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Narrative Review Ten Common Mistakes in The Management of Lupus Nephritis
Narrative Review Ten Common Mistakes in The Management of Lupus Nephritis
Management of patients with lupus nephritis can be complex and challenging. We suggest that there are
some widely held misconceptions about lupus, and unfortunately, these underpin the treatment of many pa-
tients. There is little evidence to support the common assumption that intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide is
the best treatment for lupus nephritis. Although there is much focus on which immunosuppressive agent to
use, too little attention is paid to the proper dose and duration of corticosteroids and concomitant therapy with
antimalarial agents. Many clinicians reflexively perform kidney biopsies when these biopsies may be high risk
and not influence therapy. There is little emphasis on or awareness of nonadherence to therapy, which is an
underappreciated cause of treatment resistance. Resolution of proteinuria and hematuria can take a long time,
and immunotherapy should not be intensified based on urine sediment alone. Furthermore, the intensity of the
immunosuppression must be considered in the context of lupus nephritis class and duration of kidney damage.
Finally, clinicians are aware of the risks of pregnancy in the face of active lupus, but assume that their patients
also are aware of this and forget to discuss this with them. With a combined experience of more than 50 years
in managing children and adults with lupus, we offer our impression of recurrent mistakes in the management
of lupus in general, with a focus on treatment of lupus nephritis.
Am J Kidney Dis. 63(4):667-676. ª 2014 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc.
INDEX WORDS: Antimalarial agents and nonadherence; azathioprine; cyclophosphamide; lupus nephritis.
Box 1. Ten Common Mistakes in the Management of Lupus Study) induction therapy study showed similar
Nephritis cumulative remission rates between both groups. The
1. Assuming that intravenous cyclophosphamide is the renal and nonrenal outcomes were equivalent at 6
gold-standard induction agent for lupus nephritis months.14 The 2 large trials comparing MMF versus IV
2. Improper dosing of corticosteroids cyclophosphamide are summarized in Table 1.
3. Not using antimalarial agents routinely
4. Using urinary sediment for response criteria
These studies suggest that MMF is as effective as
5. Not scaling the intensity of immunosuppression to the IV cyclophosphamide as an induction agent for lupus
different classes of lupus nephritis, especially class V nephritis, with fewer adverse events such as gonadal
membranous lupus toxicity and secondary malignancy. MMF should be
6. Missing nonadherence to therapy as a cause of “treat- considered as a first-line agent for induction, espe-
ment failure”
7. Not reducing or minimizing immunosuppressive expo-
cially in young patients with lupus. Another consid-
sure in patients with advanced kidney disease eration is that with only 6 months of follow-up, it is
8. Forgetting to monitor side effects of immunosuppression unclear how much of the effect is the result of high-
and to use prophylaxis dose corticosteroid therapy given in each arm.
9. Performing a biopsy on the kidney, especially in a high- Going back to the pioneering study of Donadio et al17
risk patient, when it will not affect therapy
10. Neglecting to address pregnancy
published in 1978, corticosteroids alone led to the
same early remission rate compared to corticosteroid
in combination with a second immunosuppressive
kidney function (creatinine , 1.3 mg/dL), and the agent. Studies of different immunosuppressive regi-
relatively small number (90) of patients treated. mens that have such a short follow-up (including
Interestingly, few have commented on the role of trials up to 6 months) may have the same overarching
azathioprine, to which the low-dose IV cyclophos- effect of the corticosteroid, diluting or negating any
phamide group was transitioned after 3 months. Rather potential difference among secondary agents.
than being a comparison of high- versus low-dose IV The other drug that is underused as an induction
cyclophosphamide, this study compared ongoing IV agent is azathioprine. A pooled analysis of 8 studies
cyclophosphamide (high-dose group) therapy with of lupus nephritis including 250 patients (including
low-dose IV cyclophosphamide followed by azathio- children) was published in 1984.18 In this analysis,
prine past the 3-month point (low-dose group). 113 patients received only corticosteroids and the rest
Therefore, this study could be considered to be one received corticosteroid with either azathioprine or
comparing high-dose cyclophosphamide to azathio- cyclophosphamide. Analysis showed that patients
prine after the 3-month mark. who received azathioprine or cyclophosphamide with
More recently, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has corticosteroid had less kidney deterioration, were less
been studied as alternative induction therapy to IV likely to have end-stage renal disease, and were less
cyclophosphamide and may prove particularly effec- likely to die of kidney disease than patients receiving
tive in patients of African-Caribbean descent. corticosteroid alone. There were approximately 60
Initially, MMF was compared to oral cyclophospha- patients in each group (prednisone vs cyclophospha-
mide in 42 patients.12,13 Patients received either mide/prednisone and prednisone vs azathioprine/
12 months of MMF (2 g/d for 6 months and then prednisone), and hence results of the study did not
1 g/d for 6 months) or 6 months of oral cyclophos- reach statistical significance. The number of deaths in
phamide (2.5 mg/kg/d) followed by 6 months of oral the azathioprine group was lower than that in the
azathioprine (1.5 mg/kg/d). Both groups received other 2 groups. Unfortunately, none of these studies
corticosteroids. Complete remission, partial remis- was a head-to-head comparison of 2 immunosup-
sion, relapse rates, and rate of chronic kidney disease pressive agents. However, within the limitations of
(CKD) or end-stage renal failure were similar be- this kind of analysis, azathioprine appeared to be a
tween groups. There was a trend for more infections useful induction agent in the management of diffuse
in the cyclophosphamide group, but it was not sta- proliferative lupus nephritis.
tistically significant. Another widely held belief is that if the biopsy
This trial was followed by 3 randomized controlled shows very aggressive lupus nephritis, it mandates
trials comparing MMF versus IV cyclophospha- treatment with a more toxic agent (IV cyclophos-
mide.14-16 One of the trials was an open-label crossover phamide). There is no reason to believe that more
noninferiority trial and at 24 weeks showed significantly aggressive disease requires therapy with a more toxic
improved complete and partial remission rates in the drug. The combination of the 2 may be a recipe for
MMF group (goal induction dose of 3 g/d) compared to serious treatment-related side effects. When appro-
the cyclophosphamide group.16 There was an increased priate, less toxic drugs such as MMF or azathioprine
rate of pyogenic infection in the cyclophosphamide should be considered for induction instead of cyclo-
group. The ALMS (Aspreva Lupus Management phosphamide. Furthermore, treatment with pulse IV
Ginzler15 140 24 31.5 6 9.5 White, 17; III, 15.5; IV, 54.5; 1.07 6 0.50 4.25 6 3.3 MMF, mean maximal MMF group:
(2005) black, 56.5; V, 19.5; mixed tolerated dose 2.6 g/d 1 CR, 22.5%;
Asian, 5.5; membranoproliferative, prednisone (71); IV CYC, PR, 29.6%; I
Hispanic, 20; 11.5 cumulative dose per V CYC group:
other, 1 patient 7,302 6 1,695 mg 1 CR, 5.8%;
prednisone (69) PR, 24.6%
Appel14 370 24 31.9 6 10.7 White, 39.7; III/III 1 V, 15.7; IV/IV 1 V, 1.13 6 0.90 4.1 6 3.7 MMF, median dose 2.6 g/d 1 Primary efficacy
(2009; Asian, 33.2; 68.1; V only, 16.2 prednisone (185); IV CYC, end point
ALMS) other, 27 median no. of doses, 6.0; achieveda in
median total dose per 56.2% of MMF
infusion, 0.75 g/m2 1 group; 53% of
prednisone (185) IV CYC group
Note: Conversion factor for SCr in mg/dL to mmol/L, 388.4.
Abbreviations and definitions: CR, complete remission defined as return to within 10% of normal serum creatinine levels, proteinuria, and urine sediment; CYC, cyclophosphamide; IV,
intravenous; MMF, mycophenolate mofetil; PR, partial remission defined as 50% improvement in all abnormal renal measurements without worsening (within 10%) of any measurement;
SCr, serum creatinine.
a
Primary efficacy end point: decrease in 24-hour urine protein to ,3 in patients with baseline nephrotic-range proteinuria ($3), or by $50% in patients with subnephrotic baseline
proteinuria (,3), and stabilization (625%) or improvement in SCr level at 24 weeks.
669
Bose, Silverman, and Bargman
cyclophosphamide leads to an unpredictable nadir in survival,22,23 and decrease the frequency of lupus
white blood cell count a week or 2 later. The leuko- flare.24,25 It also has been shown to improve kidney
penia puts the patient at risk for infectious compli- outcomes. There is an increased probability of remis-
cations. This can be particularly fraught in the patient sion in patients with membranous nephritis treated with
with diminished glomerular filtration rate, for whom MMF when combined with hydroxychloroquine26 and
even dose-adjusted IV cyclophosphamide can lead also a lowered probability of decrease in kidney func-
to severe prolonged leukopenia. At least with cyclo- tion if used prior to the onset of lupus nephritis.27
phosphamide given as daily oral therapy, there is more It retards the development of kidney damage in estab-
control over therapy dose and consequent leuko- lished lupus nephritis28 and is safe to continue during
penia.19 However, these patients should be monitored pregnancy.29
closely for bladder toxicity secondary to daily exposure Despite all this evidence, the role of antimalarial
of oral cyclophosphamide. medications in the treatment of patients with SLE
is underappreciated in the nephrology community.
2. IMPROPER DOSING OF CORTICOSTEROIDS The probability of a patient with SLE receiving
The National Kidney Foundation’s KDIGO (Kidney an antimalarial agent is substantially decreased (odds
Disease: Improving Global Outcomes) and other ratio, 0.51; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.31-0.84)
guidelines (American College of Rheumatology and if their primary lupus physician is a nephrologist
the European League Against Rheumatism/European rather than a rheumatologist.30 Certainly in the
Dialysis and Transplantation Association) recommend nephrology community, there has been a great deal of
an initial prednisone dosage of 1 mg/kg, with a slow discussion about what second agent to use, such that
taper over 6-12 months.20 The guidelines also recom- insufficient emphasis has been given to ancillary
mend using low-dose prednisone (#10 mg/d) for therapy, including long-term high-dose corticosteroid
maintenance therapy, and for relapse, the same dose of therapy and antimalarial agents.
prednisone that was effective in inducing original
remission. Although the dose and duration of oral
4. USING URINARY SEDIMENT FOR RESPONSE
corticosteroids have never been subject to evaluation CRITERIA
by randomized controlled trials, these current recom- The panel convened by the American College of
mendations seem to be effective in inducing and Rheumatology to examine outcome markers in lupus
maintaining remission. nephritis recommends using urinary sediment for
However, it is our impression that most clinicians assessing response.31 According to the committee,
focus their attention more on the second agent than on improvement was defined as changing from active
the dose and duration of prednisone, and as a result, urinary sediment to inactive urinary sediment (eg, #5
many patients are treated with lower dose prednisone red blood cells, #5 white blood cells, and no red blood
that is tapered off quickly. This is due to concerns cell or white blood cell casts). They defined worsening
related to the multiple side effects of prednisone. as active sediment in a patient who previously had
Rapid tapering and/or discontinuation of prednisone inactive urinary sediment and for which there were
put patients at high risk for relapse. Some patients, no viable alternative explanations. The committee
despite having a second agent, may need a prolonged defined active urinary sediment as .5 red blood cells
or even life-long course of low-dose prednisone to and .5 white blood cells per high-power field and/or
maintain remission. cellular casts where none existed previously.
Similarly, in refractory lupus nephritis, more However, in reality, the quantity of cells or casts
attention is given to the second agent instead of the observed can be influenced by the duration of centri-
prednisone dose. There are patients who, despite fuge time and how vigorously the pellet at the bottom
changing their second agent, continue to be refractory of the centrifuge tube is resuspended in the superna-
to therapy. These patients potentially could benefit tant. We also know that some more benign processes
from increasing the dose of prednisone. (See also such as mesangial proliferation (class II nephritis)
nonadherence, discussed later.) can be associated with red blood cells and red blood
cell casts in urine, and these lesions do not require
3. NOT USING ANTIMALARIAL AGENTS
immunosuppressive agents. Hence, using urinary
ROUTINELY sediment for response criteria can be misleading and
Antimalarial agents such as hydroxychloroquine can result in unnecessary use of potentially toxic
have been used to treat mucocutaneous, musculo- therapies. In our experience, this is recognized more
skeletal, serosal, and constitutional manifestations often by nephrologists than by rheumatologists.
of SLE. In randomized controlled trials and post However, guideline panels setting criteria for kidney
hoc analyses, hydroxychloroquine has been shown involvement in lupus unfortunately have a dearth of
to reduce the risk of damage accrual,21 improve nephrologists.32
prednisone tablets are taken). With the start of corti- 10%-20% in premenopausal patients. The reported
costeroid therapy, there is almost always a gratifying prevalence of vertebral fractures in patients with SLE
improvement in hemoglobin level and lupus-related has been reported to be as low as 7.6% and as high as
serologic test results, much before improvements 37%.51 The risk of fracture depends on the cortico-
in urinary indexes. If there is no change in hemoglobin steroid dosage and duration. The use of prednisone
level early or in double-stranded DNA titers and com- for 3 months or more with up to just 2.5 mg/d leads to
plement levels within 3-4 months, nonadherence a significantly increased fracture relative risk (RR)
should be considered. The otherwise excellent KDIGO of 1.55. Similarly, significantly increased fracture
guidelines discuss switching therapies for “treatment risks for a dosage of 2.5-7.5 mg/d (RR, 2.59) and
failure” without addressing the possibility of non- dosages . 7.5 mg/d (RR, 5.18) have been reported.52
adherence as the cause.20 One study reported that there was a 7-fold increase in
7. NOT REDUCING OR MINIMIZING hip fractures and 17-fold increase in vertebral frac-
tures when 10 mg/d of prednisone was used for more
IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE EXPOSURE IN PATIENTS than 90 days.53
WITH ADVANCED KIDNEY DISEASE Spinal bone mineral density is a significant pre-
In a patient with stage 4 or 5 CKD secondary to dictor of new fractures in patients on corticosteroid
lupus nephritis, a renal-limited flare might not warrant treatment. Thus, for each reduction point in T score,
another course of aggressive immunosuppressive the RR of fracture is 1.85 (95% CI, 1.06-3.21).52
therapy. There will be significant scarring in the New American College of Rheumatology recom-
kidney and the patient will have very little or no mendations have suggested performing densitometry
benefit from another course of aggressive therapy. in any patient who will use corticosteroids (preven-
The intensity of immunotherapy should be guided by tion) and in patients already on corticosteroid (treat-
extrarenal manifestations. ment) regardless of the dose and duration of
For patients who are on dialysis therapy, the corticosteroid use.54 There currently are no guidelines
immunosuppressive dose should be minimized, if for the frequency of follow-up dual-energy x-ray
possible, because they are at a high risk of infection. absorptiometry.
Immunosuppression is a risk factor for peritonitis in When supplemented with vitamin D, calcium has
peritoneal dialysis patients47 and also in hemodialysis been shown to significantly reduce the risk of verte-
patients dialyzing through tunneled cuffed catheters.48 bral fracture with no effect on nonvertebral frac-
Although most patients with lupus have diminished tures.55 Although not currently in the American
clinical and serologic activity after starting dialysis College of Rheumatology guidelines, use of
therapy, some of them continue to have persistent bisphosphonates has been widely advocated in the
disease activity.49,50 Most flares in these patients are first 1-2 years of prolonged corticosteroid therapy.
extrarenal. Immunosuppressive dose should be altered However, after 2 years, there is a low-bone-turnover
based on the clinical situation and, when possible, state and bisphosphonates are not likely to be help-
minimized. ful and may be harmful.56 Relatively short-acting
We strongly recommend that pulse cyclophospha- oral bisphosphonates such as alendronate and risedr-
mide therapy be avoided in patients with CKD onate weekly are the drugs of choice for women
because of the unpredictable risk of severe leuko- of child-bearing age. However, due to lack of suffi-
penia, even with reduced dose. cient data, the safety of this drug is questionable in
this age group. Long-acting IV medications, such as
8. FORGETTING TO MONITOR SIDE EFFECTS
zolindronate, can be used in men or postmenopausal
OF IMMUNOSUPPRESSION AND TO USE women.
PROPHYLAXIS Patients with lupus using corticosteroids should
All the immunosuppressants used in managing have regular bone mineral density scans obtained and
lupus nephritis have side effects that need close should be supplemented routinely with calcium and
monitoring and use of appropriate prophylaxis. Un- vitamin D (1,000 IU/d). Bisphosphonates should be
fortunately, some of this recommended monitoring added when appropriate. Other agents, such as ter-
gets overlooked and patients end up with significant iparatide (recombinant parathyroid hormone), should
preventable health care problems. be considered when bisphosphonates fail or are
The following are the commonly missed side contraindicated.
effects. Patients with lupus with active disease may be at
particularly high risk for osteoporosis because active
Osteoporosis SLE and corticosteroid therapy are important factors
The prevalence of osteoporosis has been reported leading to the high incidence of osteoporosis and
to range from 4%-24% in patients with SLE and fractures in patients with SLE.
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