Capability Profile of Hard Cutting and Grinding Processes

F. Klocke1 (1), E. Brinksmeier2 (1), K. Weinert3 (1)

1
WZL, Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering, Aachen University, Germany
2
Division of Production Technology and IWT, Bremen University, Germany
3
Department of Machining Technology, University of Dortmund, Germany

Abstract:
This keynote paper aims at matching the supply of research results with the industrial demands in hard cutting
and grinding. The capability profiles of the processes are characterised and several manufacturing solutions
are discussed. The comparison of hard cutting and grinding operations is carried out with regard to certain
evaluation criteria based on the functionality of the machined workpiece itself, discussed at different levels,
and the process economical efficiency. The basis for a roadmap of future development of hard machining
technology is provided, e. g. the main technological developments associated with multi-processing hard
machining concepts are given detailed consideration.

Keywords:
Abrasive; Cutting; Machining

1 INTRODUCTION process reliability when machining a workpiece with a

Many practical applications require components to be
hardened in order to improve their wear behaviour. In the
manufacturing chain, the hardening process is usually
followed by a finishing operation that generates the
component’s final geometry. At the end of the process
chain several requirements are made of the tool and
process itself [1], [2].
All workpiece features result from the design phase where
they are assigned to certain functionalities. Besides the
workpiece material and changes in its microstructure due
to the hardening operation, the component’s surface,
shape and dimensions are crucial to ensure these
functionalities.
Traditionally, the finishing operations are grinding
processes, but within the last years, hard cutting
operations have become more and more capable with
respect to surface roughness and IT standards.
Additionally, these processes offer a higher flexibility,
increased material removal rates and even the possibility
of dry machining [3], [4], [5].
With respect to grinding, industry demands an increased
process flexibility, higher material removal rates and the
possibility to use MQL or even dry machining. Innovative
concepts within the last years, particularly in the area of
tool and process design, were responsible for higher
applicable material removal rates and an increased
process flexibility (high speed grinding and high
performance external peel grinding). However, it is still not
possible to abandon coolant lubrication in grinding.
In hard cutting, tool wear is still a fundamental issue. Low
surface roughness, minimal microstructural alterations and
high dimensional accuracy are attainable with unworn
cutting tools on stiff, accurate machine tools. Production
economics, however, requires a maximum tool life to justify
tool cost. The process may be considered viable only if
component quality can be ensured throughout the required
tool life. Mechanisms of cutting tool wear and tool wear
rates have been and still are the subject of various
research activities. The main objective is to achieve a
maximum efficiency while maintaining a demanded
given specification in surface, form and shape [6], [7], [8],
[9].
White layers at the workpiece surface are considered
detrimental to component performance, primarily in relation
to either contact/ rolling fatigue or structural fatigue. White
layers are produced by both, grinding and turning
processes. White layers resulting from turning operations
are of particular interest. Further investigations are
required to determine the functional behaviour of affected
components, and to evaluate the impact of structurally
influenced surface layers on the component’s functionality.
Several CIRP colleagues have made important progress in
the area of hard machining, their work is the basis for this
comprehensive overview over the different hard cutting
and grinding processes [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16].
2 INITIAL SITUATION / OBJECTIVES
Production technology is assigned to the task to transform
a workpiece into its final shape, while considering certain
requirements. For a machined component these
requirements can be generalised in one sentence: The
component has to fulfil its duty over a defined period of
time under certain conditions.
The design and production departments have to achieve
this goal designing the component and defining the
workpiece characteristics. Subsequently along the
manufacturing process, the production has to assure that
each machined workpiece complies with the defined
requirements.
Therefore, it is necessary to look at the capability profiles
of hard cutting and grinding operations with the focus on
the workpiece itself. Industrial requirements regarding the
different geometrical features of a component are defined
by several characteristical values, for example Ra or Rz
values for surface roughness. Even though these values
are commonly used, they may not be suitable to compare
workpieces or to scale the properties of a workpiece for
different applications machined with different cutting
procedures [17], [18], [19].
Fundamental scientific research should lead to a better
understanding of the manufacturing process itself. These
fundamental results cannot be transferred directly into
production, as industry would demand. On the other hand,
if there are approaches for fundamental changes in
production processes or procedures, industry is reluctant,
following the principle “Never change a running system”.
As a conclusion, the main challenge for the academic/
scientific research is to offer research results in the form of
solutions, which are demanded by industry [4], [6].
Research facilities have to improve hard cutting and
grinding processes in order to increase the technological
capability and to extend the areas of application.
These academic research results can either not be
transferred to the specific industrial manufacturing process,
or economical aspects and ancillary conditions make it
difficult to choose the most suitable manufacturing
procedure for the application.
The aim of this keynote paper is to improve the coherence
between the research results and the industrial demands in
hard cutting and grinding. To achieve this, the capability
profiles of the processes are characterised and several
manufacturing solutions are discussed based on case
studies.
3 PROCESS CAPABILITIES
The comparison of the process capabilities of hard cutting
and grinding operations has to be carried out with regard to
certain evaluation criteria. The evaluation criteria utilised in
this paper are the results of the manufacturing process:
The functionality of the machined workpiece itself and the
economic efficiency of the process.
The functionality which the workpiece has to fulfil after the
machining process, can be divided into different groups:
• Mechanical functions (capability of
carrying mechanical loads)
• Thermal functions (heat resistance or
temperature conductivity)
• Tribological functions (surface interaction
with other media)
• Optical functions (visible appearance,
light reflection behaviour)
• Flow functions (influence on the flow of fluids)
A practical application, a gear shaft for example, often
requires a superposition of different functions, like e.g. the
capability to carry mechanical loads combined with a
defined tribological behaviour. The capability of the
manufacturing processes with regard to the workpiece
functionality can be discussed at different levels. When
dividing the workpiece into geometrical features, the
characteristics of each feature can be described at four
levels, starting with the geometry of the element and
scaling down to the chemical interaction at the atomic
scale:
• Macro: accuracy in shape and dimension
• Micro: surface topography
• Meso: material structure and properties (e.g. residual
stresses)
• Nano: tribochemical reaction layers
Each manufacturing process in hard cutting and grinding
influences the workpiece properties on all levels with a
direct link to the functionality. The extent and the nature of
this influence (enhancement or degradation of workpiece
properties) can be described by the process capabilities.
Another important capability is the economic efficiency of
the process. In addition to the machining of the workpiece
according to the demanded properties, industrial
applications impose additional requirements on the
manufacturing process. Consequently, when discussing
process capabilities of hard cutting and grinding, process
reliability, tool wear, material removal rate and
environmental aspects also have to be considered.
The economic efficiency is connected to the workpiece
properties and must not be evaluated solely. An increase
in material removal rate or tool wear has an impact on the
workpiece surface layer and consequently on the
component’s properties and its functional behaviour. An
evaluation of the economic efficiency has to be done with
regard to the defined workpiece requirements.
3.1 Workpiece properties: Surface layer
The manufacturing of technical components by forming,
cutting, abrasive or electro-discharge machining is
accompanied by modifications of the surface layer
resulting from the thermal and mechanical loads of the
manufacturing processes [20]. The thermo-mechanical
effect can cause changes in the material concerning
microstructure, hardness and residual stresses [21], [22].
In cutting and abrasive processes the introduced
mechanical energy is nearly completely converted into
heat. Depending on the amount of energy required for
microstructural changes, cracks as well as hardness
decrease or even zones of increased hardness followed by
an annealed layer can occur. Such structures are called
white and dark etching areas (WEA, DEA) due to their
image in micrographs. The reasons for the formation of
white and dark etching layers in hardened steels are short-
time metallurgical processes which occur under specific
cutting conditions [23].
The occurrence of white layers cannot be attributed to one
specific machining procedure [24], [25], [26], [27]. The type
and the composition of WEA´s only depend on the material
transformations occurring in specific time-temperature
cycles.
Thermo-mechanical influence of hard machining
The occasional occurrence of white layers in machining
hardened steel proves that short-time metallurgical
processes can be induced by the respective chip formation
mechanisms. The chip formation mechanisms in hard
machining were first investigated by Ackerschott [28], who
postulated high compressive stresses in the surface layer
causing cracks in front of the cutting tool under an angle of
45° to the surface. At the same time the material is
plastically deformed by the rounded cutting edge. The
sliding of a chip segment along the crack reduces the
compressive stresses until a further crack is induced due
to the continuous movement of the tool [29]. Tönshoff and
Brand [30], [31] explained the segmented chip formation by
the hydrostatic compressive stresses in front of the tool
resulting in plastic flow of the hardened steel. Furthermore,
Brand showed that WEA in hard turned steels consists of
martensite and austenite and proved that the amount of
austenite within the white layer depends on the steel’s
carbon content [32].
In high speed cutting of steels segmented chips have also
been observed [33]. M´Sbaoubi and Lebrun postulated that
at very high cutting speeds the high strained regions are
localised in thin bands called adiabatic shearing bands. In
these regions, white layers occur, which are expected to
consist of austenite. Due to the small thickness of the white
layers this assumption could not be proven by a detailed
analysis.
Due to the small depths of cut and high cutting speeds in
grinding, other chip formation mechanisms occur. These
can be characterised by the terms cutting, flowing,
ploughing and furrowing [34], [35], [36]. Depending on the
dominating chip formation mechanism due to the It is shown that the highest values of the specific cutting
respective machining conditions, different thermal and power P”c occur in hard turning. According to the geometric
mechanical loads are generated, Figure 1. and kinematic conditions, the contact time tc between tool
Many investigations have shown that approximately all and workpiece surface is significantly lower in cutting than
mechanical power is dissipated into heat, causing power in grinding, resulting in significantly lower specific energies
densities of up to some 100 W/mm² which are comparable e”c in hard cutting (HC). This might be the main reason that
to those in laser hardening processes. Furthermore, the white layers in HC usually have a smaller extent compared
heat impact in cutting and grinding processes is to white layers in grinding [39], [40].
significantly shorter than one second per volume material, Finally, it has to be pointed out, that the generation of white
so that the requirements for the occurrence of short-time layers can be avoided by adapted process parameters. If a
metallurgical processes in machining steel are fulfilled [20], WEA is formed, its composition and type can be derived
[37], [38]. from the material transformation behaviour and the time-
temperature profile in the surface layer. In order to assess,
whether the WEA has to be regarded as a damage of the
Mechanical energy supply part, the operational loading has to be taken into account,
because a WEA does not cause deterioration of the part’s
Pc = Fc ·vc Pc = Ft·vc properties.
Metallurgical fundamentals of phase transformations in
Fn steels
bonding
tool White layers are structures of different compositions which
vs are generated by specific thermal and mechanical loads
vc
the material is exposed to. In machining steel, the thermal
grain impact can lead to high temperatures and structural
vw alterations. Due to the heating, the transition of the body-
workpiece
centred cube iron mixed crystal (α-phase) into the face-
centred cube modification (γ-phase) as well as the solution
Figure 1: Energy conversion in grinding and cutting [25]. of cementite and diffusion of carbon into the γ-phase
(austenite) takes place between the specific temperature
In order to compare the thermomechanical impact of range AC1 and AC3 [42].
different types of machining operations on the surface of a In short-time heat treatments, the critical quenching rate
steel part, a rough estimation of the energy dissipation can can be reached by heat conduction to the cooler bulk
be carried out based on measured process forces, tool material – the self-quenching effect – resulting in the
wear and cutting speeds. In Table 1 the calculation of the formation of very fine-grained structures, which can appear
specific energy e”c dissipating into the workpiece in as a white layer in micrographs. These white layers are
different machining operations is compared for external characterised by high hardness and corrosion resistance,
traverse cutting and grinding tests. but also by high brittleness. Such short-time metallurgical
processes are responsible for the formation of rehardened
Parameters Grinding zones, which are difficult to etch and, therefore, appear as
a white layer [43], [44].
machining parameters vc = 35 m/s, ap = 2.5 mm,
lg = 0.6 mm White layer on machined steels
machining forces Ft = 70 N The terms “white layer” or WEA are widely used without
making distinctions between different types of white layers
cutting power Pc = Ft⋅vc = 2450 W and, moreover, they are often associated with a damage of
spec. cutting power P"c = Pc/(aplg) = the component. Nevertheless, it is well known that several
1633 W/mm² types of white layers exist which are significantly differing
concerning their technological properties. Thus “white
partition ratio R = 0.35 layer” is not a sufficient characterisation, but just a
spec. heat quantity q"w = R⋅P"c = 572 W/mm² description of the structure’s appearance in micrographs.
contact time tc = lg/vc = 28.8 ms Experimental investigations have shown that the structure
of white layers at the surface of ground steel parts or
spec. traveling energy e"c = q"w⋅tc = 16.5 J/mm² segmented chips becomes visible after tempering at 150°C
Parameters Hard cutting for one hour [45]. These results indicate that WEA do not
consist of amorphous material. They are formed by
machining parameters vc = 150 m/min, extremely fine grained martensitic and austenitic
lc = 0.8 mm, VB = 0.2 mm crystallites as well as by fine carbides.
machining forces Fc = 300 N White layers can be divided into two groups with respect to
cutting power Pc = Fc⋅vc = 750 W their etching behaviour. When applying special etching
chemicals or increased etching times, white layers of the
spec. cutting power P"c = Pc/(ap⋅lc) = first group still remain white, while white layers of the
4688 W/mm² second group are affected by the chemicals and a fine-
partition ratio R = 0.15 grained martensitic structure becomes visible. The so-
called butterflies in high-loaded ball bearing races and the
spec. heat quantity q"w = R⋅P"c = 703 W/mm² white layers on electro-discharge machined surfaces often
contact time tc = VB/vc = 0.08 ms belong to the first group. Both are characterised by high
spec. traveling energy brittleness and susceptibility to cracking and are therefore
e"c = q"w⋅tc = 0.056 J/mm²
regarded as a damage of the component [46]. The second
group contains fine-grained martensitic structures, which
Table 1: Estimation of energy dissipation in grinding
may arise in short-time heat treatment operations. In some
and cutting [41].
cases also austenitic layers were detected [46], [47].
These white layers can show decisive advantages
compared to conventionally hardened structures because 400 α-Fe 46 Cr 2 (SAE 5045)
of their fine grained structure, higher hardness and
300

Intensity
improved corrosion resistance. Therefore, white layers on
machined surfaces need to be analysed exactly before an 200 α-Fe
assessment of the resulting properties of the part – with
Fe3O4
respect to its operational loading - can be carried out. 100 RA Fe
RA Fe3O4 RA
In order to investigate white layers after machining,
tempered samples of the hypoeutectoid steel SAE 5045 0
and the hypereutectoid ball bearing steel AISI 52100 have 40 60 80 100 120 140 deg.
been dry ground to produce thick white layers, Figure 2, Diffraction angle 2θ
Figure 3.
Surface 400 RA 100 Cr 6 (AISI EN 52100)
300

Intensity
WEA α-Fe
200
RA RA α-Fe
100 Fe3O4 Fe3O4 α-Fe
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 deg.
Diffraction angle 2θ

100 µm Figure 3: Phase analysis of white layers [26].

Material: 46Cr 2 (SAE 5045)
Surface
WEA
100 µm
Material: 100Cr 6 (AISI EN 52100)
Figure 2: Microstructure of white layers [26].
A qualitative phase analysis by means of X-ray diffraction
proves that the white layer on a hypoeutectoid steel
consists of martensite (α-Fe peak) almost without retained
austenite (RA peak). On the contrary, the analysis of the
white layer on hypereutectoid steel shows a pronounced
austenite peak, which indicates a large amount of retained
austenite within the white layer. This result is based on the
short-time metallurgical processes induced by the heat
during grinding and occurs in good agreement with the
transformation behaviour of steels [48]. Similar results
concerning the formation of white layers have also been
proven for hard turning processes [30], [49].
These results show that material removal processes can
be interpreted as unintentional heat treatments of the
annealed, tempered or hardened material. While the
manufacturing process influences the temperature-time
cycle and the extent of the heat affected zone, the type of
surface modification depends on the material composition
and microstructure.
Mechanical properties
Hard cutting and grinding processes have to create the
final geometry and surface topography of the workpiece, to
ensure its functionality. To achieve more wear resistance,
the workpieces are hardened before the finish-machining.
Depending on the heat treatment, the workpieces are
through hardened or surface hardened. The thermal and
mechanical impact of the manufacturing procedures can
lead to modifications in the surface layer’s microstructure
which results also in a change in the mechanical properties
of the component [50], [51], [52].
The cutting processes generate a thermal load with a very
short impact time, in comparison to conventional heat
treatments. If the temperature exceeds the austenite
formation temperature, massive changes in the material’s
microstructure can be noticed. These structural changes
mainly depend on the heating and cooling rate as well as
the maximum temperature reached in the contact area
[37], [53], [54], [55], [56].
The physical qualities of the workpiece surfaces depend on
these thermal and mechanical loads, applied by the
manufacturing processes, Figure 4. In hard turning the
maximum tensile stress occurs directly at the surface, the
amount of structural changes in the sum ( the white layer in
combination with the annealing zone) is smaller, compared
to grinding, and of smaller importance for the behaviour in
the surface region. The maximum tensile stress in grinding
can be located underneath the surface in deeper regions of
the subsurface zone [57], [58]. The structural changes
mostly result in annealing zones near the surface, in cases
of further increasing of the thermal load, white layers can
emerge [31], [59], [60], [61], [62], [63].
Generally, the processes hard turning and plunge-grinding
are not directly comparable. The contact zone in plunge
grinding is obviously bigger and remains at the same
location for the complete duration of the process. In hard
turning, the contact zone is much smaller and moves along
the workpiece. The time of the thermal impact on the
surface layer is much shorter. Additionally, in hard turning,
the biggest amount of heat is generated in the area of chip
formation, in front of the cutting tool. The largest share of
the generated heat is dissipated with the chips. In grinding,
the heat originates below the grinding wheel. The heat is
only partly dissipated by the chips and enters the
workpiece surface layer. These differences between the
processes must always be considered when the results
(the workpieces) are compared.
Grinding
Workpiece without structural change
initiation. According to Siebel and Gaier, there is no
surface influence on the fatigue strength below an average
surface roughness of Rz = 1 µm. With an increasing
surface roughness, the influence of the micro-geometrical
notches on the fatigue strength gains more and more
importance. This characterisation of the surface influence
by the variable Rz is inadequate, because hard turning and
grinding generate different surface structures as shown in
Figure 5 [66], [67].

σII Hard-turning:
Surface properties DIN EN ISO 13565
Rz = 3.3 µm
Ra = 0.8 µm
z
Bulk Rm = 1.3 µm
20 µm
material Rvk = 0.3 µm
Rk = 0.4 µm
A2 = 2.4 µm²/mm²
Workpiece with structural change

White σII
layer

20 µm 1 µm
Annealed
z Rz = 3.3 µm 70 µm
layer

Notch-effect

Hard turning
Grinding:
Workpiece without structural change Surface properties DIN EN ISO 13565
Rz = 3.2 µm
Ra = 0.6 µm
σII Rm = 1.8 µm
Rvk = 0.4 µm
Rk = 0.6 µm
A2 = 3.5 µm²/mm²
Bulk 20 µm z
material

Workpiece with structural change

1 µm
White 70 µm
σII
layer Rz = 3.2 µm
Notch-effect

Annealed Figure 5: Profile of ground and hard turned surface with

layer
20 µm
z: distance below surface σ: residual stress
Figure 4: Surface integrity after grinding and
hard turning [59], [62], [64].
3.2 Workpiece properties: Surface structure
Effect of roughness
The surface structure is responsible for the mechanical
function of the component as well as for its fatigue
strength. Hard turning and grinding processes create
different surface structures and layers [65]. The valleys in
the surface can be considered as micro-geometrical
notches. These notches, together with macro-geometrical
features (cranks, undercuts, etc.), lead to a stress
concentration and are a preferred location for crack
z
properties after DIN EN ISO 13565 [66], [68].
The notches of the ground and hard turned surfaces differ
in depth and occurrence. Woehler fatigue strength tests
with a constant amplitude of the test pieces show that the
specimens that were hard turned using unworn tools
exhibit a higher fatigue strength than the ground
specimens. Only if a massive tool wear (VBC = 200 µm)
occurs, does the fatigue strength of the hard turned test
pieces drop below the fatigue strength of the ground ones
[4], [66].
The difference in the surface roughness structure becomes
obvious in Figure 6. It would be even more obvious if the
same scale was chosen. The turned surface with the
engagement of one single cutting edge shows a nearly
regular peak and valley distribution [69]. The distance
between the single peaks is much wider than in grinding.
The multiple cutting edge engagement shows a more cleft
surface with only a small distance between the peaks.
Even if the dimension of the width of the roughness profile
over the complete measured surface is the same, the
distance and the height between one single peak and 4
valley is completely different in hard turning and grinding Grinding

Measured roughness
[70], [71], [72].
Hard turning
3

values [µm]
Bearing steel, 100Cr6
2

0
5 µm

2 µm
Ra Rp Rv Rt Rz Rq

50 µm 25 µm Figure 7: Comparison of hard turned and

ground surfaces [74].
cBN hard turning cBN plunge grinding Among the roughness characteristics related to the form of
the topography structure, the bearing length ratio in hard
Figure 6: Surface structure in hard turning turning and grinding shows a different result between these
and grinding [73]. two processes, Figure 8.

Comparison of 2D parameters of hard turned and ground

profiles
The geometrical quality is one criterion for the surface
quality. The relation between the surface topography and
the functionality is subject of an increasing number of
research activities. Earlier, an average surface roughness
was indicated in a technical drawing. Nowadays, several
surface values are prescribed in precision machining.
Often, these operations are grinding operations. However,
state of the art hard turning operations can achieve surface
values, which are, under certain conditions, equal to or
even better than the results achieved in grinding
operations [74], [75].
Next to the outer diameter grinding and hard turning, the
difference in the surface topography can also be observed
in applications with inner diameter machining. Listed below
is an example for bores generated by inner diameter hard
turning and grinding:
Workpiece:
• Material: 16MnCr5, 61-63 HRC
• Dimension: D = 48 G6; l = 27.35 mm
Hard turning:
• Tool: PcBN CNGA 120408 7020
• Process: nw = 1190 1/min; f = 0.08 mm/rev;
vc = 180 m/min
Grinding:
• Tool: A80-k7 V22, 40x40x16
• Process: nw = 160 1/min; vfr = 2.2 m/min
vc = 33 m/s
The values for the average roughness value Ra and the
root-mean-square deviation of the profile Rq were about
the same in both finishing processes, Figure 7. The
measured parameter did not exceed 0.5 µm. The Rz value,
characterising the height of the peaks to the valleys shows
a better result in hard turning than in grinding [74]. The
comparison of different surface parameters shows the
dissimilarity between the hard turned and ground feature.
Even if one value is the same, both surfaces cannot be
considered as “nearly the same” with equal properties. One
surface value is not sufficient for the characterisation of a
topography.
Level of the profile section [µm]
0
Hard turned
0.6 Ground
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Profile bearing length ratio, tp [%]
Figure 8: Comparison of bearing length curve ratio for
grinding and hard turning [74].
The skewness of the profile is about the same, the value is
negative for both processes. The skewness is a variable
for the characterisation of the symmetry of material
disposition of the profile. If the peaks and valleys are
normal distributed, which is true for a symmetric profile, the
skewness is zero. Any asymmetrical profile is causing a
deviation from Rsk = 0. If the surface has more valleys
than peaks, e.g. a honed surface, the skewness will be
negative, and vice versa. Figure 9 shows some reference
examples.
Considering the skewness Rsk of the profile, Figure 10,
and the curve of the profile bearing length ratio, it can be
stated that the negative Rsk value, which indicates a better
fluid retention property [76], and the more advantageous
profile bearing length ratio ensure higher wear resistance
and a better functional behaviour for surfaces. From this
perspective in this case hard turning is the recommended
manufacturing procedure.
These results show that hard turning operations are
capable to generate surfaces which usually are
manufactured by grinding operations [74].
 amplitude plunge ground and no correlation between the
distribution curve manufacturing process and the leakage could be identified
[80].
During hard turning the cutting edge creates a helix on the
profile z

workpiece surface. The effects on the workpiece behaviour

x have not been completely investigated yet. However, there
Rsk < 0 are several approaches to measure the parameter in order
to describe the helix and to relate e.g. the operating
behaviour of gear shafts to the formation of this helix [81],
[82].
profile z

In most applications, the roughness is measured two-

x Rsk = 0
dimensionally with a stylus in line tracing, generating a
x-z image of the surface. Three dimensional features like a
helix on a rotational workpiece cannot be measured with
this standard equipment. If future research activities aim to
evaluate the influence of further surface structure/
profile z

roughness characteristics (2D and 3D) on the application

x behaviour of the machined components, a need for new
Rsk > 0 measurement techniques and devices arises. Even if the
0 different manufacturing procedures in hard cutting and
1 1 3 grinding are analysed with the focus on the surface
Rq3 l ∫l
Rsk = ⋅ Z ( x ) dx
structure, the three dimensional acquisition of the surface
topography is necessary. Some of these methods, using
Figure 9: Skewness of different surface topographies [77]. optical principles, are developed quite far. They are the
basis for measurement devices, like the white-light-
In this case, the hard turning operation was performed with interferometer. However, these devices are not commonly
a new tool, so there were optimal conditions in this respect. used in industrial applications yet and also research
An increasing tool wear will influence the surface facilities mostly use tactile 2D stylus devices [83].
topography and generate different surface variables than a
unworn tool. Therefore, future research also has to 3.3 Steps to a higher process reliability in hard
address tool wear and its effects on surface cutting
characteristics. Tool geometry, defects and wear patterns
Wear of PcBN cutting tools in hard cutting is caused by
Grinding Hard turning various mechanisms. Abrasion and small scale attrition of
0 the cutting edge are thought to cause the majority of the
wear [84].
Having described the mechanisms involved in hard turning
-0.1
in [85], it is also important to assess the way in which wear
Measured Rsk values

manifests itself on the cutting tool. Wear on the tool face,

-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
Figure 10: Comparison of the skewness of the profile in
grinding and hard turning [74].
Feed effects on the surface topography
When the tool is moved over the surface of a workpiece,
feed marks may occur on the machined surface. These
can be seen for example on milled flat surfaces or on
rotational parts, machined by hard turning. Some
applications, like a radial shaft sealing ring, according to
DIN 3761, demand a surface without any feed marks [78],
[79].
In the case of rotational components, only plunge grinding
or plunge turning can generate a surface without any feed
marks. Any kind of traverse grinding creates a threadlike
structure, often visible, but difficult to measure with
conventional tactile measurement devices.
Latest investigations, however, indicated that the turned
structure does not have any negative effects on the seal
behaviour. Several test shafts were hard turned and
cutting edge and flank are surrounded by areas where no
tribological contact takes place. The extreme pressure and
temperatures on the tool face are caused by the chip flow.
In particular at high cutting speeds, crater wear occurs
underneath the chip. Crater wear changes the effective
rake face angle and leads to a changing cutting behaviour.
Excessive crater wear weakens the tool immediately
behind the cutting edge. As a result, a sudden break down
of the cutting edge can take place [86].
The flank wear occurs as a flattened area on the cutting
tool. The width of flank wear, referred to as the flank wear
land width VB, is traditionally considered a good indicator
of the state of the cutting tool.
An increase in flank wear land width leads to increased
friction between cutting tool and workpiece. As a
consequence a higher thrust force and more heat are
created in the cutting process. As the heat generated by
friction cannot be removed in the chip it has a direct impact
on the workpiece. It was shown that a flank wear land width
of 100 – 150 µm does not lead to workpiece damage, e.g.
to significant white layer formation on the workpiece
surface [87].
Major wear patterns which appear in the tool reference
plane are a wear flat resulting from flank wear and notch
wear [76]. The wear flat leads to an increase in effective
cutting tool radius rε and the change in cutting edge shape
and topography influences the achievable surface finish.
The notch wear always seems to occur on the trailing edge
of the cutting tool and correlates to the position with the
area of low chip thickness. The high pressures in the
region of the minimum undeformed chip thickness cause
plastic deformation of the cutting edge, creating the notch
to form. Subsequently, abrasive wear on the length of the
engaged cutting edge forces the cutting edge to retreat.
Further abrasive wear on the leading edge of the cutting
tool leads to a distinct change in the shape of the cutting
tool where the achievable surface finish mainly depends on
the angle of the newly created trailing edge.
Current research activities identify that the aim of a hard
turning process with a higher process capability is closely
linked to a better understanding of how the surfaces in
hard turning are generated and how tool state affects
surface roughness [88], [89], [90].
By introducing a material partition equation which
determines the proportional contribution of material
removal mechanisms in the undeformed chip a
comprehensive method for assessing the contributing
factors in material removal was developed in [87], [88]. It
has been shown that the surfaces in hard turning are
almost exclusively generated by chip removal and plastic
deformation. As shown in Figure 11 it was possible to
attribute magnitudes of the influencing factors with respect
to cutting parameter, tool geometry, and the main
disturbances – tool defects and machine vibration [89],
[90].
surface roughness Rt [µm]
6 Rt.A
5
4
3 Rt.th
2 100 µm
1 DIMAT
0
0 0.05
proportion of roughness [%]
100
80
60
40
20
0 100 µm
0.005 0.03
0.01
R t.A asynchronous machine tool error
R t.s roughness related to tool defect size
R t.th roughness related to the tool profile
Figure 11: Weighting of relevant influence parameter on
surface roughness [90].
The achievable surface roughness at a given feed rate is
determined by the macroscopic tool geometry for high
feeds (f > 100 µm) and by the size and shape of defects of
the cutting edge for lower feeds (50 – 80 µm). In addition to
standard cutting parameters, defects of the cutting edge,
characterised by their height and width, affect surface
roughness more than any other input in the medium feed
range. At low feeds, machine vibration becomes a
significant contributor to roughness (< 50 µm). Cutting
tests in which PcBN grades of different tool manufacturers
where used reflected these surface roughness prediction
trends.
Measuring tool profiles of unused PcBN cutting tools
reveals that the cutting edge geometry is far from a perfect
circular arc of defined radius. Peaks and valleys in the
order of 0.5 µm height and 10 µm width can be seen and
the exact shape of the active engagement area changes
from tool to tool.
The pictures in Figure 12 clearly show the importance of
monitoring the tool cutting edge quality, especially for
typical feed rates of high precision finishing applications. A
more detailed specification for cutting edge roughness
would be useful for optimising the hard turning process,
e.g. by describing the level of cutting edge waviness,
roughness, and sharpness.
grinding scratches (direction, amplitude)
Rt.s
15 kV X 300 19 mm
0.1 0.15 0.2
feed f [mm]
non uniform coating quality
R t.A
R t.s
R t.th
edge preparation, chipping
0.07 0.11 0.15
0.05 0.09 0.13 DIMAT 15 kV X 300 23 mm
feed f [mm]
Figure 12: SEM Analysis: Tool insert defects [91].
For example, significant optimisation steps of gear hard
turning in an industrial production environment are partly
based on such a proposed analysis of unused PcBN
inserts with respect to tool defects, e.g. grinding scratches,
tool edge chipping, or non conform coating processes [91].
It was found in [90] that there is a very good agreement
between actual edge profile and surface topography on
hard turned surfaces. Obviously in hard turning the
combination of chip removal and plastic deformation leads
to a nearly perfect imprint of the cutting tool on the
workpiece surface. The conclusion is drawn that in hard
turning the elastic deformation of the workpiece surface is
replaced by complete plastic deformation of the workpiece
surface as the chip thickness falls below a critical threshold
value [89].
The tool cutting edge is clearly identified as a highly critical
microscopic interfacial region between the tool and the
workpiece and further research activities are necessary.
Tool technology: Cutting tool material and geometry
The wide range of applications where PcBN can be used
impose quite different demands on the cutting tool. To
adjust cutting tool material and geometry to specific
situations, a fundamental understanding of the
relationships between workpiece properties (surface
roughness, micro structure) and tool properties (material,
geometry) is necessary.
PcBN shows extremely high hot-hardness in combination
with excellent toughness as a function of the composition
of the PcBN grade regarding PcBN content, grain size and
binder composition. To approach the choice of PcBN grade
from the user perspective a simple look-up device for
machinists and engineers to determine the most suitable
PcBN grade for a specific application would be desirable.
However, commercial grades of PcBN cutting tools vary
One development in cutting tools geometry is the use of
so-called “wiper” cutting tools. Wiper inserts are designed
to combine the high feed capability and high quality surface
finish given by round inserts and the low cutting force and
flexibility permitted by sharp pointed inserts. This is
achieved by transferring a small part of a large round insert
edge into the straight cutting edges of the pointed insert.
Tool fingerprints show clearly that the wiper tool gives
much lower roughness than the round-nose cutting tool at
high feed rates (f > 150 µm), Figure 14. Since tool
manufacturers are developing more complex wiper
geometries it is still a relevant question to what extent the
variation of tool cutting edge geometry influences the
workpiece properties, tool wear state and the residual
stress state in the part’s surface layer.
14
standard tool, rε = 0.8 mm
12

average surface roughness R a [µm]

widely in composition and structure. As a general rule, it is
not recommended to select grades for particular standard tool, rε = 1.2 mm
application areas based solely on material composition and 10
micro-structural characteristics. With cemented carbide
cutting tools, materials of differing compositions may be standard tool, rε = 1.6 mm
used for similar application areas and vice versa. 8
For PcBN cutting tools, there are several key application wiper tool, rε = 0.8 mm
areas in which the cutting materials employed share 6
compositional and micro-structural similarities. Figure 13
summarises the characteristics of the cutting tool materials round tool,
used within different application areas, in terms of cBN 4 rε = 6 mm
content, grain size and binder type. There are exceptions
to these trends and it is important to note that the
performance of individual grades of PcBN is largely 2
controlled by proprietary processes from the materials
manufacturer. 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Application % cBN Grain Size Binder feed f [mm]
Area (µm)
Al-ceramic

Ti-ceramic

Figure 14: Tool fingerprints of different tool

insert geometry [91].
Others

& ISO513
Classification
40 90 <1 10 The influence of various parameters on part surface layer
properties are summarised in Table 2.
Hardened Steels
Machining

H01
1) 2)
H10 2
tool
H20 1 tool edge
f/rε d.o.c. flank part
geometry wear material
H30
Residual stress
Grey cast iron
tensile
Hi-Cr iron /
compressive
Superalloys rim zone depth
Sintered tool
steels Micro structure
Dark etching zone
Sintered
hardened steels white layer
1) increasing speed and/or tool material wear resistance 1) increasing negative effective rake angle
2) increasing chip section and/or tool material toughness 2) comparison of 100Cr6 and 16MnCr5 (62 HRC)
(as per ISO 513)

Figure 13: Application of PcBN cutting tool materials in Table 2: Influence parameter and their effect
terms of their composition [92]. on the surface layer [90].

When using PcBN it is generally preferred to use a
negative top rake angle in combination with a chamfer and
an edge hone to provide the strongest possible edge. In
general, such a tool geometry enables the focusing of the
resultant cutting force into the body of the insert.
Generally speaking, it can be concluded that the tool
macro geometry has the most significant influence on the
level of residual stress values. The development of tensile
residual stress in the surface layer of the part is
furthermore closely related to the unavoidable Standard tool holder Modified tool holder
development of tool wear.
The generation of a completely compressive residual
stress state by a specific modification of the tool geometry
still poses an open and demanding research question in
hard turning [93].
Tool technology: Tool and part clamping
As machining standards continue to be raised,
improvements can only be achieved by taking into account
the complete machining system. All components, including
cutting edge, tool holder, tool and workpiece clamping,
machine spindle and machine tool bed, have an effect on
the quality and repeatability of the hard turning process.
Current issues in high precision hard cutting are the Figure 16: Tool clamping design.
requirements regarding surface quality and dimensional
accuracy of the machined components, Figure 15. By changing the part clamping design from a solution with
clamping fingers to a roller cage system, the clamping
contact length between the chuck segments and the gear
0.04 A part is significantly increased. This ensures a higher
dimensional accuracy regarding the teeth diameter
concentricity, which is specified to be less than 40 µm after
hard turning [80]. The diagram in Figure 17 indicates the
0.0062 H higher level of process reliability after the modifications.

0.03 A H
initial clamping design new clamping design
A

0.005
0.007
47.017 +/- 0.008

54.8
17°

Rz 1.6
A

with clamping fingers with roller cages

55
0.05 A
30.014 50
teeth diameter concentricity [µm]

0.005
0.025
45
0.1 B A
40

Figure 15: Typical surface and dimensional accuracy 35

demands in gear hard turning [91].
30
This typical mass product (9000 parts/week) combines
high demands concerning dimensional accuracy, e.g. 25
boring diameter +/- 8 µm, with strict limitations regarding
form and surface quality (max. teeth concentricity of 20
40 µm, bore hole roundness of 7 µm and maximum
surface roughness of Rz = 1.6 µm). One factor that has 15
been shown to have a significant effect on the quality of
hard turned components is the selection of the tool insert 10
and the part clamping. In hard machining tests the
combination of both, a new insert design and an advanced 1 7 13 19 25
part clamping system, has proved to be beneficial for the Part number
process stability. Figure 16 illustrates the way of adaptating
the tool clamping device which leads, in combination with Figure 17: Part clamping design in gear hard turning [91].
the modification of the part clamping, to a substantial
improvement of the process accuracy (Figure 17). Tool technology: Plunge turning
The implementation of a flange improves the insert Further improvements in hard turning have been achieved
flattening effect and reduces vibrations during cutting. with the introduction of plunge turning. The plunging
Additionally, the flange improves chip breakage and chip process consists of hard turning with an orthogonal cut. In
evacuation. As a result, the scatter in tool life is comparison to conventional hard turning the surface
significantly reduced. roughness is mainly dependent on the tool cutting edge
quality, and the sealing properties of the workpiece are
equal to ground surfaces. Due to the very short cutting
time, the plunging tool insert develops less flank wear and maximum compactness and at the same time a greater
the surface integrity is superior to conventionally hard diameter of the revolving shaft (Figure 19).
turned parts. By reducing the feed rate to a minimal chip
thickness, it has been possible to tailor the component’s
surface integrity.

4 CASE STUDIES OF HARD CUTTING AND

GRINDING PROCESSES
4.1 CVT shaft grinding and hard turning
The application of different hard machining processes was
investigated in the European project “Development of
Innovative Manufacturing Technologies For Reducing
Process Chain”. The focus of this project was the
manufacture of a CVT (Continuous Variable Transmission) Figure 19: CVT clamping solution.
gear shaft (Figure 18). After several series of CVT shaft manufacturing, five
operations have been identified as the final machining
sequence. These five operations include continuous and
Dimension criteria /mm
interrupted cutting sequences as well as cutting of cone
Diameter D52 - continuous cut 52.6 0/-0.012 and radius profiles.
Diameter D46 - interrupted cut 46.0 0/-0.012 Focussing on the cylindrical features of the CVT shaft, the
Diameter D40 - continuous cut 40.0 +0.020/+0.009 cutting time in dry hard turning could be reduced to one
third (compared with the application of conventional tool
Profile criteria /mm insert geometry) by implementing wiper tool cutting edges.
Profile cone 0.005 Tool life time was comparable to cutting tests with
conventional tool inserts. As a consequence, significant
Plane run cone 0.020
higher material removal rates could be achieved for dry
Cylindricity D52 0.004
hard turning during machining the cylindrical shaft parts
Concentricity D52 0.020 compared to peal grinding (Figure 20, Figure 21).
The cylindrical part of the CVT shaft can be machined
Surface criteria Ra /µm more beneficial by hard turning, except the region requiring
pulley 0.20 an interrupted cut. In this region, peal grinding can be
D52 /46 /40 0.63 conducted faster. The major problem of interrupted hard
turning consists of the dominance of bulk impact loading
back face 1.25 on the cutting edge generating progressive delamination
(pulley) wear.
pulley cone
The main difference regarding machining efficiency can be
D40 D52 D46 - interrupted cut noted for the plane back face of the pulley where only low
feed rates are possible in peal grinding due to high contact
lengths and high specific material removal rates at the
outer diameter (Figure 20, Figure 21).
back face Radius and cone preparation are the most demanding
(pulley) operations for both machining processes. On one hand,
the grinding process exhibits quality issues due to the
Figure 18: CVT requirements on process capability. engagement conditions between the grinding wheel and
the generated surface (Figure 22).
From an economical point of view, the project was aimed
at reducing manufacturing costs by decreasing the number Plane back face of the pulley peal grinding
of manufacturing steps. Therefore, the high speed peal hard turning
grinding technology and the dry hard turning technology
were compared for the CVT shaft with respect to surface Radius of the pulley
quality, surface integrity, geometrical accuracy, machining
efficiency and process reliability.
Closely linked to today’s industrial needs, the adaptation of Cone of the pulley
the dry hard turning process was an important aspect of
this case study. During the set up of the final Interrupted cutting operation
manufacturing process, a comprehensive front clamping
device was implemented into the machine tool (Figure 19).
This clamping device enables the manufacture of the Continuous cutting operation
whole CVT part in one clamping and consequently reduces
the throughput time for the CVT part significantly.
Due to the requirements towards compactness and 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
stiffness of the tooling, a mix of different tool holder material removal rate Qw [mm3 /s]
systems was chosen. Additionally, a high precision
Figure 20: Comparison material removal rate for hard
tailstock connected to an air coolant system was utilised to
turning and peal grinding.
ensure the specified values for eccentricity
(< 2 µm), concentricity tolerances (< 20 µm) and a On the other hand, the stochastic appearance of tool edge
maximum axial clamping force of 1100 daN. The taper defects and failures in tool edge preparation in hard turning
rollers and needles rolling directly on the body allow a cause deviations of surface roughness between Ra = 0.10
µm and Ra = 0.50 µm at the cone (Figure 22). These
variations could be directly related to the quality of the
chamfer preparation of the hard turning cutting tool.
Plane back face of the pulley
Radius of the pulley
All results for high speed peal grinding in comparison to
dry hard turning show that the advantages of the different
hard machining processes depend strongly on the
geometrical property of the workpiece. Especially with
respect to parts with complex geometry features the case
study suggests that the concept of a multi-processing
machine tool is very promising.

Cone of the pulley 4.2 Hard-Broaching with PcBN

Nowadays, broaching of hardened steel is characterised by
massive use of coolant and a small chip thickness [94],
Interrupted cutting operation [95]. Today’s industrial applications use hard-broaching
tools with geometrically defined cutting edges made of
Continuous cutting operation peal grinding carbide metal combined with wear resistant coatings [96],
hard turning [97].
To examine whether PcBN is also appropriate for hard-
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 broaching, typical parameters for hard machining were
average surface roughness Ra [µm] regarded during the identification of the requirements. The
hard, undamped impact when the cutting edge enters the
Figure 21: Comparison of average surface roughness of workpiece combined with the maximum cutting depth is a
hard turning and peal grinding. characteristic feature of broaching. Therefore, a high
toughness and strength of the PcBN is required. For the
experiments, 6 different PcBN specifications were used
0.012 dry hard turning with variations in binder, quantity of cBN and porosity. For
0.005 a characterisation of the different PcBN grades from
0.004 0.009
0.004 several suppliers, the following categories can be used.
0.005 The main differences between the used PcBN grades lie in
the binder types used and the percentage of cBN. All
0.004 0.005 PcBN grades had a ceramic binder which is not described
0.003 in more detail by the different PcBN providers. PcBN 100
0.004 represents a grade with a high cBN content. A PcBN type
170 is characterised by a medium cBN content and 200,
based on 25 parts 250, 300 and 400 are characterised by low cBN contents.
The cBN toughness decreases from PcBN 100 to PcBN
400.
0.015 The first step within this research considered the wear
0.013 0.012 behaviour when machining at high cutting speed under dry
0.009 0.006 conditions (Figure 23). Each insert of PcBN was used until
0.003
failure occurred. To ensure the reproducibility and to
0.018 acquire statistically valid results, three experiments for
0.020 each of the PcBN specifications were conducted and
0.007 average values were calculated from the data.
peal grinding

Figure 22: Comparison of shape and position accuracy for

peal grinding and dry hard turning. 140 PcBN
120 100 PcBN
cutting distance [m]

The major limitation with respect to an improvement of the 170

CVT radius’ surface quality after the dry hard turning 100 PcBN
operation has been identified: Although tool insert 250
80
geometry and feed rate parameters were varied in a wide PcBN 300
range, all surface profiles are similar. The main reason is 60 PcBN PcBN 400
the limited capability of the machine tool control to 200
40
generate the tool path and to take into account the
interdependencies to the structural behaviour of each 20
single mechanical component. 0
Concerning the shape and position tolerances, the workpiece: 90MnCrV8 (60 HRC)
requirements were met more accurately in hard turning cutting conditions:
than in grinding. This can be attributed to different key dry / cutting depth 0.09 mm / cutting speed 90 m/min
criteria for a successful application of the hard turning
process: Figure 23: Cutting distance for different PcBN
1. High quality heat treatment of the raw parts to ensure specifications [98].
a uniform hardness of all geometry features.
The cutting depth was defined to ap = 0.09 mm; more than
2. Extensive experimental knowledge about the thermal 6 times the cutting depth used for a conventional solution –
behaviour of the machine tool components and cemented carbide tool with coolant. It is noted that the
derivation of a compensation strategy. cutting distances increase with an increasing cBN content.
3. Selection of the most suitable tooling and clamping The best result was achieved by the type PcBN 100 which
technology. provided a stable process combined with an extraordinary
4. Strict pre-selection of PcBN tool cutting edges with cutting edge stability, which makes this PcBN very
respect to tool geometry features. attractive for high performance broaching of hardened
steel.
Regarding the wear of PcBN 100, crater wear is detected average cutting force decreases with higher speeds, the
after a cutting distance of 75 m (Figure 24). Because of the cutting edge is progressively worn earlier [101].
three dimensional nature of the chip formation, the crater
wear is located in the middle as well as on the flanks of the
cutting insert. Two effects affect cutting edge stability.

Specific cutting force [kN/mm2]

cutting angle
6 - 30°
- 25°

2
lc = 10 m lc = 25 m lc = 50 m

0
60 90 105
cutting speed vc [m/min]
workpiece: 90MnCrV8 (60 HRC)
lc = 100 m lc = 125 m lc = 150 m
cutting material: PcBN 170
workpiece: 90MnCrV8 (60 HRC) cutting conditions:
cutting material: PcBN 100 dry / cutting depth 0.09 mm
cutting conditions:
dry / cutting depth 0.09 mm Figure 26: Specific cutting force related to
cutting speed vc = 90 m/min the cutting speed for broaching [98].

Figure 24: Wear pattern of PcBN 100 after different cutting
distances [98].
On the one hand a stable cutting edge condition during the
whole cutting process takes place. On the other hand, a
failure of the cutting edge after a few meters of cutting
distance can often be observed. This leads to poor
predictions with regard to the expected tool life and seems
to be rooted in the quality of the used PcBN. The lack of
process stability is a key objective for further development
steps. Broaching speed has a major influence on the
cutting distance of the PcBN. In hard turning, speeds up to
300 m/min and more can be applied with PcBN [99], [100].
The research results in broaching illustrate that a decrease
in performance takes place when machining at higher
cutting speeds (Figure 25).
160
- 30°
cutting angle
cutting distance [m]
The main reason for this finding is based on the nature of
PcBN grades with medium to high cBN content and the
corresponding type of ceramic binder. In spite of a high
resistance towards fatigue fracture the tool wear resistance
is generally reduced, especially at higher cutting velocity
and cutting temperature [85].
Further experiments are to be conducted to ascertain
whether the performance can be improved by tool material
and geometry optimisation.
4.3 Gear manufacturing
The requirements for modern transmissions are increasing
in the automotive industry. In order to reduce the weight of
the transmissions, smaller gears have to transmit
increasing power ratings. Additionally, in order to realise a
better human comfort and improve the environmental
protection, the requirements concerning the noise
emissions are increasing. In order to meet these
requirements the importance of an advantageous design
concerning load and noise behaviour gains more

- 25°
- 30° importance [102]. Large gears, used in ships or wind
120 cutting angle
- 25° generators, have to meet those requirements too. These
high needs concerning gear quality can only be realised by
80 hard finishing of case hardened gears [103], [104], [105].
Hard finishing processes in gear manufacturing
40
Possible process chains for the manufacturing of hard
finished gears are displayed in Figure 27. In most cases
0 the process starts with forged blanks. At first the functional
60 90 105 surfaces, such as those necessary for clamping, have to
cutting
cutting speed
speed vvcc /(m/min)
[m/min] be turned in order to ensure a sufficient quality in the
workpiece: 90MnCrV8 (60 HRC) subsequent hobbing process.
cutting material: PcBN 170 After case hardening the gears are hard finished. The most
cutting conditions: common manufacturing processes, with undefined cutting
dry / cutting depth a0.09 mm
p = 0.09 mm
edges, applied in industry to date are discontinuous profile
grinding and continuous generating grinding as well as
Figure 25: Maximum cutting distance related to gear honing, which is basically to be considered a special
the cutting speed [98]. form of grinding process. As a hard finishing process with a
defined cutting edge, mainly skive hobbing is currently
This effect is independent from the value of the cutting utilised in industrial practice.
angle, which also has a significant influence on the
achievable cutting distance. The corresponding cutting
forces decrease with higher cutting speeds, Figure 26,
which does not correspond to the poor performance of the
cutting distance as shown in Figure 25. Although the
 forged blank
dressing roller that is used in order to react to geometrical
deviations of the ground workpiece.
infeed ae
turning

hobbing

case hardening

profile grinding generating

grinding
workpiece
honing skive hobbing
stock ∆s

finished gear

gear manufacturing processes: process characteristics: range of application

„ continuous generating „ external gears
„ high demands for gear quality
process „ mn = 0.3 - 6 mm
„ geometrical and kinematical complex „ large cross axis angle
processes
„ cost intensive machines and tools Figure 29: Generating grinding.

„ many alternative process chains Opposed to continuously working processes, profile

grinding is a discontinuously working process, Figure 30.
Each gap of the gear is finished, followed by an indexing
Figure 27: Process chains in gear manufacturing. operation and then the next gap is ground. Due to the
Generating grinding, gear honing and skive hobbing are process characteristics in profile grinding no feed scallops
continuously working processes. In gear honing the tool is on the flank can be found. On the tooth flank a structure
an internal gear engaged with the workpiece, Figure 28. orientation in the lead direction can be found.
The material removal is realised by an infeed of the honing
ring. In generating grinding the tool is a grinding worm
engaged with the workpiece, Figure 29. The material
removal is realised by moving the tool in the axial direction
of the workpiece and the tooth width can be adjusted by a
modification of the radial set in ae without changing the
tooth flank geometry.
grinding
infeed wheel
infeed honing ring ae vc
speed
vx
∆s
stock ∆s
vax

workpiece

process characteristics: range of application workpiece

„ continuous generating „ external gears
process „ mn = 0.5 - 5 mm
„ small cross axis angle
process characteristics: range of application
Figure 28: Gear honing.
„ indexing process „ external and in-
In generating grinding a grinding worm with an undefined
„ large cross axis angle ternal gears
cutting edge is used. The process can be carried out with
cBN-plated tools as well as with a dressable corundum „ different grinding „ mn = 1 - 25 mm
grinding worm. Especially the application of dressable tools conditions along profile
increases the flexibility and the robustness of the process.
Small changes of the grinding worm geometry can be Figure 30: Gear profile grinding [105].
realised in the dressing process, depending on the kind of
In gear profile grinding cBN-plated tools can be utilised as
well as dressable grinding wheels. The grinding wheel
geometry is directly related to the workpiece. Changes of
the profile geometry result in changes of the tool geometry.
In forms of kinematics, the skive hobbing process is
identical to the hobbing process. The principle tool design
of a skive hob compared to a standard hob for soft
machining is shown in Figure 31.
standard hob skive hob
vc vc
P l
P
λ<0
λ=0
vc
vc
σa = 0
σa < 0
λ flank slope angle vC cutting speed
σa tip rake angle
process characteristics: range of application
„ continuous generating „ external gears
process „ mn = 3 - 10 mm
„ generating feed „ small lot sizes
scallops
„ negative tip rake angle
Figure 31: Skive hobbing.
For skive hobs a carbide substrate is typically utilised. Due
to the process kinematics generating scalops cannot be
prevented, so that the maximum axial feed is limited by the
maximum tolerable profile deviations [106].
Comparison of gear hard finishing processes
In general it can be stated that the continuous
manufacturing processes, especially the ones with an
undefined cutting edge, can realise higher material
removal rates, and thus shorter machining times than
indexing processes can achieve. A major disadvantage are
the high tool costs and in gear honing the high dressing
costs, because for dressing a honing ring a diamond plated
master gear is needed. In contrast, profile grinding leads to
higher machining times. Its advantages are the smaller tool
costs and the high process flexibility. Therefore this
process is mainly used for manufacturing small batch sizes
and large module gears, which cannot be machined using
other hard finishing processes.
The skive hobbing process is a continuous process which
has a rather high machining time. Its main advantage is
that the process can take place on a standard hobbing
machine so that the soft and hard machining processes
can be conducted on the same machine.
In Figure 32 the machining times for the hard finishing
processes skive hobbing, discontinuous profile grinding
and continuous generating grinding are compared.
14
machining time [min]
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
skive profile generating
hobbing grinding grinding
Workpiece:
16MnCr5E b = 50 mm
mn = 5 mm ∆s = 0.15 mm
Process parameters skive hobbing:
z0 = 1, right vc = 100 m/min
fa = 1 mm
Process parameters profile grinding:
vc = 25 m/s ds = 250 mm
fa = 2 m/min 3 cuts
Process parameters generating grinding:
vc = 60 m/s ds = 200 mm
z0 = 2, right fa = 0.48/0.4/0.4 mm
Figure 32: Comparison of machining times for different
hard finishing processes.
The sample is calculated for a typical truck type gear made
out of the case hardened steel 16MnCr5 with a module of
mn = 5 mm and a face width of b = 50 mm. The stock on
the tooth flank amounts to ∆s = 0.15 mm. The machining
time for skive hobbing and profile grinding is with more
than 10 minutes, which is rather high.
For skive hobbing a one cut process with a cutting speed
of vc = 100 m/min and an axial feed of fa = 1 mm is
calculated. The maximum feed rate is limited by the
tolerable profile deviations due to the process generating
feed scallops. For profile grinding a typical process for a
dressable grinding wheel with an axial feed of fa = 2 m/min,
one cut for roughing and two cuts for finishing is
calculated. The necessary dressing times are taken into
account.
The machining time in generating grinding is significantly
lower than in the other two processes. The calculation is
based on standard process parameters for a two start
dressable grinding worm and three cuts. The proportionate
dressing time is also taken into account.
In order to choose the optimum and least costly process,
not only the machining time but also the machine and tool
costs, as well as the process flexibility for geometrical
changes have to be taken into account. Therefore all three
processes are used in industrial practice for different
applications depending on the gear size as well as the lot
size and lot frequency.
The main advantage of skive hobbing is, that the process,
can be applied on a standard hobbing machine without
having an expensive gear grinding machine. This is
especially interesting if only a small number of gears has to
be hard finished. The main advantage of profile grinding is
the high process flexibility when using dressable grinding
wheels. This is especially interesting for a medium volume
production with small lot sizes. Generating grinding is the
most productive process of these. Its main advantage is
the low machining times, but in order to use the rather
expensive grinding worm efficiently greater lot sizes are
necessary. An overview of the choices for an optimum
hard finishing process for gears, depending on the lot size
and the module, is given in Figure 33.
gear honing
increasing lot size
generating grinding
profile grinding
skive hobbing
increasing module
Figure 33: Choice of hard finishing processes
depending on the gear and lot size (qualitative).
On the one hand gear honing is the most productive
process for hard finishing of gears. On the other hand an
expensive tool and a very expensive diamond plated
master gear are needed for each gear geometry to be
manufactured. Therefore very high lot sizes are needed, in
order to realise low production costs.
Another advantage of gear honing is that, to date, no
application of this process is known in which thermal
damage has occurred to the gear flank. The reason can be
seen from the cutting speed vc that ranges up to a
maximum of vc = 5 m/s which is very slow for grinding
processes. That is a major advantage of this process
because thermal damage of the tooth flank leads to a
significantly reduced gear life [105].
In generating grinding the risk to induce thermal damage
such as grinding burn is rather low. This is due to the low
contact times between the tooth flank and the tool.
The profile grinding process on the other hand has a high
risk of inducing thermal damage such as grinding burn on
to the tooth flank. Due to the higher contact time between
the tool and the workpiece the damaged zone penetrates
rather deep into the material.
The material structure of a thermally damaged near
surface zone with re-hardening and a tempered zone
below, for profile grinding and skive hobbing, is shown in
Figure 34. The different scales were chosen to show more
clearly the different rim zone effects.
profile grinding skive hobbing
50
0.2 mm
02
re-hardening
tempered zone
Figure 34: Grinding burn in profile grinding
compared to skive hobbing.
It is obvious, that the rehardening as well as the tempered
zone induced by profile grinding extends much deeper into
the material than the ones induced by skive hobbing. This
is due to the higher contact times between tool and
workpiece in the profile grinding process.
The processes hobbing, grinding and honing have different
characteristics which have to be taken into account in
order to choose the optimum process for each application.
With all the named hard finishing processes, gear qualities
in the range of IT 6 – 7 can be achieved in normal
production.
Gear honing and continuous generating grinding are very
productive processes but their high tool costs and a small
flexibility have to be taken into account. Discontinuous
profile grinding in contrast has a high flexibility towards
geometrical changes to the gear when using dressable
grinding wheels. Skive hobbing has high relative machining
times, and changes of the gear profile geometry result in a
costly regrinding of the tool. A major advantage of the
process, however, is that it can be applied on a standard
hobbing machine.
4.4 Fine machining of bores by hard reaming
For cutting of hardened steel and other difficult to machine
materials with a Rockwell hardness between 45 and
64 HRC, grinding and honing were applied in the past [14].
In the manufacture of strict, diameter-related tolerances for
fittings, the capabilities of these manufacturing
technologies are limited. To achieve an IT 4 quality, bores
in hardened components are mostly honed or ground
[107]. Particularly for bores with diameters less than
20 mm, the stability of conventional turning and milling
tools is too poor to absorb the cutting forces generated in
hard machining. By the consistent use of innovative cutting
materials and improved process knowledge, manufacturing
processes like hard turning and hard reaming can be
applied [108], [109]. In addition to the technological
advantages of hard reaming, this process offers the
possibility to substantially reduce the production time and
cost.
The work of Diersen [107] was aimed at the development
of hard reaming of through bores in hardened steel for
industrial applications. This was achieved by a qualified
tool design and an optimisation of the cutting speeds as
well as the implementation of different cooling lubrication
concepts. The hard reaming process was also compared
to alternative manufacturing processes.
The obtained results concerning workpiece quality satisfy
the high expectations raised towards this new
manufacturing process [107]. Even when reaming with the
largest selected feed of f = 0.15 mm, reproducible surfaces
with a roughness Rz smaller than 2 µm were produced.
Independently of the wear status of the cBN inserts, bores
with a roundness less than 1.5 µm and a cylinder form
deviation less than 3 µm on a 24 mm cutting length were
obtained), Figure 35.
Comparable results were achieved by using both, flooding
and minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). With respect to
the accuracy of the bore diameter it was shown that the
reamed diameter varied in a band width of 6 µm within an
interval of 700 bores. This corresponds to an IT quality of 4
for a diameter of 19.750 mm. A comparison of profitability,
50µm
µm with internal cylindrical grinding, showed that due to the
reduced operating time and the lower investments a costs
reduction of 40-50% is possible with hard reaming [107].
 cBN grinding Hard-turning
Machine tool: Reaming tool:
Turning center Inserts: DBC 50, 20° chamfer
Tapering: 5 µm/1 mm

Workpiece: 16MnCr5 Aligning tool:

Hardness: 60 HRC 0.08 mm radial clearance
5
t Flooding
µm MQL

3
Deviation

max. t
min.
2 Cycle time: 47 s Cycle time: 58 s
Rz
1
Ra
0 Combined process
Cylindrical form Roundness Surface roughness Rz 6.3
Rz 6.3
Cutting conditions: f=0.1 mm, vc=120 m/min
Cooling: emulsion 7% MQL: ester 30 ml/h

Figure 35: Quality after reaming 1280 bores [107].

4.5 Combined / simultaneous machining in hard

cutting and grinding
Hard cutting and grinding operations are frequently
considered to be competing technologies. With the
objective to reduce machining time, attempts were made to
perform a complete machining cycle using one single
manufacturing process, hard cutting or grinding, to avoid
another machine tool change. However, for some
applications, a combined machining process with hard
turning and grinding can be quicker than a single process.
The geometry and the requirements, such as is shown in
Figure 36, decide whether this is the case for a specific
application.
For the cBN grinding of the two sides and the bore with
one tool, the grinding spindle was pivoted for the
machining of this workpiece. For the combined process an
optimised grinding tool was used, which only did the
finishing of the bore [108], [109].
The combined hard machining of chuck clamped
workpieces, involving hard turning and grinding is an
industrially known and implemented procedure. Typical
parts are gears and bearings. A combined machining of
shaft components, clamped between pins has not been
performed yet on an industrial scale [110].
One advantage of combined machining is the possibility to
use different manufacturing processes without moving the
workpiece to another machine tool. When the clamping is
changed the workpiece concentricity cannot be maintained.
By using one machine tool for the complete hardend
process chain, scrap parts due to clamping errors can be
avoided.
Combined machining of chuck clamped parts
Hard turning and grinding are both suited for machining
hardened steel workpieces. Both processes have their
respective merits. The advantages of hard turning are high
flexibility and high material removal rates as well as the
redundancy of cooling lubricant. A main disadvantage of
hard turning is, that the uncontrollable tool wear influences
surface roughness, surface integrity and dimensional as
well as shape accuracy. In contrast to hard turning, the
advantages of grinding lie within the high process
reliability, high quality of manufacture and controllable
thermal subsurface zone influence [111].
Cycle time: 40 s
Rz 2
0.001
0.005
Figure 36: Process time in hard turning, cBN grinding and
combined machining [110].
Microstructural alterations in the surfaces of machined
hardened steel components are unavoidable, i.e., the risk
of a white layer is always present, although it may not be
observed in surfaces machined with ‘commercially sharp’
tools under reflected light (metallurgical microscope). The
depth of the surface white layer increases with cutting tool
wear and as such, the key to producing surfaces with
minimal microstructural alterations is to limit the rate at
which cutting tools wear [49].
Extensive tests of the rolling fatigue strength of hard turned
specimens (100Cr6) show that the origin of any pitting
appearance is connected with the feed mark geometry and
the surface roughness peaks, but is not related to the
microstructure or the residual stress level of the specimens
[17], [112].
Case-hardened, notched, round specimens of 16MnCr5
(AlSI 5115) were furthermore subjected to four-point
alternating bending. The fatigue strength was determined
by means of constant amplitude testing and by means of
variable amplitude testing. As long as the tool wear during
hard turning does not exceed a certain level (VB <
200 µm), the fatigue strength was at least equal or better
than that of ground test specimens [17].
Due to their characteristics, the processes hard turning and
grinding are not arbitrarily interchangeable. They rather
complement each other. This motivated the development
of machine tool concepts, which permit the hard turning
and grinding operations in one chucking. As a result, the
advantages of each process can be combined, Figure 37
[113].
 Raw part
Hard
Hard turning
turning Grinding
Grinding

Overmeasure
hard turning
•• High
High flexibility
flexibility •• High
High process
process
reliability
reliability
•• High
High material
material

overmeasure grinding
removal material
removal rates
rates •• High
High quality
quality of
of
manufacture diameter
manufacture defects of shape Hard turning as

Minimize
•• No
No cooling
cooling

Overmeasure
lubricant •• Controllable hardness roughing process
lubricant Controllable

grinding
sub-surface
sub-surface
•• ...... zone
zone influence
influence
•• ...
...
Grinding as
diameter finishing process
Process
Process combination
combination defects of shape
Hard
Hard turning
turning and
and grinding
grinding roughness
subsurface zone
•• High
High precision
precision and
and process
process chain
chain reduction
reduction by
by
machining in one clamping
machining in one clamping ae,min =
•• Process defects of shape + diameter
Process according
according to
to quality
quality demands
demands
roughness + defects of shape
•• Process
Process design
design as
as roughing
roughing and
and finishing
finishing subsurface zone defects roughness
process
process subsurface zone
•• At
At small
small working
working engagement,
engagement, grinding
grinding with
with Figure 38: Approach for an optimised take over condition
MQL
MQL or
or dry
dry possible
possible between rough turning and finishing grinding [114].
•• High
High flexibility
flexibility and
and high
high process
process reliability
reliability
•• ...
... Material: Bore hole: Corner radius:
100Cr 6 (62 HRC) dw=50 mm; rε=1.2mm
Figure 37: Utilisation of process specific advantages by lw =55 mm
process combination [111].
Essential operating time th [s]

60
Apart from using the most suited process for each
50
functional face of a workpiece, a two step approach for one
functional face with hard turning as a roughing process and 40
grinding as a finishing process is also practicable. In this Process combination
case, the processes can be applied and adjusted regarding 30
their specific tasks as a roughing or as a finishing 20
operation, respectively. In order to achieve a reduced Hard
machining time in comparison to a single process, both 10 turning
processes should be adjusted to each other [114]. Grinding
0
The approach for achieving an optimised take over 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
condition between rough-turning and finishing-grinding is
illustrated in Figure 38. Hard turning feed f [mm]
The allowance to be removed by grinding is determined by
Hard turning Grinding
the hard turning process. The minimum working
engagement for grinding is defined as the sum of Cutting material: cBN Cutting material: cBN/
dimensional deviations, surface roughness and subsurface Cutting speed: vc=125 m/min special fused alumina
zone defects caused by hard turning. Consequently, the
hard turning process directly influences the minimum Working engagement
working engagement for the grinding process [114]. Depending on
Figure 39 illustrates the essential operating time of rough- turning feed
turning, finish grinding and as a sum of both processes the
essential operating time of the combined process over the Figure 39: Process combination hard turning and grinding:
hard turning feed. Essential operating time [114].
An increase in hard turning feed causes a reduction of the Despite the free choice of processes, discussed above,
rough turning essential operating time. At the same time there is also a need to combine different processes purely
the minimum working engagement for finishing grinding based on workpiece geometry restrictions. The best
increases, because increasing hard turning feed also example is internal machining of small bores. Especially in
increases surface roughness, subsurface defects as well the case of unfavourable length to diameter ratio it is not
as dimensional and shape defects. Due to the described possible to ensure the finishing quality only with hard-
opposite tendencies the essential operating time of the turning, although this process can be successfully applied
combined process as a sum of both single processes to all other surfaces. Due to the minimum required depth of
shows a minimum at the hard turning feed of f = 0.4 mm cut the related back force may lead to unacceptable tool
for the given example [114]. deflection for longer bores. Thus hard-turning as a
roughing process has to be combined with grinding as a
finishing technology in the most favourable way [115],
[116]. Ongoing research was conducted to find out the
limits of the respective processes for workpiece diameters
≤ 5mm and l/d ratios of 1.5 or larger. The investigations
were performed on case hardened steel 16MnCr5. Figure
40 shows experimental roughness results for a diameter of
3.988 ± 0.005 mm and an l/d ratio of 2.
0.24 VBc= 0.07 mm VBc= 0.13 mm
av. roughness Ra [µm]
and Figure 42. In conventional grinding, particularly when a
large speed ratio such as q = 120 is used, the rotational
speed of the workpiece is too low for the hard turning
process.
Hard turning: vc = 50... 250 m/min
Conventional grinding:

change of the vc = 30 ... 60 m/s, q = 30 ... 120

turning tool
0.16 Workpiece rotational speed overlap
beetween hard turning and grinding

0.08 6000
hard turning

Workpiece rotational speed [min-1]

grinding
5000
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
number of machined parts 4000

Workpiece 3000
case hardened steel
16MnCr5, 60 (+/- 2) HRC
2000
dw = 3.9880 (+/- 0.005) mm
lw = 8.1 mm
1000
Figure 40: Achievable roughness for precision machining
of small bores with combined processes [115], [116]. 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
As can be seen the surface roughness increases with the Workpiece diameter [mm]
increase of the width of flank wear land VB. The
investigation proved that after initial wear of the cutting tool Figure 41: Rotational workpiece velocity, comparison
the surface roughness is relatively constant for a VB between hard turning and conventional grinding.
between 0.07 and 0.1 mm. The average roughness value
did not exceed the value of Ra 0.2 µm. However at a width In simultaneous machining operations, the processes
of flank wear land 0.13 mm the Ra value exceeds the influence each other. The cutting forces in the normal
prescribed surface roughness. After roughing, grinding as direction from a grinding process, for example, can be
a finishing process was performed. The achieved average conducted into the cutting edge of a hard turning tool if the
roughness values changed between Ra 0.08 and 0.12 µm. workpiece deflects. This can lead to increased tool wear in
The grinding wheel was dressed only at the beginning of the hard turning process [117].
the test; no further dressing was done for the investigated
45 workpieces. The size accuracy as well as the out-of-
roundness values can be kept inside the tolerance after Hard turning: vc = 50 .. 250 m/min
grinding. With a further increase of the l/d ratio the bending
of the hard-turning tool gets more critical, thus oscillating Highspeed grinding:
cBN grinding with spark-out after rough hard-turning is the vc = 100 ... 180 m/s, q = 30 ... 120
only finishing option to guarantee the desired quality.
Workpiece rotational speed overlap
Simultaneous machining of shaft components beetween hard turning and grinding
Shaft components usually consist of long cylindrical
features and only small shoulders. There are also 6000
Workpiece rotational speed [min-1]

requirements towards these cylinders concerning

roughness, dimension and shape accuracy which cannot
5000
be fulfilled by hard turning or only under special boundary
conditions, making the process uneconomic. Therefore,
these process steps are traditionally covered by grinding 4000
processes. However, shaft components also contain
features with a potential for hard turning: Shoulders, 3000
undercuts with lower requirements for surface, form and
shape or the rough machining of cylindrical parts [117],
2000
[118].
As an alternative to the sequential process chain, often
1000
used by the machining of chuck clamped parts, it is also
possible to perform two or even more operations
simultaneously. The common interface between two 0
simultaneous processes is the workpiece, or more 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
precisely the rotational workpiece velocity. A comparison of Workpiece diameter [mm]
the rotational workpiece velocities for ordinary cutting
speeds in hard turning with the velocities occurring in Figure 42: Rotational workpiece velocity, comparison
grinding processes indicates, that only with high speed between hard turning and high speed grinding.
grinding can an adequate overlap be ensured, Figure 41
A roughing process in hard turning, on the other hand, can 10.00
90°
90° 10-1
10-1 10,00 µm
µm
bear the risk for chatter in a simultaneously performed 12-1
grinding operation, Figure 43, in comparison to the same 12-1
14-1
grinding process, carried out as single process, Figure 44. 14-1 10,00 µm
10.00 µm
The energy introduced by the hard turning process can be
high enough to stimulate the machine structure to vibrate 10-1:-1:
10 1,71
1.71 µm µm
with a dominant resonance frequency. 0°0°
12-1:-1:
12 1,43
1.43 µm µm

90°
90° 10-1
10-1
10.00 µm 14-1:-1:
14 1,46
1.46 µm µm
12-1
12-1
14-1
14-1 10.00 µm
Ground cylinder
cylinder Grinding
Ground
(cBN Cylinder
peel grinding), (cBN peel grinding),
0°
10-1:- 3.90 µm
10 process
singleprocess
Process
0° single
12-1:- 3.88 µm
12
10 -1
14-1:- 5.98 µm
14 10 -1 Cylinder-
Geometry: geometry:
Ground cylinder L = 80 mm 12 -1
12-1
L = 80 mm
(cBN peel cylinder
grinding), D = 50 mm
with simultaneous 14 -1 D = 50 mm
14-1
hard turning
Grinding
(roughing process)
Figure 44: Roundness error on ground cylinder
on the workpiece
(single process).
The challenge for these processes is to optimise the
10 -1 process chain in a way that minimises the impact of one
Geometry: process on the other while maximising time savings due to
L = 80 mm 12 -1 simultaneous machining. Simultaneous machining can link
D = 50 mm Hard two processes, which are slow in sequential combination,
turning but still offer advantages when performed simultaneously.
14 -1
Time parallel machining operations combine the
influencing factors of the respective processes.
Figure 43: Roundness error on ground cylinder, with Consequently, there is a need for adaptation in all fields of
simultaneous hard turning operation. manufacturing technology (process control, the machine
To show the possible interference of machine tool tool, tool, coolant). Only if all suitable manufacturing
characteristics and cutting parameters the simultaneous processes are analysed in simultaneous combination with
peel grinding and roughing hard turning process are based each other, can simultaneous machining be established
on a typical workpiece revolution of 1242 min-1 or 20.7 s-1 and provide an increased productivity.
(workpiece diameter D = 50 mm).
Since the peel grinding process is located close to the Resonance frequency 207 Hz at 1242 min-1
tailstock, the high tailstock flexibility at its resonance (identified by modal analysis)
frequency of 207 Hz is induced by the hard turning process
(Figure 45) and is clearly reflected in the resultant
workpiece contour. The tactile roundness measurement
indicates a vibration with 10 amplitudes at the tailstock
circumference, Figure 43. flexibility
A simultaneously performed grinding and hard turning
workpiece
operations, therefore, demands several requirements to
the machine tool itself. In addition to the stiffness of the peel grinding
single machine components, there is also a need for a hard turning
unit
good damping to minimise the vibrations during the unit
processes. Furthermore, the machine concept has to be
produced with regard to hard turning and grinding
operations. It is not sufficient just to apply, for example, a
grinding spindle on a hard turning lathe.
spindle
Research results in the field of simultaneous machining on machine
shaft components are still rare. Machining tests have to be base
conducted in order to identify the processes and their
respective parameter ranges, which allow a process during simultaneous peal
combination [117], [118]. grinding and hard turning

Figure 45: Relationship between machine tool

characteristic and part roundness.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Hard cutting and grinding operations are used in industrial
applications for the machining of hardened steel materials.
The requirements for these manufacturing processes are,
in addition to the fulfilment of the demanded workpiece
characteristics (e.g. surface roughness and form- and
dimension accuracy), a high process reliability in
combination with a reduction of the machining time.
Process innovations lead to an overlap of the application
areas of hard cutting and grinding operations. Nowadays,
hard cutting operations can achieve a workpiece quality
comparable to grinding processes. The lower process
reliability in hard cutting is still a fundamental issue.
Increasing material removal rates and process flexibility will
open up more suitable application areas in grinding.
A general evaluation of the process capability profiles is
very difficult. It has to be carried out with regard to the
boundary conditions and the requirements in each single
application. It can be stated that principal advantages of
hard cutting operations compared to grinding processes
exist and vice versa. A qualitative overview is shown in
Figure 46.
Next to research activities with a strong focus on industrial
demands, fundamental research is still the key to a
comprehensive characterisation of the capability profile of
the different hard cutting and grinding operations. Only with
basic process knowledge it is possible to choose the most
efficient process for each specific application.
The case studies illustrate several of the respective
advantages and disadvantages of the different hard cutting
and grinding processes. Next to ambitions to reduce the
whole process-chain in hard machining, by avoiding a
machine tool change and doing a complete machining with
only one process, there is the possibility of combining hard
manufacturing procedures in multi-processing machine
tools. With the combination of hard cutting and grinding
operations on one machine tool, the merits can be
summarised, and the disadvantages faded out.
Low sub-
surface damage
Environmental Dimension
compatibility and shape
accuracy
Quality of
Minimum surface
Setup time roughness
Process Process
flexibility reliability
Material Low residual
removal tensile stress
rate
Hard cutting
Grinding
Figure 46: Qualitative overview of the capability of hard
cutting and grinding processes.
6 ACKOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank all contributors for their
suggestions and for sharing their research results. The
active involvement of many colleagues from CIRP and
their scientific staff provided the basis for the compilation of
this keynote paper. Among these are: S. Malkin, G.
Poulachon, J. Rech, T. Ueda, F. Hashimoto, B. Denkena,
B. Karpuschewski, G. Byrne, J. Barry, H. Khanfir, J.
Fleischer, J. Schmidt and M. Davies.
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