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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Hybrid processes in manufacturing

Bert Lauwers (1)a,*, Fritz Klocke (1)b, Andreas Klink b, A. Erman Tekkaya (1)c,
Reimund Neugebauer (1)d, Don Mcintosh (3)e
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
b
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering, WZL, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
c
Institut für Umformtechnik und Leichtbau, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
d
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Germany
e
Pratt & Whitney Canada Corporation, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hybrid manufacturing processes are based on the simultaneous and controlled interaction of process
Productivity
mechanisms and/or energy sources/tools having a significant effect on the process performance. These
Surface quality
processes have a large influence on the processing/manufacturing characteristics resulting in higher
Hybrid processes
machinability, reductions of process forces and tool wear, etc. Due to the combined action of processes, it
also has an important – and most of the time – positive effect on the surface integrity of machined parts.
This paper gives a definition and classification of hybrid processes, followed by a description of principles
and future perspectives, benefits on productivity, effects on surface quality and applications of common
hybrid processes.
ß 2014 CIRP.

1. Introduction hybrid processes. Also in literature, several descriptions of the term

Hybrid production/manufacturing means the combination of
processes/machines in order to produce parts in a more efficient
and productive way. As stated in [175], a general objective of
hybrid manufacturing is the ‘‘1 + 1 = 3’’effect, meaning that the
positive effect of the hybrid process is more than the double of the
advantages of the single processes. Hybrid technologies give new
possibilities to machine/process materials or shapes which could
not be manufactured before or at lower cost. Within the domain of
manufacturing technology, the term ‘‘hybrid’’ is often used to
identify processes/products that combine several kind of techno-
logies. According to Schuh et al. [175], ‘‘hybrid’’ can have several
meanings: (1) combination of different active energy sources
which act at the same time in the processing zone (e.g. laser
assisted turning); (2) processes which combine process steps that
are usually performed in two or more process steps (e.g.
integration of component manufacturing and functional surface
structuring or the integration of production of the semi-finished
product and its bending in curved profile extrusion); (3) hybrid
machines, integrating different processes within one machining
platform (e.g. mill-turn centers); and (4) products having a hybrid
structure or hybrid function (e.g. metal plastics composites
components). Today, the term ‘‘hybrid processes’’ is often used
to name processes belonging to the different groups presented. For
example, laser assisted turning (combination of active principles)
and multi-tasking machines (hybrid machines) are often entitled as
* Corresponding author.
of ‘‘hybrid processes’’ are found. Rajurkar et al. [154] defines hybrid
machining as a combination of two or more processes to remove
material. These hybrid processes are developed to enhance
advantages and to minimize potential disadvantages found in an
individual technique. Kozak et al. [95] writes that the performance
characteristics of hybrid machining processes must be considerably
different from those that are characteristic for the component
processes when performed separately. In hybrid machining (remo-
val) processes, there are generally two categories: processes in
which all constituent processes are directly involved in the material
removal and processes in which only one of the participating
processes directly removes the material while the other only assists
in removal by positively changing the conditions of machining.
In [132], Nau et al. define hybrid production processes as such
that different forms of energy or forms of energy caused in
different ways respectively are used at the same time at the same
zone of impact as it is the case in laser-assisted machining. Hybrid
production processes are also defined as the combination of effects
that are conventionally caused by separated processes in one
single process at the same time like in grind-hardening.
Also, in metal forming the term ‘‘hybrid’’ is used in a broad
definition. The term is used to characterize hybrid products which
are manufactured by different materials like in cold forging of
composites made from two more different alloys. It is also used to
identify hybrid processes which are originally separately driven
processes, such as combined hot extrusion, electromagnetic
forming and hot sheet metal forming [66,67,136].
In this paper, a precise definition and a classification of ‘‘hybrid
processes’’ is given (Section 2), followed by a description of some

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important hybrid process technologies (Sections 3 and 4), focusing
on the benefits on productivity (processing speed, surface quality,
etc.). The work presented here is a result of discussions among
researchers within the CIRP collaborative working group on Hybrid
Processes of the International Academy for Production Engineering
(CIRP). Within this collaborative working group (CWG), an
extended questionnaire has been conducted leading to an
extensive document describing the state-of-art in various hybrid
process technologies [108].
The need (and potential) for hybrid processes is also driven by
resource and energy considerations [201] and by industry
demands. The design of highly engineered mechanical products
such as gas turbines, advanced automotive systems and heavy off-
road equipment, often rely on advanced materials to achieve
required performance characteristics. Many parts require high
strength materials, exhibiting high temperatures or where
formability should be reduced, requiring new processing techno-
logies. In aerospace applications, this represents continued
evolution and use of materials like powder nickel and cobalt
alloys, high performance ceramics, and various emerging and yet
to be defined advanced composite systems.
From a manufacturing perspective, the process technologies
required to transform these materials into final products have
become increasingly challenging. The ‘‘strength-at-high-tempera-
ture’’ characteristics that make some alloys superior in service, or
the unique characteristics that make other alloys lightweight,
make them extremely difficult to machine by traditional methods.
Sensitivity to near-surface damage related to machining processes
is also a factor critical to component performance and service life.
2. Definition and classification of hybrid processes
Based on numerous discussions held within the CIRP collabo-
rative working group on hybrid processes, the following definition
has been put forward:
‘‘Hybrid manufacturing processes are based on the simulta-
neous and controlled interaction of process mechanisms
and/or energy sources/tools having a significant effect on the
process performance’’.
The wording ‘‘simultaneous and controlled interaction’’ means
that the processes/energy sources should interact more or less in
the same processing zone and at the same time.
Two distinct examples of hybrid processes are given to better
explain what a hybrid process means. First, laser assisted cutting,
where the laser beam is directly focused in front of the cutting tool,
resulting in easier machining and higher process performance (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Principle of laser assisted turning [177].
In this process, the main material removal mechanism is still
the one occurring in conventional cutting, but the laser action
softens the workpiece material, so machining of high alloyed steels
or some ceramics becomes easier. It is only by applying the laser
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energy and the mechanical cutting energy at the same time
(‘‘1 + 1 = 3 effect’’) that more efficient machining becomes possible.
Due to the softening effect, the process forces decrease drastically
and often better surface quality can be obtained.
A second example in the area of forming is curved profile
extrusion (CPE) [77], where extrusion and bending is combined
within a unique new process. In comparison to the traditional
processing route for manufacturing of curved profiles (Fig. 2),
where first the straight profile is extruded and then in a second
process bended, in CPE, the extruded profile passes through a
guiding tool, moveable by a linear axes system, naturally bending
the profile during extrusion. Thus, the material flow in the
extrusion die is influenced by the superimposed bending moment
of the guiding tool and the additional friction force in the bearing
areas. Consequently, the material is accelerated at the outside and
decelerated at the inside of the profile so that a controlled
curvature results from this differing material flow. Due to the
bending during extrusion within the die, this new forming process
causes no cross-sectional distortion of the profile, no spring back,
and nearly no decrease in formability. Compared to warm bending
tests, process forces could be drastically reduced to 10–15% of the
bending force that would be required if only warm bending would
have been applied.
Fig. 2. Comparison of traditional manufacturing of curved profiles versus curved
profile extrusion (hybrid).
The development and application of a hybrid process should be
as such that it enhances the advantages and minimizes the
potential disadvantages found in the individual techniques [154].
The simultaneous effect of process technologies enhances the
productivity (e.g. lower process forces, less tool wear) and/or
makes processing of materials possible which cannot be manu-
factured by a single (conventionally applied) process [105]. Besides
the above mentioned productivity measures, the simultaneous
combination of processes and or energy sources also has an effect
on surface integrity [107]. The latter is sometimes neglected in
formulating the potentials of hybrid processes.
A combination of processes does not necessarily means that all
productivity measures are enhanced. Sometimes, one only aim a
better chip breakage (e.g. media assisted cutting), while in other
combinations, better machinability is aimed for (e.g. laser assisted
cutting) [134].
Fig. 3 gives a further classification or grouping of hybrid
processes and some examples. The first group (I) contains
processes where two or more energy sources/tools are combined
and have a synergetic effect in the processing zone. A further
classification is made in ‘‘Assisted Hybrid Processes’’ (I.A) and
‘‘Mixed or Combined Processes’’ (I.B). In assisting processes, a main
process (material removal, forming, etc.) is defined by the primary
process. The secondary process only assists, while in pure hybrid
processes, several processing mechanisms (originating from the
different processes) or even new mechanisms are present. In the
authors opinion, media assisted machining processes (high
pressure jets, cryogenic cooling) are also defined as assisted
hybrid processes, where the amount of energy applied for the
secondary processes (jet) is relatively high compared to the
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conventional process. In mixed or combined processes, two or vibration-/ultrasonic-, laser- and fluid-media assistance. Vibration
more processes are present, which according to the above assisted technologies are used in various primary processes to
definition should occur more or less at the same time. support the material removal. In these processes, a small vibration
(average amplitudes: 1. . .200 mm, frequencies: 0.1. . .80 kHz) is
added to the tool or workpiece movement. In most systems,
Hybrid Processes especially in cutting and grinding operations, the amplitudes are in
the range of 1–15 mm and vibration is within a frequency range from
18 kHz to 25 kHz and the vibration itself is generated by
(I) (II) piezoelectric elements within the tool holder, spindle or workpiece
Combination of different Controlled application of holding system. Therefore, the term ‘‘Ultrasonic Assisted Machin-
energy sources/tools Process Mechanisms ing’’ (US) is also often used for these kinds of processes.
(conventionally done in
separated processes)
The use of a laser beam as secondary process is available for
various primary processes. The laser beam strongly influences the
processing zone (e.g. material softening in cutting, changing
(I.A) (I.B) electrolyte conditions in ECM, material elongation and bending in
Assisted Mixed forming, etc.) so processing/shaping/machining becomes easier.
Processes Processes The third very important group of secondary assisting processes
incorporates the so-called ‘‘Media-assisted Processes’’. This
includes high pressure and cryogenic cooling/lubrication applied
Examples by dedicated jets or cooling nozzle systems. It is also used in
forming (e.g. the pneumo-mechanical deep drawing process),
EDM/ECM where a pressurized medium is used to pre-stretch the sheet
Laser assisted Grind-hardening
turning during the conventional deep drawing process. The borderline to
Curved Profile Combination of
conventional cooling and lubrication applications is not always
Vibration Extursion removal and
assisted grinding forming
clearly defined but it can be stated that there must be a significant
….. process improvement initiated by the media assistance.
Vibration Stretch bending
Other secondary processes like magnetic field assistance
assisted EDM combined with
single point
conductive-heat assistance and the use of chemicals in general
Media assisted aim to increase the process performance or to machine materials
incremental
cutting
forming which could not be machined by only using the primary process.
Laser assisted The following sections briefly describe assisted hybrid processes
bending …
for the following primary processes: cutting, grinding, EDM & ECM,
….. and forming.

Fig. 3. Classification of hybrid processes.

3.1. Cutting processes (turning, milling, drilling)

The second group (II) of hybrid processes contains processes
where a controlled combination of effects occurs that are
conventionally caused by separated processes. For example, in
grind-hardening, removal is combined with controlled hardening
due to the induced heat of the grinding process. An example in
forming is the combination of spinning and tube bending. The
following sections briefly describe the most important hybrid
processes belonging to the different groups.
3. Assisted hybrid processes
Fig. 4 shows common combinations of a primary process with a
secondary assisting process to create a hybrid assisted process
technology. The results represent an excerpt of an extensive
literature survey of about 250 papers. It can be concluded from
Fig. 4 that the most important secondary assisting processes are
This section describes mechanical cutting processes such as
drilling, turning, milling assisted by other energy sources such as
vibration, laser and fluid media and the specific advantages or
distinct alterations by using the hybrid approach.
3.1.1. Vibration assisted cutting
Today, vibration assisted cutting is implemented for turning
(vibration assisted turning (VAT) e.g. [21,109]), milling (vibration
assisted milling (VAM) e.g. [114,120,223]) and drilling (vibration
assisted drilling (VAD) e.g. [58,137]). In turning, the vibration can be
applied in one direction or in two directions generating an elliptical
movement (Fig. 5).

Relative frequency Primary processes

of publications in the analyzed
Polishing/Lapping

literature:
Very frequent
Shearing
Grinding

Frequent
Forming
Turning

Etching
Drilling
Milling

Partly
Laser
EDM
ECM

(US: Ultrasonic)
Vibration/US-assisted
Laser-assisted
Secondary
processes

Water-jet assisted
Pressure-fluid assisted
Magnetic-field assisted
Conductive-heat assisted

Fig. 4. Combinations of assisted hybrid processes. Fig. 5. Variants of vibration assisted turning, based on Ref. [169].

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Quite some research has been performed to study the effect of
high frequency amplitude vibration of the cutting tool and/or
workpiece. The most common configuration is the vibration in the
cutting direction.
During vibration assisted cutting, the resultant cutting speed
vc,res alternates in the form
Besides the above described advantages, vibration assisted
turning also enables the generation of predefined surface
microstructures without using any additional finishing processes
[30]. In this case, the vibration should be applied in the radial or in
the feed direction. Turning with vibration assistance in the radial
direction results in a variation of the depth of cut:

vc;res ðtÞ ¼ vc þ A  v  cosðv  tÞ (1) a p;res ðtÞ ¼ a p þ A  sinðv  tÞ (3)

with the angular frequency Accordingly, the workpiece surface shows a corresponding
surface structure (Fig. 7, middle column). The geometry of this
v ¼ 2  p  f us (2) structure depends on the feed and the amplitude as well as on the
For a product of the amplitude A and the angular frequency ratio between the cutting speed and the vibration frequency. The
larger than the value of the cutting speed, the tool is intermittently dimension of the surface structures in circumferential direction dc
not in contact with the workpiece [169]. Referring to Eq. (1), for can be calculated referring to the formula [169]:
typical amplitudes and vibration frequencies the cutting speed has vc
to be very small to realize disengagement of the tool. For this case, dc ¼ (4)
f us
the resulting speed is presented as a function of time (Fig. 6).
Consequently, a raise of the cutting speed involves a linear
1 vc-rel > 0 2 vc-rel = 0 3 vc-rel > 0 4 vc-rel > 0 5 vc-rel = 0 increase of the dimension of the microstructures in circumferential
vc -rot direction. Furthermore, the roughness values for measurements in
longitudinal direction rise. The axial distance between the surface
structures complies with the feed. However, at a cutting speed of
200 m/min the differences between the single structures are
vc -os smaller. In this case, it seems that the material has a higher
Amplitude [nm] tendency for smearing.
Workpiece rotation For vibration in the feed direction, the resulting feed fres can be
500 1 2
4
5 calculated according to Eq. (5):
250
f res ðtÞ ¼ f þ A  sinðv  tÞ (5)
Tool oscillation
0
Tout Tin Tout In this case, the vibration assistance has no significant influence
-250 on the surface roughness values, but a wavelike structure in the
T circumferential direction occurs (Fig. 7, right column). The
-500
3 amplitude of these structures corresponds to the vibration
-750 amplitude of the vibrating tool. In this way, different micro-
2,5 5 7,5 10 12,5 15 17,5Time structures can be manufactured, adapted to special applications,
Time without contact Contact [µs]
for example friction loaded systems.
The periodic disengagement of the cutting tool during vibration
Fig. 6. Characteristics of the resultant cutting speed and amplitude in turning with
vibration assistance in cutting direction [21]. assistance according to Eq. (1) offers the opportunity for ultra-
precision machining of hardened steel (Fig. 8), glass and even other
ceramic materials with single crystal diamond tools with reduced
Schubert [169] investigated the influence of vibration assistance
process forces and increased surface qualities (at least for ferrous
on the surface structure in turning of aluminum alloy AA2017. For
materials) [20].
vibration assistance in the cutting direction, SEM micrographs reveal
In the example given (Fig. 8) generally better surface qualities
a slightly distinctive surface structure, but the roughness values are
can be achieved with higher vibration frequency. The machining
in the same range as the values measured on specimens machined
also results in drastically reduced tool wear achieving highest
without ultrasonic vibration assistance (Fig. 7, left column).

Fig. 7. SEM-micrographs of surface structures generated with vibration assistance Fig. 8. Achievable surface roughness Ra during ultra-precision hybrid turning with
in aluminum alloy AA2017 [169]. ultrasonic assistance of steel molds [21].

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Fig. 9. Reduced tool wear of mono-crystalline diamond with vibration assisted
turning of steel [79].
geometrical accuracies (Fig. 9). Also the chip breakage can be
positively influenced by the vibration assistance (Fig. 10), resulting in
favorable short or even discontinuous chips. Further advantages of
vibration assisted cutting are the reduction of built-up edges during
machining and the elimination of burrs on the workpiece side.
Fig. 10. Improved chip breakage with vibration assisted turning of C45 steel [108].
Due to the important advantages of vibration assistance during
precision cutting of difficult-to-cut materials, compact vibration
tooling systems are nowadays commercially available for the
integration in conventional precision machines (Fig. 11) or even
complete machine series are meanwhile offered by the manu-
facturers [120].
Fig. 11. Compact ultrasonic vibration tooling system for turning of steel
components on conventional precision machines [21].
The principle of vibration assisted drilling is shown in Fig. 12.
The actuation can be realized either on the workpiece or on the tool
side [132]. Due to the vibration kinematics, lower process forces
and therefore drilling torques, better chip breakage and chip
removal are generally obtained [137].
Fig. 12. Principle of vibration assisted drilling and realized machine set-ups
(workpiece or tool actuation).
Source: Tekniker [108].
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5
An example for major reduction of the drilling torque to a quasi-
static value is shown in Fig. 13 for the vibration assisted deep hole
drilling of electrolytic copper ECu57 [58]. A virtually constant value
can be reached independent of feed rate for no-load vibration
amplitudes (A) in the range of about 5–10 mm. Also a better chip
breakage for the ductile material was achieved.
Fig. 13. Drilling torque during ultrasonic deep hole drilling in copper depending on
feedrate and no-load amplitude, based on Ref. [58].
Vibration assisted machining was also advantageously being
applied to machine other workpiece materials. Vibration assisted
drilling of Ti6Al4V was analyzed by Pujana et al. [151]. A decrease
in feed force of up to 20% was found for high amplitudes at higher
process temperatures as compared to conventional drilling.
Baghlani et al. investigated the vibration assisted deep drilling
of Inconel 738LC [7], also resulting in finding of lower process
forces, reduced surface roughness and better chip breakage.
Vibration assisted machining of stone (different granites and
marble) was examined by Heisel et al. [57]. It could be observed
that the resultant forces and torques were reduced. In addition a
reduction of cratering at the drill exit was observed. Similar
advantageous effects were also found during vibration assisted
drilling of metal matrix composites by Kadivar et al. [149] and for
drilling of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites by
Phadnis et al. [72].
Vibration assistance during milling applications is currently
less applied due to the complexity of kinematics superposition
in dependence on the required workpiece geometry. Neverthe-
less research is conducted in this area [15]. The vibration
assisted milling of aluminum alloys showed improved tribo-
logical properties due to a distinct microstructure on the
surface in the studies of Xing et al. [223]. Ostasevicius et al.
[144] found superior surface finish in comparison to conven-
tional machining when vibration milling stainless steel and
titanium alloys.
The capabilities of vibration assistance were also analyzed for
the application during micro machining operations. A basic
overview can be found in [33]. Similar effects like reduced
cutting forces and tool wear, better chip breakage and reduced
burr formation were observed. Sarwade et al. [161] successfully
applied vibration assistance to micro drilling of bone material
while Lian et al. [114] achieved superior surface finishes when
micro milling aluminum. Hu et al. [62] analyzed the influence of
workpiece materials (silicon, silicon carbide, glass, etc.) on the
machining performance. It was found that the material removal
rate generally increases with the decrease of the fracture
toughness. Further research by Tsuboi et al. [202] concerns
the combination of vibrating tool and cutting fluid vibration
in order to reach an improvement in tool life for micro drilling
of SiC.
A more extensive review of vibration assisted machining can be
found in [18]. A detailed study regarding the change between
brittle and ductile regime machining during vibration-assisted
turning of tungsten carbide was conducted by Liu et al. [117].
In addition to vibration, Muhammad reports about hot
ultrasonically assisted turning of b-Ti alloys, where in addition
to the vibration, a heat source is used to further reduce process
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forces and improve the surface finish [128]. The workpiece is pre-
heated via a band resistance heater to improve its machinability.
The principle is based on temperature-dependence of shear
strength of high-strength alloys. Therefore the applied heat softens
the workpiece material thus improving material removal.
3.1.2. Laser assisted cutting
The first implementation of laser assisted machining (LAM) was
for turning of hard materials. The laser beam, focused directly in
front of the cutting tool, softens the material so machining
becomes easier. The principle for achieving dedicated cutting
temperatures is shown in Fig. 14. More recently, research and
implementation are also found for laser assisted milling [156] and
shearing of sheet metal [38].
Fig. 14. Principle of laser assisted cutting of hard materials at temperature
dependant reduced mechanical strength [17,80].
Laser assisted turning of hardened steels is applied as an
alternative to grinding and conventional hard turning, as reported
by Ding [32]. Besides a larger material removal rate, laser assisted
turning produces good surface finish, a more uniform surface
hardness distribution and no microstructure change. The thermal
expansion effect produces more compressive surface axial residual
stresses than hard turning.
LAM of difficult-to-cut Ni- and Ti-based alloys has also been
analyzed. Attia et al. [4] investigated LAM of Inconel 718 where
SEM analyses and microstructure examinations of machined
surfaces show an improvement of the surface integrity.
Compared to conventional cutting, the plastically deformed
surface layer is deeper and more uniform. The absence of
smeared material (was present in case of conventional cutting)
and the increased plastic deformation zone, are indicative for the
favorable compressive residual stresses (Fig. 15). Brecher et al.
[16] report on reduced cutting forces (40–60%) and improved
tool life allowing the use of higher cutting speeds during LAM of
Inconel alloys.
Fig. 15. Improved surface integrity (e.g. avoidance of smearing) during LAM finish
turning of Inconel 718 under dry conditions [4].
Similar effects regarding process force reduction (21%) and
increased specific material removal rates (34%) were also found for
milling of Ti-alloys with laser assistance, reported by Zäh et al.
[240].
Dandekar et al. [27] analyzed the machinability improvement
of titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) via LAM and an additional hybrid
approach via cutting tool cooling with LN2. LAM improved the
machinability from low (60 m/min) to medium-high (107 m/min)
cutting speeds while hybrid machining further improved it up to
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150–200 m/min. Microstructure and hardness profiles showed no
change from pre-machining conditions. Two- to three-fold tool life
improvements were measured for TiAlN coated carbide cutting
tools resulting in overall cost savings of up to 40% compared to
conventional machining.
During laser assisted micro milling of hardened steel generally
better dimensional accuracies due to reduced process forces and
tool deflections as well as reduced tool wear have been observed.
No clear trend can be reported regarding the achievable surface
finish [122,179].
In order to find optimal LAM settings in combination with the
cutting parameters, Tagliaferri et al. [194] performed a DoE study
in order to reveal the interaction of laser power, scanning speed,
defocus, temperature and resulting surface roughness. This was
also done by Zäh et al. [241] which in addition to experimental
investigations, also developed a thermal simulation model for laser
assisted milling of steel and titanium alloys. It was shown that
laser assisted milling of titanium works better due to the higher
heat accumulation into the material.
Laser assisted machining also finds its applications for the
machining of ceramic materials. Various ceramic materials (Si3N4,
SiC, ZrO2, Al2O3, etc.) and carbides, under the condition that they
contain some amorphous glass phases, can efficiently be machined
(Fig. 16). Heating up the glass phase, surrounding the crystals, at
temperatures over 1000 8C results in reduction of the deformation
resistance and local softening of the material in the shear zone,
enabling machining of the ceramic with a geometrically defined
cutting edge. For various materials, LAM results in more uniform
surfaces with an improved surface roughness.
Fig. 16. Laser assisted turning of ceramics and laser assisted milling of high-
temperature steels [17].
In this way, precise ceramic parts can be made, as reported by
Lei et al., who investigated LAM of Si3N4 parts [112]. In addition to
the plastic deformation and segmentation of chips, oxidation,
melting and vaporization can take place due to intense laser
heating. Under normal conditions (moderate temperature levels),
the surface is uniformly smeared with a glassy material. LAM
samples only showed a 2–4 mm affected zone and no sub-surface
cracks were observed. Compared to LAM surfaces, the affected
layer in grinding is deeper and sub-surface cracks are present.
When applying too high temperatures in LAM, the surface is
irregular and cavities are present due to grain fall out. In this case,
the surface roughness is mainly defined by the size and the
distribution of the Si3N4 grains and not by the level of the (too high)
temperature.
An improvement of the surface roughness is also obtained in
machining of Al2O3 ceramics [22], where it is compared to
conventional planning. LAM of Magnesia-Partially-Stabilized
Zirconia (PSZ) is reported by Pfefferkorn et al. in [148]. Turned
surfaces show a smooth texture (Ra < 1 mm) without fracture,
indicating that plastic deformation is the dominant mode in
material removal. However, it is shown that the zone adjacent to
the cutting zone (in front) is largely affected. This zone is
characterized by cracks of which the density increases with
increasing temperature.
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LAM machining has also been successfully implemented for
milling of advanced ceramics [12,237]. Brecher et al. report on
material removal rates increased by 160% compared to conven-
tional machining with a defect free surface [17]. Besides lower
cutting forces, a reduced workpiece edge chipping is reported by
Yang et al. [230] due to the more plastic material behavior at
elevated temperatures above 1000 8C.
An overview on current research trends on LAM; including an
overview on modeling aspects can be found in [69]. Although laser
assisted machining is investigated by several researchers and
seems to have a potential to machine hard and brittle materials,
the implementation within industry is still limited.
3.1.3. Media-assisted machining
Within the area of media assisted processes a very important
topic is the supply of high pressure lubrication coolants mainly for
improved machining of difficult-to-machine materials like ad-
vanced Ni- and Ti-alloys, ceramics, composite materials and steels.
Research history on this topic can be traced back several decades
[150,220]. Flow rate and pressure have a significant influence on
chip formation (chip shape, chip breakage), tool life and tool wear
behavior (Fig. 17) and on the metallurgical structure of workpiece
and chip due to considerable temperature and lubrication changes
(reduction of contact length between chip and rake face [75]). The
media assistance is therefore also termed ‘‘high-pressure lubri-
coolant supply’’ [84].
Fig. 17. Improvement of chip breakage during grooving of Inconel 718 via high
pressure cooling [82].
A major part of the process application concerns machining of
difficult-to-cut super alloys for aerospace and turbine applications
[41,160]. The poor thermal conductivity results in the concentra-
tion of heat in the cutting zone, accelerating tool wear without
efficient cutting and cooling strategies [39]. Dahlman [26] found
that temperatures can generally be reduced by 50% when high-
pressure is applied which is also favorable for materials with a
lower ductility. As a result super alloys can be machined with
improved surface integrity and/or with higher cutting speeds
identified during the turning and milling of Ti6Al4V and Inconel
718 by Lopez de Lacalle [118]. Also reduced wear of cutting tools
(up to 350%) was identified by Ezugwu et al. during finish
machining of Inconel 718 [40] as well as other more classical steels
[146]. Due to increased cooling capabilities Sharman et al.
recognized a clear reduction in the level of tensile residual stresses
in the sub-surface layer during ultra-high pressure turning of
Inconel 718 [176].
Regarding chip shapes unfavorable and dangerous ribbon and
long chips can be avoided resulting in increased process
reliabilities and a higher degree of process automation [82].
For the milling of alloyed steels with high waterjet pressure,
Kovacevic et al. [92] recognized a surface roughness improvement
with increasing water jet pressure. Also the occurrence of burrs
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7
was significantly lower. Kaminski et al. [75] measured a significant
reduction of edge temperature by 40% during turning with media
assistance.
Besides the high pressure cooling applications, the cryogenic
cooling has also been developed for machining of different
materials. Cryogenic cooling and its advantageous effects on tool
life during machining are shown exemplarily in Fig. 18.
Fig. 18. Cryogenic cooling (milling set-up) and evolution of flank wear in
conventional, CO2 and LN2-turning of TiAl6V4 [83].
The cryogenic cooling with liquid nitrogen LN2 or carbon dioxide
CO2 is widely applied for machining of Ni- and Ti-based superalloys.
Abele et al. [2] report on the media assistance during cutting of Ti-
alloys by using cryogenic cooling. On the one hand higher cutting
forces are observed due to increased material strength but on the
other hand several times longer tool life was identified during
turning operations. In contrast the high thermal alternating load
during milling operations could have a negative influence on tool life
[2]. Instead, a significant positive influence of cryogenic cooling
instead was measured by Klocke et al. for the turning of TiAl6V4
[81,83].
Wang et al. [214] report on constantly better surface roughness
values of Ti- and Ni-based alloys at the same cutting length due to
cooling with liquid nitrogen. The cryogenic machining of Inconel
718 also results, according to Pusavec et al. [152], in a thicker
compressive zone beneath the surface (extending the compressive
zone from 40 mm to 70 mm). A finer micro-structure is obtained
and there is less plastic deformation on the machined part (1–
2 mm thickness compared to 5–10 mm in dry and/or conventional
MQL machining). Due to the reduced temperatures, reduced wear
of tools can be identified, hence also having a positive effect on the
surface roughness as well.
Wang et al. [215] analyzed a combination of turning with
cryogenic cooling and plasma enhanced machining which is used
to increase the temperatures in the workpiece to simultaneously
soften it. By joining both techniques surface roughness was
reduced by 250%, cutting forces by 30–50% and tool life was
extended up to 170% over conventional machining.
Similar effects regarding extended tool life and better surface
finish as a result of reduced temperatures are seen in cryogenic
machining of steels by Paul et al. during turning [146] and also
grinding [145]. The aspect of more environmental friendly
machining via cryogenic cooling is discussed by Dhar et al. for
turning [31] and by Fredj et al. for grinding [42].
Cryogenic turning is also being applied in machining of Si3N4
ceramics with PCBN tools by Wang et al. [216]. A strong reduction
in surface roughness could be seen for comparable tool wear. A
decrease from 20 mm Ra (machining length 40 mm) down to
3.2 mm Ra (machining length 160 mm) took place.
Another important media-assisted grinding process is the so-
called Viper-Grinding (very impressive performance extreme
removal grinding) as a replacement for creep feed grinding
of nickel-based alloys using CBN wheels. High-pressure
coolant is employed, both through the spindle and via a
programmable coolant nozzle. While grinding is traditionally
regarded as a low stock removal finishing process, the VIPER
process has shown to be 10 times faster at removing metal than
milling [5,208].
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3.2. Grinding processes
Hybrid processes with grinding as the primary processes are
most often based on vibration assistance. A distinction is made
between vibration assisted grinding (Section 3.2.1) and vibration
assisted polishing (Section 3.2.2).
3.2.1. Vibration assisted grinding
Vibration assisted grinding is a rather new technology where a
superposition of conventional grinding and a vibration (most often
in the ultrasonic range) is established [99,115,204,207,210]. A
well-known process is Rotary Ultrasonic Assisted Grinding (RUAG),
where (tubular) cylindrical metal bound diamond grinding tools
are used. The process is often implemented on a 3–5 axis CNC-
‘‘milling’’ type machine, where the relative tool-workpiece
vibration can be obtained through an excitation in the spindle,
the tool holder system (Fig. 19) or on the workpiece itself.
Fig. 19. Vibration assisted grinding set-up (generation of vibration by piezo
elements in the tool holder system).
Vibration along the tool (excitation in the spindle or tool holder
system) in combination with different tool/workpiece movements
result in different vibration configurations: side grinding and
peripheral grinding (Fig. 19). In every configuration, the cutting
conditions of the abrasive grain change drastically. Depending on
the settings of the vibration parameters (frequency, vibration
amplitude), the scratching contact between grain and workpiece
changes into a sinusoidal and impact-like penetration into the
material [204].
Side grinding is commonly applied for the machining of through
holes and face grinding applications in various hard to cut
materials like carbides and ceramics. Many researchers report
reduced process forces (values from 10 to 50%) and better hole
quality (less deterioration of surface quality or subsurface
integrity) [163,204,207,210]. The above advantages are supported
by the better tool wear behavior, as the vibration promotes self-
sharpening of the grains, permanently supplying sharp cutting
edges [204]. Important is the fact that the vibration amplitude
should be larger than the maximum chip thickness in order to
ensure that the contact between the tool and the workpiece is
intermittently interrupted. Uhlmann et al. [204] also investigated
the influence of various coolants in combination with various tool
specifications (grain sizes: 30.126 mm, binder: electroplated bond,
sintered bronze bond, sintered Fe/Co bond) and showed that oil-
based coolants are beneficial for lower process forces. This is due to
the important effect of lubrication as the applied cutting speeds are
lower compared to conventional high performance cutting (cutting
speed has to be set low to have intermittent contact between tool
and workpiece). Similar results and positive effects are also
reported in grinding of Ti6Al4V alloys [139].
Besides the machining of holes, the application of RUAG on a
CNC-milling type configuration allows to machine any kind of 2D,
2.5D or 3D part (Fig. 20). In general, experimental research shows
for all these cases also positive influence of the vibration on the
process force and the tool wear behavior [207].
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Fig. 20. Industrial parts (2D, 2,5D) machined by RUAG: Left: Al2O3 [Tekniker],
(middle) Zerodur [Tekniker], and (right) B4C [KU Leuven].
The effect of vibration when machining slots or pockets
(peripheral mode, Fig. 19) is not always positive. The tool vibration
(perpendicular to the feed direction) along the tool direction can
result in surface cracks due to the hammering of the tool (Fig. 21,
left). The picture shows an Al2O3 sample machined by Vanparys
[206]. In general, surface textures of machined hard materials
show mixed material removal mechanisms (MRM): plastic
deformation and brittle removal (Fig. 21, right) [207]. The type
of material removal mechanism depends on the material proper-
ties, the amplitude of vibration and the machining parameters.
Brittle removal certainly increases the material removal rate,
additionally supporting lower process forces, but should be
avoided in finishing processes.
Fig. 21. Negative effect of the vibration on the machined surface of Al2O3 in RUAG
[206,207].
Also in the case of machining of stabilized ZrO2 (toughest
ceramic material), the effect of the vibration is clearly visible on the
surface texture (Fig. 22) [106]. As ZrO2 is a tough material (among
all ceramic materials), no brittle removal is observed, but the
impact of the grain movement is clearly visible. Although the
vibration can have a negative effect on the surface roughness, it
results in less edge chipping of machined grooves (Fig. 22, right).
Fig. 22. Negative effect of vibration on machined ZrO2 surfaces in RUAG [106,207].
Besides RUAG, other researchers report about the ultrasonic
assisted creep feed grinding of nickel based super alloys [13] and
ceramic materials [225]. The workpiece was actuated at a constant
frequency of about 20 kHz, having the vibration along the feed
direction. Reductions in process forces (up to 43%) and better
surface roughness (up to 45%) were reported.
Even other process combinations with vibration assisted
grinding have been developed, as reported by Qinjian [153],
where the machinability of PCD has been increased by a
combination of vibration assisted grinding and electrical discharge
machining
3.2.2. Vibration assisted polishing
In addition to grinding, vibration assistance is also applied in
polishing and/or lapping processes, mainly in micro manufactu-
ring. A review of ultrasonic assisted lapping of microstructures in
hard-brittle materials is given by Zhang [243]. Microstructures
with high aspect ratios up to even larger than five have been
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machined. Through the introduction of several innovative strate-
gies such as rotating tools, on machine tool preparation and
vibration assistance, micro holes (1 5 mm) have been machined in
quartz glass and silicon. Suzuki reports about the development of
an ultrasonic assisted polishing machine, where tungsten carbide
micro aspheric dies and molds (WC) are polished to surface
roughness values down to 8 nm Rz [191,192].
In the area of honing, more advanced hybrid tools, also based on
piezo actuation, are presented in [34,135,201] (Fig. 23). The
presented finishing process is applied in combustion engine
manufacturing to generate out of round bores by combining the
conventional (vertical and rotational) movement of the honing tool
with a controlled superimposed radial movement of each honing
stone enabled by piezo actuators which are integrated in the tool.
Fig. 23. Design and concept of an adaptronic form honing tool.
3.3. Electro discharge and electrochemical machining
For EDM and ECM processes also vibration, media and laser
assistance can be identified as secondary processes in order to
enhance the process performance of the core technologies. The
individual process principles and the resulting hybrid effects will
be described in the following paragraphs.
3.3.1. Vibration assisted EDM
In vibration assisted EDM, an additional relative movement is
applied in the system tool electrode, workpiece and dielectric fluid
in order to increase the flushing efficiency, resulting in a higher
material removal rate and better process stability (Fig. 24) [64]. If
process parameters are selected carefully, smooth surfaces can
additionally be obtained. During vibration assisted EDM of
tungsten carbide with a frequency of 750 Hz and amplitude of
1.5 mm Jahan et al. [68] found a more smooth and defect-free
surface quality at the rim of the micro holes due to the reduction of
deposited debris at the side walls and reduced ineffective pulses.
During surface integrity analysis, Abdullah et al. [1] recognized
that ultrasonic vibration of the tool decreases the thickness of the
heat affected zone and recast layer reducing thermal stresses and
resulting cracks.
In micro-EDM which is the main area of application of vibration
assistance in EDM, increasing the achievable aspect ratio without
diminishing accuracy is one of the main goals of development,
hence process stability is crucial. Flushing conditions and
discharge gap state have been identified as main influences.
Improved flushing strategies and optimized discharge gap control
circuits have led to great improvements [25,101,174,189]. Many
conventional strategies of gap flushing, such as high pressure
flushing or flushing through the tool electrode are not available in
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Fig. 24. Principle of vibration assisted EDM and resulting process performance
(removal rate and surface finish), based on [64,68].
micro-EDM because of the small size and fragility of the tool.
Furthermore, to achieve maximum accuracy, the discharge gap has
to be minimized.
An important focal point in research has been the superposition
of vibration onto the tool or workpiece to improve flushing
conditions and thus stabilizing the process. The integration of
ultrasonic as well as low-frequency vibration shows significantly
raised process stability for micro bores [235,242]. The periodic
relative movement between tool and workpiece causes a flow of
the dielectric and an agitation of the debris particles in the
dielectric medium. Due to this phenomenon, a settlement of debris
on the bore ground and the agglomeration of particles are reduced
and the state of the gap is equalized. An improvement in terms of
flushing and homogenization of the dielectric liquid leads to a
faster and more stable process with better shape accuracy,
allowing for higher aspect ratios and more complex structures.
Since the vibration frequency directly influences the flow speed in
the dielectric, ultrasonic and high-frequency vibrations are
especially beneficial.
Low frequency (LF) vibration setups can be realized easily, since
there is no need for resonant systems. To characterize the effect of a
LF-vibration on the machining of bore holes, Schubert et al. have
investigated vibration frequencies of up to 1200 Hz and ampli-
tudes of up to 25 mm peak-peak [171]. The results of the
investigations show 10% higher process speed compared to
conventional machining. A larger contribution can be seen in
reducing geometrical errors and process instabilities which can be
observed by a reduction of the machining time variation of more
than 50% [172]. However, the specific machine tool setup has to be
taken into consideration when choosing the vibration frequency to
avoid negative interaction with the gap width regulation.
Direct ultrasonic vibration of the tool or workpiece is regarded
as the optimal strategy for improved flushing and stabilized micro-
ED machining of high aspect ratio structures [173,174]. High
frequencies in the range of 20–60 kHz with amplitudes of 2–10 mm
peak–peak significantly influence the frontal discharge gap state
and therefore the process itself.
The first effect of increased flushing performance is based on a
very high movement velocity of the dielectric of more than 0.5 m/s
with accelerations of over 60 km/s2, efficiently moving and stirring
the dielectric. Particle agglomeration is reduced, leading to a more
uniform gap condition and increasing the amount of efficient
discharges. The second effect relates to the periodic change of gap
width through vibration. There, retracting movements end longer
arc discharges occur that cause geometric deviation and process
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instabilities [44]. As a result, process speed is significantly
enhanced and, additionally, more complex structures can be
reproducibly machined. Fig. 25 shows the tool feed for machining
of very deep micro bores with a conventional process and two
direct ultrasonically assisted processes. The used tool electrode
diameter is 60 mm.
Fig. 25. Machining performance during ultrasonic assisted micro deep hole EDM
drilling (tool Ø = 60 mm) [171].
With increasing depth, the conventional process (f = 0 Hz) not
only slows down, but also becomes unstable, leading to retracting
movements of the tool electrode caused by long short circuit periods.
For the direct ultrasonically assisted processes (f = 21.8 kHz) no
large retracting movements are observed. This allows for the
machining of high aspect ratio structures such as micro bore arrays
or complex external structures. 751 micro bores of diameter 85 mm
and depths of 1000 mm could be successfully machined in steel.
The direct ultrasonic vibration induced into tool or workpiece
requires the design of a suitable actuation and clamping setup that
can withstand the high acceleration forces. Since these are
proportional to the mass of the system, exciting a large part is
challenging. An approach to implement a similar setup without
exciting the workpiece or tool is to overlay the discharge area with
a high intensity ultrasonic field. Setups consist of an ultrasonic
transducer and a tuned sonotrode that amplifies the vibration to
the targeted value. The sonotrode is immersed in the dielectric and
arranged in a way that the high intensity near field of the ultrasonic
is aligned to the machining zone. Sonotrode tip speeds of up to
2.2 m/s at frequencies of 24 kHz and amplitudes of 30 mm peak–
peak lead to intense movements within the dielectric [170].
When applying indirect ultrasonic superposition, because of the
orientation of the sonotrode non-coaxial to the feed direction, the
tool electrode is also subject to excitation through the pressure
waves within the dielectric. In case of vibration in the eigen-
frequency range of the tool, electrode resonance movement can
adversely affect the process. Within the near field, the high
intensity, fast movement causes cavitation in the medium. Within
the discharge gap, particles are created during the EDM process
and as a result cavitation is additionally facilitated. Stuck to the
particles, the gas bubbles of the cavitation phenomenon can
become stable, rise faster and create a stream transporting
particles out of the discharge gap that contributes to improved
flushing, Yeo et al. [231].
Different process modifications and areas of application are
exemplarily shown in the following. Ultrasonic assistance was
successfully applied by Wansheng et al. [217] for EDM drilling of
small holes (diameter of 0.2 mm) in titanium alloys with cemented
carbide electrodes. A steady and reliable process allowed aspect
ratios about 15. Ichikawa et al. [63] utilized ultrasonic vibration in
order to realize micro-EDM with ultra-small discharge energies.
The machining speed under these conditions is quite low due to
short circuits and abnormal discharges because of the difficult
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debris removal from the narrow gap-width. By the additional
application of vibration, the machining time could greatly be
shortened, the lateral gap width was decreased and tool wear ratio
became smaller. The EDM drilling of high aspect ratio micro holes
aided with ultrasonic vibration and planetary movement of the
electrode was proposed by Yu et al. [235]. The planetary
movement with enhancement from ultrasonic vibration provides
an unevenly distributed gap for debris and bubbles to escape from
the discharge zone more easily. Therefore, micro holes with aspect
ratios of 29 have been drilled. Also delayed start-up processes
during EDM micro hole drilling when the tool electrode starts to
enter the workpiece and greatly changing conditions can
significantly be reduced by the effect of additional tool vibrations
[44]. Sundaram et al. [190] executed a detailed study on the
influences of different process parameters on machining perfor-
mance during ultrasonic assisted micro EDM. Based on ANOVA,
ultrasonic vibration at 60% of the peak power with capacitance of
3300 pF was found to be significant for best material removal rates
(MRR). Besides the application in the micro range, the vibration
assistance was also successfully applied to some macro applica-
tions. Uhlmann et al. [203] investigated on vibration assisted EDM
of seal slots in high-temperature resistant materials for turbine
components. During the machining of high aspect ratio cavities in
MAR-M-247, the material removal rate could be increased by 11%
and the relative tool electrode wear was reduced by 21%. During
vibration assisted EDM of PCD using an axial movement of the
copper electrode, Iwai et al. [64] found a three times higher
material removal rate with reduced electrode wear and same
surface roughness compared to conventional machining (Fig. 24).
Zhang et al. [226,245,246] investigated the effect of vibration in
EDM using a gas as dielectric medium. Compared to classical EDM
in gas, the material removal rate can be doubled keeping the
surface roughness at the same level.
The effect of cryogenically cooled electrodes in vibration
assisted EDM was studied for the machining of M2 HSS workpiece
material [181]. For a similar level of material removal rate, the tool
wear and surface roughness was significantly lower compared to
conventional EDM.
3.3.2. Media assisted EDM
In the context of media assisted processes high speed roughing
EDM with high pressure and high flow rate flushing have gained an
important impact for the machining of difficult-to-cut Ti- and Ni-
based alloys for turbo-machinery applications.
The high-speed electro-erosion milling (HSEM) process utilizes
controlled distributed arc and discharges for rapid metal removal
(Fig. 26). High material removal rates are achieved by promoting
controlled electric arcing through the use of a non-dielectric
medium and a spinning electrode, enabling simultaneous multiple
discharges and arcs to occur. The process starts with multiple ionic
micro-bridges in the small gap. The applied voltage triggers gas
bubble generation and breakdown as well as instantaneous short-
circuiting, resulting in rapid metal erosion in many locations. A
metal removal rate of approx. 200 cm3/min has been achieved with
Fig. 26. Principle of high-speed electro-erosion machining and application to
milling of superalloys for turbine parts [219,236].
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a 25 mm thick disk electrode. During blisk milling of Inconel 718
the process achieves a three times higher material removal rate
compared to conventional cutting, Wei et al. [219,236].
The blasting erosion arc machining (BEAM) process utilizes a
strong multi-hole inner flushing (e.g. bundle of graphite tubes).
The high velocity flushing induces a strong hydrodynamic effect
which distorts, elongates or even breaks the arcing plasma column.
During arcing, an extremely strong blasting blows off the molten
material explosively resulting in high material removal rates.
Therefore, during machining of Inconel 718 removal rates
exceeding 11,300 mm3/min at low tool wear ratios of about 1%
could be achieved using water-based dielectric, Zhao et al. [247].
3.3.3. Pulsed electrochemical machining – PECM
In order to apply ECM for precision and micro machining, it is
required to implement a high localization of the electric current
density to ensure a high localized anodic dissolution and to realize
a sufficient electrolyte supply within the gap for an efficient
flushing. These effects are achieved electrically as well as
mechanically pulsed process variants, as described by many
researchers [3,37,97,158,213,233].
Pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM) is a vibration
assisted development of ECM die-sinking by applying a low
frequency oscillation of the tool electrode within the working gap
[167] (Fig. 27). Using the combination of an additionally pulsed,
low-frequency, high current density direct current and the
oscillating electrode enables the machining at reduced working
gaps of about 10–50 mm. Thereby, a high precision up to 2 mm and
high surface quality of Ra  0.03 mm are realized.
Fig. 27. Principle of pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM) and example of
application for high geometrical precision [165,168].
In the first phase of the process the distance between anode and
cathode is maximized, resulting in an excellent supply of
electrolyte. In phase II the minimum gap is achieved and the
current is switched on for a period in a range from 500 ms to
5000 ms, which leads to the removal process. The workpiece
assumes the negative shape of the cathode. Due to the small
distance, only a low amount of electrolyte is transported through
the machining area. Larger working gaps in the pulse pauses (phase
III) are used for a replacement of wasted electrolyte with fresh one.
During the further progress, the phases of pulses and electrolyte
change alternating. The oscillation movement is superimposed by
a forward movement. So the workpiece is machined gradually up
to the final form. Due to the pulsation of the current and the
oscillation of the electrode, a high localization of the current
density and good flushing conditions can be realized simulta-
neously.
In PECM a high amount of the process time is used for the
replacement of the electrolyte in the pulse pauses. In these pulse
pauses no erosion processes take place. So the maximum removal
rates of PECM compared to EC methods, in which continuous direct
current is used, are reduced. Due to the high localization, PECM is
especially qualified for the manufacturing of complex micro
structures 5 mm with high precision. In industry, PECM is
therefore successfully applied for the manufacture of punching and
cutting tools made of high-strength materials of filigree structured
metal consumer parts like razor shave cabs.
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By the application of ultra-short voltage pulses during ECM,
electrochemical reactions can be spatially confined with an
accuracy in the nanometer range. This becomes possible by
localized charging of the electrochemical double layer and
therefore direct manipulation of the electrochemical dissolution
rate at the anodic poled workpiece surface. Machining precisions
below 100 nm can be achieved by the application of 500 ps voltage
pulses (Fig. 28). The two holes (a and b) are etched into a Cu sheet,
employing a cylindrical Ø 50 mm Pt tool (applied voltage: 1.5 V).
Hole (a) is made with 5 ms pulse duration, causing a poorly defined
hole accompanied by corrosion of the workpiece up to 100 mm
distance around the hole. For hole (b), the pulse duration is reduced
to 100 ns, significantly improving the accuracy of machining.
Even three dimensional structures with down to nanometer
precision are achievable according to Kock et al. [88].
Fig. 28. PECM with ultra-short voltage pulses resulting in highly localized material
removal characteristics, based on [88,157].
3.3.4. Air assisted jet electrochemical machining
Electrochemical machining with a continuous electrolytic free
jet (Jet-ECM) is a flexible technical realization of ECM in order to
achieve localized material removal. In Jet-ECM an electrolyte jet
supplies the electric current between anodic workpiece and
cathodic tool [96]. The cathodic tool is a small nozzle which
ejects the electrolyte. To increase the removal velocity, assistance
by controlled air flow was proposed by Hackert-Oschätzchen et al.
[52,55]. Due to this phenomenon, small working gaps down to
approximately 25% of the nozzle diameter and current densities up
to 2100 A/cm2 can be applied [166].
The principle of air assisted Jet-ECM is shown in Fig. 29 (left).
The electrolyte jet is ejected perpendicular to the workpiece
surface. In interaction with the surrounding air, a closed
electrolytic free jet is formed. So the electric current is restricted
to a limited area by the jet and high current densities with a high
degree of local removal, high localization of erosion and high
surface quality are achieved. In air assisted Jet-ECM continuous
electric current can be used, resulting in higher removal rates
compared to pulsed ECM processes. Reasons for this are the
excellent supply of sufficiently fresh electrolyte and the good
removal of the reaction products, by using the jet. Micro structured
surfaces and complex three-dimensional micro geometries can
easily be generated by changing the nozzle position and by setting
the electric current [53,54].
Fig. 29. Principle of air assisted Jet-ECM and applications for flexible high precision
surface structuring of metal parts [52,55].
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Machining examples showing the high flexibility of Jet-ECM are
presented in Fig. 29 (right). The cavities are machined in stainless
steel 1.4541 with widths of 200 mm and depths of 60 mm. Other
examples showing the benefits are reported by Natsu et al. [130,131].
3.3.5. Laser assisted chemical and electrochemical machining
Laser assisted chemical and electrochemical machining pro-
cesses have been developed in order to increase local material
removal rate. Heating the electrolyte in the dedicated area of
machining increases the local chemical activity or electrical
conductivity in order to increase the chemical reactions on the
workpiece surface (Fig. 30). The SEM image (Fig. 30a) shows the
machining quality of nitinol using direct laser ablation compared
to (b) laser chemical machining.
Fig. 30. Principle of laser chemical machining and resulting performance of material
removal rate and surface finish [183].
Stephen et al. [184] recognized for coaxially to the laser beam
injected etching liquid that the reaction rate is primarily tempera-
ture driven independent of the laser wavelength. Thus, the laser
supports the kinetics of dissolution and has no melting effects. The
machining quality with respect to aspect ratio, edge radius and
roughness can be enhanced by increasing the velocity of the etching
liquid [185]. According to Mehrafsun et al. [121], emerging gas
bubbles shield the workpiece surface against the etchant and lead to
an interruption of the chemical removal reaction in the center of the
cavity, changing the effective fluence distribution.
In laser assisted jet ECM (LAJECM) De Silva et al. [28] found
25 mm deeper cavities with a reflective surface of Ra = 20 nm
without any detectable heat affected zone or spark damage due to
electrolyte boiling. The laser also facilitates the removal of brittle
oxide layers enabling ECM of oxide forming metals such as
titanium with benign electrolytes.
Zhang et al. [244] investigated the laser drilling process assisted
by jet electrochemical machining (JECM-LD) to improve the overall
quality of laser drilled holes. The effects of the jet electrolyte during
the process mostly consist of electrochemical reactions and effective
cooling of material. During machining of nickel-based superalloy
sheets it is found that the recast layer and spatter have been
effectively removed compared to conventional laser drilling.
3.4. Forming processes
Also for forming, vibration and laser assistance can be identified
as secondary processes in order to enhance the productivity of the
primary process. In addition (but not further described), thermally
assisted forming (using gas burners for spinning) and electrically
assisted forming can also be mentioned as hybrid processes [36].
3.4.1. Vibration assisted forming
The use of ultrasonically oscillating dies for wire drawing has
been investigated by Siegert et al. [178]. They analyzed the
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influence of ultrasonic-performance or rather amplitude, drawing
velocity and true strain concerning drawing force reduction and
surface roughness. It was found that the drawing force reduction is
a function of the amplitude and nearly independent from the
absolute drawing force. With increasing drawing velocities, the
drawing force reductions decrease, because of decreasing oscilla-
tions per unit of length. Concerning conventional materials,
however, wire drawing with ultrasonically oscillating dies is
limited to low axial drawing forces and low drawing velocities.
Wire drawing with ultrasonically oscillating dies is suitable for
brittle wire-materials.
Behrens et al. [11] are superimposing oscillation in sheet bulk
metal forming. The part itself is manufactured by deep drawing
and the gearing is produced by bulk forming in a combination with
superimposing oscillation, which leads to significantly reduced
process forces (Fig. 31). The investigations showed that with
increasing process requirements such as lower die clearance, the
superimposed oscillation has a greater effect on the reduction of
the forming force and the spring back behavior.
Fig. 31. Effect of oscillation on the process force in sheet metal bulk forming, based
on Ref. [11].
Heß et al. [60] performed a more detailed investigation on the
force reduction (up to 40%) in axial forming by an oscillating ram
movement. Although the reason for the force reduction is not fully
understood, this paper numerically investigated two theories. One
is the ‘‘friction theory’’ which attributes the force reduction to the
rebuilding of the lubricating film during the back stroke. The other
is the ‘‘softening theory’’, attributing to a force reduction due to
softening effects like the Bauschinger effect, caused by the
alternating load when using an oscillating ram motion.
3.4.2. Laser assisted forming
In order to increase the formability and to reduce the spring
back phenomena in bending processes, assistance of laser heat can
be applied.
An experimental analysis and analytical modeling for laser
assisted bending of AA 6082 T6 aluminum thin sheets was
investigated by Gisario et al. [45]. They showed that by correct
selection of the laser process parameters, the spring back behavior
could be fully eliminated. Laser assisted spinning of advanced
materials such as Inconel, stainless steels and titanium alloys has
been investigated by Klocke et al. [85,86,218] (Fig. 32).
By applying a high power diode laser for local heating
simultaneously to the mechanical forces, the forming limits can
be extended considerably. Furthermore, parts with complex shapes
can be formed without negative consequences of conventional
heating by gas burners. Similar results were also obtained by Romero
et al. [155], who investigated laser assisted spinning of advanced
high strength steel (DP-800) and aeronautic Grade Titanium alloys,
with minor or no change in microstructure, final properties
improvements and no change to coating, thanks to the controlled
energy input and fast thermal cycles.
Also in laser assisted burnishing, reported by Tian et al. [199], a
better surface finish is obtained and the ratio of feed force to normal
force is reduced, the latter suggesting that less tool wear may be
achieved compared to the conventional burnishing process.
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Fig. 32. Laser assisted spinning of advanced materials: (left) set-up and (right)
manufacturing of Ti6AlV4 part [85,86].
In single point incremental forming (SPIF), laser assistance as
reported by various researchers [14,35,48,61,182], strongly
extends the formability limits. Fig. 33 shows two set-ups, left
performed on a classical milling machine [48], right with a robot
system [35]. For the robot set-up, the sheet metal plate is clamped
in a vertical table system. The shaping tool is moved by a robot,
while the material is locally heated in front of the moving tool by a
laser beam (Nd-YAG laser) acting at the back side of the sheet
metal plate. In both investigations, spring back is reduced due to
the softening effect of the laser.
Fig. 33. Laser assisted single point incremental forming of sheet metal parts [35,48].
4. Mixed or combined processes
In mixed or combined processes, two or more processes are
present, which according to the definition should occur more or
less at the same time. Research and development is focused on the
investigation of new combinations, enhancing process perfor-
mance. The most important hybrid processes belong to the group
of combination of different subtractive processes (see Section 4.1)
or different forming processes (see Section 4.2). Besides also
combinations between subtractive and forming processes are
known but less used such as ECM combined with roller burnishing.
4.1. Combination of subtractive processes
4.1.1. Combination of EDM and grinding
In the area of process combinations with EDM the integration of
grinding and spark erosion processes has gained an important role
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13
[98]. Fig. 34 shows the basic principle and the application of hybrid
processes during EDM grinding and abrasive-wire-EDM where
enhanced material removal is realized by the synergy between
spark erosion and abrasion.
Fig. 34. Combination of EDM with abrasive processes – principle and application in
EDM-grinding and abrasive-wire-EDM [90,123].
During EDM grinding of difficult-to-machine but electrically
conductive materials like cemented carbides with metal bonded
diamond grinding wheels, the grinding performance is enhanced by
both effectively removing material from the workpiece and
declogging the grinding wheel surface (reported by Koshy et al.
[90]). The surface textures show the decrease of the role of the
grinding process with an increase of the current on the workpiece
side. For a current of 0.4 A, the grooves generated by the abrasives
are clearly visible, while this is not the case for a current of 2.1 A. The
spark discharges also thermally soften the material in the grinding
zone, consequently decreasing the cutting forces and the required
spindle power [91].
During abrasive-wire-EDM of Ni-based alloys, proposed by
Menzies et al. [123], the machining of surfaces with minimized
recast layers is of main interest for the aerospace industry. Fig. 34
shows the recast layer generated in WEDM to be continuous and of
a thickness of 5 mm. For identical electrical parameters, the
recast layer is largely absent in the hybrid AWEDM process.
The machining of hard materials and the effect of the process
parameters on energy consumption and internal stresses was also
investigated by Golabczak et al. [46,47]. Also in this research, it was
proved that the material removal depends on both kinematic (feed
and depth of grinding) and electric conditions of the abrasive
electrical discharge grinding (AEDG) process.
The ultrasonic assisted vibration during EDM grinding was
suggested by Suzuki et al. [193] for the machining of extremely
hard-to-grind ceramic materials like TiB2. Due to the additional
vibration a stock removal rate of 200 mm3/min and a grinding ratio
of 110 have been achieved.
During electro contact discharge dressing (ECDD) of grinding
wheels, proposed by Tönshoff et al. [200], discharges between tool
electrode and grinding wheel are generated via the distortion of the
electrical field due to the simultaneous chip formation at the
electrode by contact of the abrasives to the infeeding electrode. Due
to discharge heat generation, bond material is molten and effectively
removed, resulting in (in-process) dressing operation [29,200].
4.1.2. Combination of ECM and grinding
The hybrid process combination of ECM and grinding (Fig. 35)
was already developed in the 1960s in order to get a high-efficient
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Fig. 35. Principle of ECM grinding [209,249].
and burr-free material removal process for difficult-to-machine
aerospace alloys and cemented carbides [10,70,127].
The process combination of ECM and grinding allows for example
the burr-free grinding of honeycomb structures for turbine
applications (Fig. 36, left). Process variants were also developed
for ECM-honing applications [162]. Nowadays, alternative technol-
ogies have been developed, largely reducing the application of this
process because of the high complexity of process control and
environmental concerns. Other applications can be found in
precision machining of small holes by Zhu et al. [249] (Fig. 36,
right). A metal rod with coated abrasives as cathode rotates at high
speed and removes material electrochemically and mechanically in
a pilot hole with sharp edges and no burrs. Resulting diameter and
surface quality depend on the specific balance of process
parameters. More recent fundamental studies on electrode wear
and the use of wires as electrodes can be found in [49,238].
Fig. 36. Applications of ECM grinding [249].
Abrasive electrochemical multi-wire slicing as a further
combination is applied by Wang et al. [212] to solar silicon ingot
processing in order to achieve improved surface integrities and
increased material removal rates.
Within the process combination of ECM and grinding the
electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) technology, proposed by
Ohmori et al. [142], also represent a major hybrid approach with
different foci. For the base technology, Fig. 37, the self-regulation of
ECM-based anodic oxide layer growth on the grinding wheel and the
simultaneous mechanical removal of this layer by the grinding
process (ELID cycle, see [142]) combines two different physical active
Fig. 37. Variants of electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) grinding and examples of
application, based on [140,141].
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principles. In addition the hydroxide ions and the ELID-oxide
particles within the coolant fluid can have a positive effect on the
material removal (reduced process forces, higher material removal
rates) and the surface quality (reduced surface roughness values –
‘‘polish-grinding’’ with mirror-like appearance) on the workpiece
side [141].
Examples for ELID-finishing of hardened bearing steel with CBN
grinding wheels can be found in [186] and of cemented carbide
glass mold inserts with fine grained diamond grinding wheels in
[78] (Fig. 38). When applying an additional electrical potential on
the workpiece side, even a simultaneous and controlled oxidation
of the ground surface can take place resulting in superior surface
performance in terms of chemical inertness, increased hardness or
coloration aspects [140].
Fig. 38. Application examples for ELID grinding: mirror surface finishes on steel and
tungsten carbide materials and coloration via additional controlled oxidation for Ti
workpieces [78,140,186].
4.1.3. Combination of ECM and EDM
The combination of ECM and EDM has been widely investigated
by many researchers [23,43,56,116,138,164,180,221,222,248].
According to the principle of ECDM (Fig. 39), the discharge delay
time of the EDM process is used for electrochemical based broad
surface abrasion followed by local thermal material removal in
consequence of discharge formation. By adjusting the process
parameters smooth surface finishes with reduced thermally
influenced rim zones and high geometrical precision can be achieved
during machining of micro features, cf. Nguyen et al. [138] or during
the trueing and dressing of metal bonded grinding wheels, cf. Schöpf
et al. [164].
Fig. 39. Principle of ECDM – combined machining with ECM and EDM – and
example of application, based on Ref. [138,164].
The combination of ECM and wire-EDM is investigated for the
efficient machining of low resistance silicon wafers by Wang et al.
[211] High efficiency of slicing ingots with low wire consumption
is achieved by the use of a specific detergent capability of the
electrolyte. The presence of chemicals influences the surface
texture, as micro-holes (sub-micron level) can be formed due to
the electrochemical corrosion on the surface. However, using
proper process parameters, these micro-holes can be avoided.
The specific design of process energy sources for hybrid
machining of EDM and ECM was investigated in order to have
an optimal and effective utilization of the combination for the
provided case of application [104].
Spark assisted chemical engraving (SACE) – sometimes
misleadingly also termed ‘‘ECDM’’ (Fig. 40), uses electrical
discharges between the tool electrode and the electrolyte in a
thin film around its tip due to a resulting high concentration of
electric field and current density in order to erode and chemically
etch electrically non-conductive materials like glass.
A detailed overview on this technology is given by Wüthrich
et al. [222]. Zheng et al. [248] applied this process in order to drill
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The laser induced plasma micro machining (LIPMM) is

Fig. 40. Principle of spark assisted chemical engraving (SACE) for drilling of glass,
based on [222,248].
Pyrex glass with a cylindrical rotating tool (diameter of 200 mm).
Laio et al. [103] investigate on the performance of different
electrolytes and resulting process stability and achievable geomet-
rical accuracy during drilling of quartz. The same principle is
successfully applied during ‘‘Traveling Wire ECDM (TW-ECDM)’’ by
Peng et al. for slicing of non-conductive brittle materials like glass or
quartz bars.
4.1.4. Hybrid processes for polishing applications
Numerous hybrid process combinations have been developed
in order to enhance material removal rates during polishing of hard
and brittle materials like silicon based ceramics or semiconductors.
The dominating material removal mechanism for chemical
mechanical polishing/planarization CMP strongly depends on
material properties and employed polishing agents as well as on
machining parameters. Silicon carbide was efficiently polished by
diamond slurry (mainly mechanical removal) whereas for polish-
ing of silicon nitride ceria slurry achieves higher removal rates
(chemo-mechanical effects), Klocke et al. [87]. Lee et al. [111]
found out that chemically reacted (oxidized) SiC has a higher wear
amount than bulk material during hybrid polishing with mixed
abrasive slurry consisting of colloidal silica and nano diamond.
Jeong et al. [70] analyzed the CMP and an additionally added
ECM process (ECMP) to effectively machine Cu and other metals for
MEMS applications via surface oxidation with low mechanical
pressure, high removal rates and defect-free surfaces.
Electric and magnetic field-assisted finishing/polishing repre-
sent another area of hybrid polishing processes in order to enhance
material removal and surface finish. In the field assistance an
active control of the polishing process is achieved due to dedicated
electric or magnetic forces acting on the specific tools for a
localized removal, see [73,227]. The surface roughness of
machined wafers can be further reduced (from 1.14 nm Ra to
0.58 nm Ra), but also in this case a proper selection of process
parameters is required. Also plasma assisted polishing is applied
during machining of single crystal SiC in order to achieve highest
surface qualities via surface oxidation without introducing
crystallographic subsurface damage, see Yamamura et al. [228].
presented by Malhotra et al. [119], in which plasma induced in
a liquid at the focal point of the laser beam allows the micro
machining of shiny silicon wafers, aluminum alloys, opaque
ceramics and transparent materials like glass with high reflectivity
or low absorptivity. In Line-LIPMM the shape of the plasma is
optically manipulated, which reduces the machining time for
micro patterning over large areas by about six times. In
magnetically controlled LIPMM, an external magnetic field is used
to manipulate the plasma shape for dedicated geometries.
Metal cutting by combining electromagnetic and mechanical
forces called ‘‘Electromagnetic Jigsaw’’ was presented by Kumar et
al. [100]. In a proof of concept it was shown that by combining
mechanical force with the Lorentz forces generated due to the
application of a series of electromagnetic pulses, pre-existing cut or
crack can be propagated along any arbitrary direction in a controlled
fashion, yielding a novel tool-less, free-formed manufacturing
process particularly suitable for hard-to-cut metals.
The hybrid dry EDM process in a pulsating magnetic field is
proposed by Joshi et al. [71]. The pulsating magnetic field is
applied tangential to the electric field for increasing the movement
of electrons and degree of ionization in the plasma leading to
productivity improvements of 130% and zero tool wear as
compared to conventional dry EDM.
The interaction between electrical arc and laser radiation
(Nd:YAG) for stabilization and guidance of plasma plumes is
analyzed by Stute et al. [188]. As the laser provides a channel of
increased conductivity, an alignment and stabilization of the
electrical arc can be obtained and be exploited to achieve more
efficient and flexible plasma processes.
4.2. Combination of forming processes
4.2.1. Combined deep drawing and cold forging
The combined process of deep drawing and cold forging is a new
hybrid metal forming process to produce composite products from
different combinations of materials [65]. As presented in Fig. 41a, a
one side coated circular sheet is positioned centrally above the
contour-shaping die.

4.1.5. Other hybrid combinations of subtractive processes

Combination of various processes has already been reported
since several decades. For example, Kozak et al. reported in the
1970s about the combination of laser machining and EDM [93,94].
A hybrid laser–waterjet ablation technology is proposed by
Tangwarodomnukun et al. [198] in order to minimize thermal
damages during machining of single crystal silicon. The target
material is heated and softened by a laser and the softened
material is expelled by the waterjet. In addition a cooling effect of
the workpiece takes place resulting in almost no heat-affected
zone (HAZ) [197]. Kalyanasundaram et al. [74] successfully
applied the technology in order to machine yttrium stabilized
zirconia. The hybrid system exploits the low thermal shock
resistance for controlled crack propagation along the cutting path
through localized heating and rapid quenching.
Grit blast assisted milling and grooving of metallic alloys was
analyzed by Li et al. [113] Due to high viscosity of some materials in
the molten state it is difficult to achieve clean cuts without recasts
and heat affected zones. Up to 100% increase in material removal rate
and 15% reduction in the heat affected zone size can be achieved by
the additional particle injection compared to gas jet assisted laser
machining. Surface roughness has been reduced by 60%. Fig. 41. Combined deep drawing and cold forging [65].

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The opening of the die has a small radius, which serves as a
drawing edge (die radius). Alternatively, a special ring with a radius
can be used. By substituting the deep drawing mandrel by a
cylindrical bulk metal workpiece, the sheet is deep drawn into the
shape of a cup which partly covers the bulk component. With
increasing stroke the bulk metal workpiece starts to be cold forged,
while the sheet component is additionally formed or even
calibrated. At the end of the cold forging process, the punch moves
upwards and the workpiece is pressed out by an ejector from the
bottom of the tool. Depending on the diameter of the sheet in
relation to the height of the bulk part, there is a partial or a complete
cladding of the component. Composite metal structures with a cold
forged bulk material in the core partly covered with a deep-drawn
sheet material can be produced (Fig. 41b). Also multistage or lateral
extrusion is conceivable as alternatives.
It is expected that the use of a bulk part instead of a
conventional mandrel allows a greater drawing ratio because of
the simultaneous movement and deformation of the sheet and the
bulk part. Furthermore, due to the cold forging process an
additional reduction of the cross section can be carried out.
4.2.2. Combination of hot extrusion and equal channel angular
pressing (iECAP)
Severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes are introducing
ultra-large plastic strain into bulk material, resulting in a reduction
in grain size and therefore in grain size strengthening. Equal
channel angular pressing (ECAP) is a SPD process in which the
strain is introduced into the material through simple shear by
pressing the workpiece through a channel intersected by a defined
angle without a change in cross section [6]. It has been
demonstrated by [232] that the subsequent application of hot
extrusion and ECAP is leading to improved mechanical properties.
However, the ECAP process limits the shape of the extruded part to
simple solid geometries and its length to diameter ratio to low
values in order to prevent bending of the ram in the ECAP die [224].
A combination of forward extrusion and single pass ECAP in a
single die was presented by [147], while [143] proposed the
combination of hot extrusion with multi-pass ECAP in a single die.
This concept was adapted and modified by [51] for the hot
extrusion of aluminum alloy machining chips (Fig. 42).
Fig. 42. Schematic illustration of the integrated extrusion and ECAP die (iECAP die)
[51].
The tool was manufactured with a modular design in order to
allow exchange of single parts of the tool. Compared to the
subsequent process of extrusion and ECAP, this design allows the
semi-continuous [143] production of more complex final geome-
tries by exchanging the last part of the die. In the basic design, the
tool is designed for the extrusion of 20 mm  20 mm rectangular
solid profiles. The design includes four ECAP turns, following
routes C-A-C in conventional ECAP, with a channel angle of 1 = 908
between the channels and a channel displacement of K = 20 mm.
An evaluation of the performance of the iECAP process was
performed by Haase et al. [51]. Microstructure and mechanical
properties of chip-based billets extruded through the iECAP die
were compared to chip-based billets extruded through the flat-
face die and the porthole die. The iECAP process gives comparable
yield strengths (independent of the used extrusion die and ram
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speed) and significantly higher ultimate tensile strengths. The
investigation demonstrated that using the iECAP die instead of a
conventional flat-face die increases the ductility of aluminum
extrudates fabricated from cast material, which complements the
findings of [51] who reported increased ductility for magnesium
when using this concept.
4.2.3. Combination of spinning and bending for tube forming
The proposed process [8,59], is a combination of a tube spinning
and a tube bending process (Fig. 43). A tube is being clamped on a
feeding device and is transported through a sleeve to the spinning
tool. The three spinning rolls of the spinning tool are rotating
around the tube at a defined rotational speed. The spinning process
creates a diameter reduction of the tube. To manufacture a bent
structure a freeform bending process is superposed. Due to this
process setup the production of bent structures can be realized
with variable tube diameters.
Fig. 43. Combination of spinning and bending for tube forming (incremental tube
forming process) [8].
In this hybrid process, the spinning process significantly
influences the bending results, which is shown by reduced process
forces and reduced springback. Furthermore, the combination can
realize the manufacture of load optimized structures and has much
more flexibility compared to conventional processes where
workpiece dependent tools have to be used, leading to frequent
changes of the tools and higher costs.
Fig. 43 also shows a prototype machine and industrial
manufactured samples. Tube diameters up to 90 mm can be
processed as well as tube lengths of 3000 mm. Also the bending of
three dimensional parts is possible due to a change of the bending
plane by rotation of the pusher device.
4.2.4. Combination of extrusion and bending (curved profile
extrusion)
The principle of curved profile extrusion was already briefly
explained in Section 2. When using curved profile extrusion (CPE)
[9] the strand passes through a guiding tool, moveable by a linear
axes system, so that the exiting strand is deflected. Thus, the
material flow in the die is influenced by the superimposed moment
and the additional friction force in the bearing areas. Consequently,
the material is accelerated at the outside and decelerated at the
inside of the profile so that the curvature results from this differing
material flow. The manufactured curvature depends on the
geometrical setup of the equipment which consists of the distance
‘‘a’’ between the die and the guiding tool, the distance ‘‘z’’ between
the press axis and the position of the guiding tool, and the angle a
between the press axis and the linear axis (Fig. 44). CPE is highly
flexible with regard to the cross section and the profile curvature
because constantly curved profiles are produced when the guiding
tool remains in its position, whereas variably curved profiles are
produced by moving the guiding tool synchronously to the profile
speed on a defined path.
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Fig. 44. Principle of the curved profile extrusion process.
Variably curved profiles are produced by moving the guiding
tool on a path synchronously to the profile velocity defined by the
press conditions. Due to the exploitation of the viscous material
behavior within the die, this forming technology causes no cross
section deformation, no springback, and nearly no decrease in
formability.
To show the advantages of this hybrid process, Fig. 45 shows
the forces required in CPE and warm bending. The CPE
experiment is applied by a synchronous movement of the
guiding tool to the profile speed to produce a constantly plane
curved profile with a radius of 1500 mm. In contrast to this, the
warm bending test is not operated parallel to the extrusion
process. First, the extrusion process is started and run until the
steady state is reached, which is the case when the target speed
is attained and the press force slowly decreases. Then, the press
stops and the same deflection of the guiding tool starts to
introduce the bending process. The diagram indicates that the
CPE process requires a maximum force of only 34 N to deflect the
strand for the curvature generation. In comparison to CPE, the
warm bending process needs initial forces which are up to 150 N
to deflect the profile.
140
Beginning of
Load in N / deflection [mm]
deflection
100
60
20
-20
0 10 20
Time [s]
Fig. 45. Load results of warm bending and CPE.
This hybrid process gives many advantages to the conventional
processes of extrusion, stretching, and bending as the manufactur-
ing of curved profiles makes it difficult to achieve the required
profile properties.
Based on the CPE process, other process variants have been
developed such as the twisted profile extrusion (TPE). In this
forming process, a tool is used that guides and also twists the
profile after the extrusion process by the deflection of the material
flow. The characteristics of extrusion, like the increased tempera-
ture and the plastic state of the material, are used in order to deflect
the flow of the material by applying a small amount of additional
energy by rotating the guiding tool (Fig. 46).
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Fig. 46. Twisted profile extrusion.
This hybrid process can be used to produce screw rotors in fluid
machinery. The conventional manufacturing process is costly
because the cast semi-finished product has to be milled to a highly
precise geometry in a time consuming procedure. The motivation
to choose this extrusion method can be attributed to the
advantages of CPE like low residual stresses and low bending
forces, which can be transferred to TPE.
Fig. 46 (right) shows the manufacturing of screw rotors, using
ENAW 6060 as billet material. A pitch angle of approximately 308
on a profile length of 100 mm could be attained. The initial force to
rotate the guiding tool was very small, and the twisting angle was
constant during the extrusion operation without fixing the rotary
angle on the guiding tool.
The presented production method TPE shows an alternative
way to produce twisted profiles directly during the extrusion
process by influencing the material flow in the die, based on the
CPE principle. Furthermore, the torque for twisting during
extrusion is more than 50% lower than the torque in warm
twisting. The process offers a high potential for the manufacturing
of profiles with flexible cross-sections and contours in a single
process step. Using the already plasticized material state in the
extrusion die, further operations like curving, twisting and
changing the cross-sections can be performed with much lower
forming loads compared to conventional forming operations, due
to the principle of stress superposition.
4.2.5. Combination of stretch forming and incremental sheet
End of forming
bending
Asymmetric incremental sheet forming (AISF) is known as a
flexible forming process for small batch manufacturing of sheet
metal components. It is limited by excessive sheet thinning, low
Warm bending geometrical accuracy, long process duration and a lack of reliable
CPE virtual process planning tools. To overcome these limitations, the
Movement of
the guiding tool combination of stretch forming and AISF has been developed [195]
(Fig. 47).
30 40 50
Fig. 47. Combined stretch forming and AISF [195,195,196].
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First, simple stretch forming is applied to create a pre-form,
followed by the AISF process (while stretching) to form geometric
features like pockets and/or grooves. The combination of stretch
forming SF and asymmetric incremental sheet forming (AISF) is a
hybrid process because the stretch forming elements keep
applying a tensile force while performing the AISF. The different
forces of both process are therefore interacting. Thus the forming
process can be conducted easier and the geometrical precision is
mostly improved. Fig. 47 (right) shows the process chain of the
combined process. A blank is clamped at two or four opposite sides
and stretched over an upwards moving die to stretch the sheet.
Four-sides stretch forming offers the advantage that the defined
contours are created also along the lateral edges of the part. After
the pre-form is finished, the geometric features, like pockets, are
created and the final part shape is created by trimming.
The process combination of stretch forming and AISF reduces
the process forces, process time, sheet thinning and significantly
increases the dimensional accuracy. Shown by finite element
analysis, the residual stresses generated by stretch bending
combined with AISF are smaller and more homogeneous as well
as that the gradient of the stresses over the sheet thickness is lower
than in pure AISF. For an industrial application, the production is
possible in small lot sizes in a short time and at reduced costs [196].
5. Combination of controlled process mechanisms
5.1. Grind hardening
The grind-hardening process utilizes the induced heat of the
grinding process for local surface hardening on the workpiece. For
achieving the high heat input rate the grinding process is applied
with higher depth of cut and slow feed speeds. For the process
combination the additional hardening process and the logistics are
completely eliminated saving time, energy and production costs
(Fig. 48) [19,159,239]. Fig. 48 shows the results of hardness
measurements as reported in [89]. Besides the hardness, this paper
also investigated the resulting distortions, which depend on the
heat input, the micro structural transformations and the pressures
within the contact zone caused by the cutting forces.
Fig. 48. Measured hardness results for grind-hardening process [89].
5.2. Combination of forming and hardening (hot stamping)
Hot stamping is an established process for the manufacturing of
high strength components for lightweight construction [76,124].
Please cite this article in press as: Lauwers B, et al. Hybrid processes in manufacturing. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2014.05.003
Fig. 49. Basic direct hot stamping process chains [76].
Within the direct hot stamping process (Fig. 49b) an aluminum–
silicon coated blank is heated up above the Ac3-temperature of the
material and dwelled for a certain time to ensure a homogeneous
austenitic microstructure. Afterwards, the blank is transferred to a
press in which it is formed and simultaneously quenched by tool
contact (Fig. 49) [76]. With cooling rates above 27 K/s the
commonly used boron-manganese steel 22MnB5 develops a
martensitic microstructure with an ultimate tensile strength of
1500 MPa and an ultimate elongation of 5–6% [110].
Hot stamping is a thermo-mechanical forming process with
intended phase transformation [76]. The hybrid character is given
since the quenching of the workpiece material is applied in the
calibration phase of the hot forming operation which leads to
reduced springback. Although temperature and strain rate are varied
along the part surface and process in the course of the time,
Yanagimoto et al. [229] and Kusumi et al. [102] have shown the high
shape accuracy of the hot stamped parts with minimum springback.
The combination of forming and hardening makes 22MnB5
steel an ideal solution for the construction of structural elements
and safety-relevant components in the automotive industry, in
particular in view of the implementation of penetration protection
in the areas of the passenger cabin or motor [129].
Some automotive applications of hot stamping are A-pillars, B-
pillars, side impact protections, sills, frame components, bumpers,
bumper mounts, door pillar reinforcements, roof frames, tunnels,
rear and front end cross members (Fig. 50). The sheet thickness in
these parts varies between 1.0 and 2.5 mm.
Fig. 50. Hot stamped parts in automotive industry [76].
5.3. Combination of rolling and hardening
Surface hardening by cryogenic deep rolling is reported by
Meyer et al. [126]. In this hybrid process (which could be seen as a
kind of media assisted process), workpieces are exposed to the
mechanical loads of a deep rolling process and a cryogenic
treatment cooling applying CO2-snow simultaneously. The hybrid
process causes plastic deformation and strain induced martensic
transformations into depths of up to 1.5 mm (Fig. 51).
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B. Lauwers et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Fig. 51. Surface hardening by cryogenic deep rolling [125,126].
6. Conclusions and future outlook
This paper gave an exemplary overview of advanced
manufacturing through the implementation of hybrid processes.
Fig. 52. Technology maturity level of various hybrid processes.
Please cite this article in press as: Lauwers B, et al. Hybrid processes in manufacturing. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2014.05.003
19
The process combinations are used to considerably enhance
advantages and to minimize potential disadvantages found in
individual techniques. Within hybrid production processes differ-
ent forms of energy or forms of energy caused in different ways are
used at the same time at the same zone of impact.
The development of hybrid processes is continuously evolving,
from basic development toward industrial implementation. Fig. 52
gives an overview of described hybrid processes with an
estimation of its level of technology maturity, varying from
fundamental research to real industrial implementation (series
production). Further developments are driven on the one hand by
industrial needs to manufacture highly engineered mechanical
products made of advanced materials and on the other hand to
process parts in a more productive and energy efficient way.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all CIRP members who have
contributed to the CIRP collaborative working group on ‘‘Hybrid
Processes’’. In addition, the authors would like to thank Prof. R.
Wertheim (TU Chemnitz), Dr. M. Kuhl (TU Chemnitz), Dr. A.
Rennau (TU Chemnitz), Dr. A. Jäger (TU Dortmund), J. Bouquet (KU
Leuven) and H. Romanus (KU Leuven) for their valuable input in
the preparation of this paper.
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