are hematite,
goethite, jarosite. Both the iron and the sulphur become oxidized. Ferric sulphate and
sulphuric acid act as potentsolvents for other metal sulphides. The ferric sulphate
oxidizes sulphide minerals to soluble sulphates and is, itself, reduced to ferrous
sulphate, Cu-ions in solution and producing native sulphur. Copper which occurs
in polyvalent form and which becomes descendently displaced, develops a sequence of
minerals by penetrating the oxidation zone and later, the reduction zone. The leach-
ing of copper near the surface (see Cu-assay % in Fig. 15) leads to its augmentation in
an old, probably Tertiary enrichment zone, as native copper and as chalcocite.
The actual front of weathering is lowered down. Pyrite oxidation liberates copper
which becomes enriched in the actual enrichment blanket as covellite and chalcocite.
The highest Cu-concentration occurs in this lower part of the profile. By the acid
solutions also the silicate-parent rocks are highly attacked. Feldspars and micas are
metasomatically replaced by kaolinite and chlorites. In the same manner, other
sulphidic minerals are attacked and dissolved.

Principal copper and Sampled

Cu assay % iron phases water;
partial analysis
"Tenorite"
--SurfaCeLeachedI 0.0150.150 ( ± chrysocolta) I Cu Fe SO4 pH
capping 0.075 11~5~ ~) Cuprite •
ppm ppm ppm
10.00510.021 3 1 68
.2-'--- 7- ~
Native copper • fo.o 1o.o 11o 6.o]
Old enriched j" O.5O :. t :'::?
zone Chalcocite
t
I llll I Cu*
lil, I III i
Decomposing 0.120 ,t 'll Pyrite(oxidizing) • Io.o2 Io.t316o 50
primary i ' ~ I I
sulfides i ' L I ~ ii fe*~ Fe(OHI~-.HO.0410.03119 4.5
~ JCu+
lq/t
I. ~~(ilit>.t
?:5';':
~:~ Covellite , {0.2410.03115 2.5
Enriched New J( 080 [['..::?..:,:...l:~:....:1
blanket enrchment " 1L ),v.l~.. I Chalcocite ~- [ 2.1 I 0.05] 68 3.0
I . :-..?.;t.
ase o, Io.oo51 o.ot I 6.6 ,.

s u p e r g e n e ~ / I " ) L .~V' ,'}, I

Protore 6 ¢~e Primary J 0.15011I ,111'lln l i,/ Pyrite + chalcopyrite
,-',=c>.~o
"r- c3'~ N
sulfides I "x'uuil,l,','l"'l]'/ 10;1
/ [

Fig. 15. Profile of modern ongoing supergene enrichment near the Plesyumi porphyry copper prospect, New
Guinea (after Titley, 1978). Titley collected waters flowing from the different levels in a ravine and measured
pH on the spot. This profile suggests that two water tables have prevailed. An early one at (E) controlled the
position of the old enriched zone, and a later one at (L) localized the present blanket. The drop of the water
table permits current oxidation destruction of the old blanket (Gnilbert and Park, 1986).
 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129 121

3.7. Phosphate laterites

Three principal types of parent rocks are available for the formation of phosphate
laterites: (1) phosphate-bearing magmatic rocks, (2) oolitic phosphates in the marine-
sedimentary chalk-chert phosphate association mainly in northern and equatorial
Africa (Senegal), and (3) island guano deposits. The new-formed minerals during the
supergene alteration represent a great variety of Al-phosphates, Fe-phosphates,
Ca-phosphates, with minor amount of Mg-phosphates or alkaline phosphates.
Flicoteaux and Lucas (1984) gave an excellent description of the lateritic phosphate
concentration over the oolitic chalk chert phosphate association in Africa
where crandellite millesite-wavellite form the main supergene mineral association.
Not so well known are the supergene phosphates by lateritisation of Precambrian
magmatic alkaline rocks, which are described from NE-Brasil by Schwab and De
Oliveira (1981) and Schwab et al. (1983). The meta-ultrabasic complexes are com-
posed of apatite hornblendites, apatite pyroxenites and are surrounded by spessar-
tire quartz schists. The rocks are primarily enriched in apatite, containing up to 10%
of apatite.
The 20 to 40 m thick weathering profiles (Fig. 16) grade from the fresh parent rock
via a transition zone into a pale-grey reducing zone in which kaolinite dominates and
which is therefore called kaolinite horizon. It is topped by a horizon which is either
rich in supergene phosphates or in aluminium minerals (bauxite). The profiles are

] .,'~#QI~ E Peffo de ~1o(~ ]E Pirocoua IV /tacuptm

0 20 ~0 60 80 1006ew% 0 20 40 60 80 1006ew% 0 20 40 60 80 1006e~,6 0 20 aO 60 60 lOOE.,o~g

EK EK

PH

BH

!0.

/(H KH

2O 20

Wardite ~ Others
oE%] Augelite ~ Wavellite
I'-'] Variscite []]~]] Crandallite Goyacite
Goethite + Hematite [--'7 Kaolinite
Quartz ~ Gibbsite + Boehmite

Fig. 16. Mineral c o m p o s i t i o n of L o w e r Tertiary p h o s p h a t e laterites in the area of G u r u p i / N o r t h e r n Brazil:

IC = iron crust; BH = bauxite horizon; PH = p h o s p h a t e horizon; K H = kaolinitic horizon (Schwab et al.,
1983).
122 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129

overlain by brecciated iron-rich crusts, which are red or brown, rich in pisolites and in
concretionary pebbles. The dominating phosphate minerals, which show a certain
quantitative variation, consist of crandellite goyazite, augelite, variscite in the oxida-
tion zone, wardite and wavellite in the saprolitic part. The enrichment of phosphate
minerals varies in the oxidation zone between 20 and 90%.

4. Laterite derived chemical sediments

Tectonic uplift provokes a relief differentiation between the uplifted blocks covered
by laterites and the river beds, larger basins or depressions which became impregnated
by surficial or ground-water processes with precipitates from weathering solutions.
Main chemical precipitates deriving from laterites are: (1) crusts of iron and alumi-
nium, (2) silcretes, and (3) deposits of the very mobile elements like uranium or REE.
Maignien (1966) presents, in a very clear manner, the lateral and descendent extrac-
tion of iron and its concentration as sedimentary ferricretes along slopes or in the
deepest parts of river beds. They can be cut and eroded again by younger incision
leaving behind angular ferricrete blocks. To a minor part, also aluminium, titanium,
silica, and the whole spectrum of less stable trace elements is dislocated laterally into
basins or depressions.

4.1. Sih'retes

Sicretes form the most famous gemstone opal deposits of the world. Silcrete for-
mation obviously started with the lateritisation on the plateaus uplifted today. Later,
slight uplift led to intersection of the plateaus and to the evolution of an inselberg
landscape producing a reactivation and lateral extraction of silica.
Beside the silcretes which are formed within or below the profiles, ground-water
silcretes can cover immense surfaces of depressions or basins, or silica is transported
into the marine environment. The best example for terrestrial basins is found in South
Australia and Queensland where surficial or ground-water silcretes covering immense
areas become 6 to 10 or even 20 m thick and consist of opal, opal-CT and mainly of
quartz.

4.2. Uranium in calcretes

Uranium precipitates occur world-wide in tropical countries in Pleistocene cal-

cretes. The solutions were supported from lateritic hinterlands originating from
granitic massives. These non-economic deposits are well studied in Angola, Maure-
tania, Somalia, SW-Africa and Tanzania. The most interesting and biggest uranium
mineralisation in calcretes took place in the eastern foreland of the Archean Yilgarn
block in Western Australia. The origin of the solutions is located in the laterites
covering gneisses and granites. During a late phase of laterite degradation, solutions
 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129 123

containing uranium, vanadium and potassium, were contributed to the Pleistocene

drainage system. Calcretes are formed over hundreds of kilometres in the Pleistocene
river pattern, which can build up a thickness of several tens of metres. These calcretes
grade topwards into salinars. In the area of river mouths, the uranium content in the
calcrete rises and attains maximal values of 0.15 to 0.3% U308. Following Mann
(1976), the UV-mineral carnotite is formed.

4.3. Gold and REE-concentrations in the ground-water

Gold and rare earths elements form soluble complexes in degraded laterites which
migrate with ground-water circulation. Gold or gold-silver alloys are observed as
secondary precipitates in Pleistocene and Holocene ground-water tables. In the baux-
ite of the Boddington area of the western Yilgarn block/Western Australia, late
polygenetic gold horizons are prospected, and the gold is explored as by product of
bauxite.
The rare earths elements are another group of highly mobile elements during
lateritic weathering of alkaline rocks and pegmatites. During the step of laterite
degradation, they become drained downwards and reprecipitated together with man-
ganese in black concretions at the base of the lateritic profiles, which, beside Mn,
possess high contents of REE (Formoso et al., 1989).
The next step is the drainage of dissolved REE in river systems into Quaternary
basins. One good example is the REE-concentration and the lanthanide crystallisa-
tion in the Pleistocene calcretes of the basin of Curitiba/Brazil (Trescases et al., 1986).
Another example of REE-transport and concentration in Quaternary ground-water
flows was described by Willet et al. (1986) from the Proterozoic Mr. Weld carbonatite/
Western Australia, which is covered by a 70-130 m deep Meso-Cenozoic lateritic
weathering crust.

5. Laterite derived clastic sediments

During times of uplift, incising of the landscape by rivers and erosion from the top
part and the flanks of the profiles, an enormous quantity of detritus is produced. Thus
the reworking leads to a separation of the particles corresponding to their size and to
their density. The sorting process can produce economically interesting deposits of
rock clasts or of minerals. Only a few examples can be briefly discussed here:
sedimentary clay-mineral deposits
oolitic iron ores and manganese ores
phosphate land-pebble ores of Florida
placer deposits.
These various types of deposits become concentrated in continental areas, in
marine terrestrial transition zones or on flat shelf areas.
124 I. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129

5.1. Sedimentary clay-mineral deposits

They mainly occur directly after the lateritisation of the land-scape filling conti-
nental basins or depressions, or are situated on flat shelf areas. They are built up of
alternating beds of kaolinitic or smectitic beds, of coarse white sand layers and of
lignites forming a terrestrial or a fluvial-deltaic sand clay lignite association.
World-wide, the Post-Lower Tertiary land surface in the terrestrial or marine terres-
trial areas is covered by those types of clay beds. Large occurrences of sedimentary
kaolin are known from South Carolina and Georgia/USA, from Devon and Corn-
wall/SW-England, from many localities of Central Europe, from Northeastern Aus-
tralia, and China (China porcelain).

5.2. Oolitic" iron ores and manganese ores

Sedimentary oolitic ironstone and manganese deposits can be derived from lateritic
weathering crusts in the continental hinterland. Oolitic ironstones in mid-Cretaceous
continental sediments of NE-Africa display a composition similar to lateritic ferri-
cretes (Schwarz, 1992). Also other Mesozoic and Paleozoic deposits are connected
with fluvial fans and are related to the near-shore marine zone forming extended
coastal belts of oolitic iron ores.
In a similar way, the oolitic manganese ores (pyrolusite-psilomelane) of the giant
Cretaceous deposits of Groote Island/Australia, of Nikopol/southern Ukraine and of
Tschiatura/Georgia, are presumed to be formed. They occur as large lenses in fluvial
to lake-like depressions associated with sands, clays and lignites. The layered and
dominantly oolitic ores are intercalated by parts of carbonatic ores. They are built up
by psilomelane, manganite and later on oxidized manganese carbonates.

5.3. Pho~sphate land-pebble ores of.florida

These deposits are mechanically reworked products which originate from Lower
Tertiary-End-Mesozoic marine-sedimentary and lateritic phosphate profiles. They
form angular fragments, pisolites and silty material, which are deposited by local river
systems.

5.4. Placer deposits

Placer deposits of stable and heavy minerals are either concentrated by eluvial
concentration of residual minerals in weathering profiles or by reworking and sedi-
mentary enrichment in fluvial to flat marine environments. Temporally, placers are
closely connected with deep lateritic weathering processes. Two very accentuated
peaks of placer formation can be observed during earth history, one in the Proter-
ozoic and one in the post-lateritic Tertiary-Quaternary times. The Proterozoic giant
gold-uraninite placers are mainly known from South Africa but also occur in Canada,
Brazil, Australia.
 I. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129 125

Placers can be the exclusive or dominant source for many minerals or elements. The
following minerals are exploited from placer deposits: diamond, Au, PGE, REE, Nb,
W, Sn, Cr, Zr, Ti-minerals, apatite.

6. Weathering cycles during earth history

6.1. General statements

During earth history, directed trends of weathering are observed which depend on
the following parameters: tectogenesis and morphogenesis, evolution of the atmo-
sphere and the biosphere, landscape evolution and peneplanation.
Several - at least three - - cycles of weathering can be distinguished during earth
history: beside the Early Precambrian there are the weathering cycles of LatePrecam-
brian, Paleozoic, and Meso-Cenozoic times. Bardossy and Aleva (1990) mention
special warm and humid periods from the Early Cambrian to the Late Ordovician,
during the Early Carboniferous, during the Later Permian, in the Later Paleocene, in
the Early Miocene (except Oligocene), during Middle Miocene and during Later
Pliocene. Each weathering cycle starts under special world-wide conditions: mono-
tonous and flat reliefs, warm and moist climates with a greenhouse effect based on
higher temperatures and elevated CO2-content of the atmosphere, and initial lateritic
sequence followed by increasing differentiation of the weathering sequences on pla-
nation plains. There is a clear relationship between the worldwide orogeneses of
mountain chains, the evolution of the relief and the differentiation of the climate
also in the non-orogenic areas of the world.

6.2. Examples of weathering cycles during earth history

During the Precambrian, two periods of different types of weathering have to be

distinguished: a time with a high level of CO2 but a very low level or" oxygen in the
atmosphere followed by a time with oxidation and a rising level of oxygen in the
atmosphere after 2.0 Ga.
Concentration of iron in the banded-iron formation (analogous for manganese)
resulted by an oxidation and concentration of iron (and Mn) on the Hamersley
platform/Australia after the model of a large electrochemical cell (Morris, 1985,
1987).
Chemical weathering in the Archean and Early Proterozoic times thus led to a
surficial concentration by an oxidation of iron in a zone of alteration, several hun-
dreds of metres thick ores.
Beside BIFs, there are some other indications that there was a world-wide Early
Proterozoic ore-forming period in which supergene processes played an important
role, preserved in weathering profiles or in placer concentrates. During Archean and
Early Proterozoic times, the largest concentration of e.g. Fe, Mn, Cr~ Ni, Au, PGE,
U, and diamond took place. They became recycled later. In many parts of the uplifted
continents, the Precambrian pyrite diamond gold-uraninite conglomerates (around
126 1. Valeton/Catena21 (1994) 99 129

2.0 Ga) represent the typical placer association originating from this type of very deep
weathering.
Weathering events during Late Proterozoic and Paleozoic times are well indicated
by the maxima of bauxite formation and indirectly by synchronous or subsequent
concentration of the more mobile elements (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, etc.) in sedimentary
basins of red-bed- or black-shale environments. The first preconcentration originates
from lateritic residues of the surrounding terrestrial areas.
A most effective period of chemical weathering started with the End-Mesozoic-
Lower Tertiary times, which is characterized by (1) greenhouse effect, (2) very flat and
less differentiated relief of the continents, (3) reorganisation of the continental drai-
nage systems and marine coastal zones with the breaking up of G o n d w a n a and
folding of the alpine mountain chains, and (4) sea-level oscillations connected with
starting tectonic activities by continental uplift and subsidence of marine platforms.
The result was the evolution of weathering sequences which are characterized by a
world-wide trend of deep lateritic weathering with a maximum during End-Meso-
zoic-Lower Tertiary times. A world-wide supergene concentration of Al, Fe, Mn, Ni/
Co, Au, PGE, REE took place (Fig. 1) followed by maxima of terrestrial silcrete
formation during Oligocene and placer formation during Quaternary.

6.3. Time-dependent evolution of weathering sequences within a weathering cycle

The evolution of a weathering sequence is evident for the time interval from End-
Mesozoic to the Holocene. A clear succession of different soil types and of different
types of mineral or element concentration can be observed in areas of former strong
lateritisation (Table 3). Table 4 presents an essay of the formation of various types of
soils and of laterite drived chemical and mechanical sediments as a result of the
Mesozoic Cenozoic weathering cycle.
The Late Mesozoic but dominantly the Early Tertiary times are characterized by

Table 3
Main types of supergene products and soils within a weathering sequence

Pre-Tertiary mainly sialitic profiles only with saprolites

Early Tertiary saprolites topped by a ferralitic Box-horizon

Oligocene beginning degradation of in-situ

ferralitic laterites, silcrete formation increasing chemical
and mechanical
Mio Pliocene fersialitic and ferralitic soils reorganization and
resedimentation
Quaternary calcretes + silcretes of the laterite
derived sediments
Holocene concentration of mobile elements
in the ground-water
 1. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99-129 127

Table 4
Connection between global conditions and evolution of weathering cycles in space and time (Valetom 1991)

led to weathering sequences-~stages~substages

la start AI Fe-enrichment~in-situ laterites and bauxites~

polygenetic soils --~reworking-~laterite derived chemical
and mechanical sediments
linked to sequences of evolution of the continental crust

lla sequence of plate movement - - break-down of Gondwana

tectonic and collision subduction orogeny
morphologenetic morphological differentiation -- sequence of planation
evolution of plains in Gondwana
the continental differentiation of climate - greenhouse--glaciation
crust in p.e. Oligocene and Plio Pleistocene
differentiation oscillation of the sea level

lb starting milieu orographically low, peneplained land surface: on

basement blocks, plateau basalts, platforms bordering
plates or on carbonate platforms in orogenes
high sea level reduced area of land surface
greenhouse type of climate with little differentiation
pole equator pole
weathering trend: saprolite and Box-horizon:
extraction of silica, soluble elements; concentration
of stable elements mainly in silicates in the sapro-
lite and hydroxides oxides in the Box-horizon

lib linal milieu isostatic equilibration vertical: horst graben

low see level
maximum of relief differentiation (erosion sedimen-
tation)
maximum of climate differentiation ( + vegetation)
maximum of pedogenetic differentiation and polygenetic
overprint

the e v o l u t i o n o f soil profiles with a lower saprolite a n d a n u p p e r b a u x i t e or iron oxide

horizon.
O n l y locally a n d o n l y o n v o l c a n i c rocks ferralitic soils f o r m e d d u r i n g the w a r m
p e r i o d s o f M i o c e n e to Pleistocene. O l i g o c e n e to Q u a t e r n a r y activities lead to laterite
o v e r p r i n t i n g a n d d e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e O l i g o c e n e is m a r k e d b y the d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the
ferralitic i n - s i t u profiles a l o n g with silcrete f o r m a t i o n as c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t s in
d e p r e s s i o n s or b a s i n s a n d b y i n c r e a s i n g m e c h a n i c a l r e w o r k i n g . T h e Q u a t e r n a r y in
those t e r r a i n s is r e p r e s e n t e d by silcretes a n d by calcretes. T h e H o l o c e n e is d i s t i n -
g u i s h e d by s t r o n g d e g r a d a t i o n o f i n - s i t u ferralites d u e to p o d s o l i z a t i o n a n d by rising
mechanical reworking.
R e g a r d i n g the v a r i a t i o n s o f w e a t h e r i n g in time a n d space, it is o b v i o u s t h a t d u r i n g
c e r t a i n cycles o f s u p e r g e n e a l t e r a t i o n e n o r m o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n or d e p l e t i o n o f
128 I. Valeton/Catena 21 (1994) 99 129

elements takes place. Most of the ore deposits exemplarily discussed here, represent
the only or the main economic source for these elements.

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