UNIT ONE

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM AND COLONIALISM IN

19th CENTURY
1.1. Development of Capitalism in Europe and U.S.A
1.1.1. The Second Industrial Revolution
A. Features of the Second Phase of the Industrial Revolution
 The substitution of iron by steel as the basic industrial material.
 Henry Bessemer in 1856 invented the machine (Bessemer machine), that purify the
liquid iron and produced steel.
 The use of electricity as the major form of industrial energy.
 1870, Michael Faraday manufactured motor, by studying the principle of dynamo
and electricity. 1879 Rudolf Diesel invented diesel engine.
 The replacement of Coal by gas and oil as the principal source of power.
 Change in transportation.
 1825, the first rail way build in British.
 1820 rail way invented by George Stephenson, an English man.
 In this phase rail road, steam ships, and canals became the dominant means of
transportation.
 Revolution in communication.
 In 1940, Western Union Company; the first telegraphy company was formed.
 In 1870, universal postal system created in England.
 In 1876, an American, Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone.
 In 1896, an Italian, Guglislmo Marconi invented telegraphy (wireless).
B. The Result of the second phase of the Industrial Revolution
 Industrial capitalism (the age of business) emerged as the dominant feature of the age. This
changed the life of the peoples.
 Urbanization (the development of towns) accelerated. This created peoples migration to
urban centers.
 Emergence of two social classes; the bourgeoisie and proletarian (working class).
 Emergence of workers struggle. some forms of workers struggle were:
 Trade unions(workers organization)
 Luddite movement (Luddites were skilled workers in England, who showed their
grievances by destroying machine)
 Chartist movement (Chartists were England workers who present petition to the
parliament.)
 Scientific socialism, founded by Karl Marx (1818-1883); who developed Marx’s
socialism (Marxism or communism). In 1848 K.Marx’s and Fredrick Engels, wrote
“Communist Manifesto”. In this manifesto Marx concluded that violent struggle
between capitalists and workers will continue and the final victory will be for workers.
The demand of the workers
The major demands of the workers were:
 reduced work hours and improvement of bad working condition;
 prohibiting child labor and poor payment;

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  compensation for work;
 old age pension;
 unemployment insurance… etc
 Colonialism; the industrial states have came to dominate the world.
 The idea of Liberalism, Nationalism, Pluralism, Democracy and education expanded.
 Liberalism: as explained by John Stuart Mill was the belief in free speech, criticism,
freedom and peoples control over the state.
 Nationalism: Have various forms, one of them is national pride.
 Pluralism is the key feature of democracy under capitalism, which explains the
presence peaceful coexistence, religious tolerance and multi party system.
 The development of nationalism and the formation of nation states, like Germany and
Italy.
1.1.2. The Unification of Italy
1.1.2.1. Hindrance (delayed) Factors of the Italian Unification
Some of the major hindrance factors were:
A. The congress of Vienna in 1815; that was called after the defeat of Napoleon of France,
by various nations in Europe. This congress not only reshaped the map of Europe but also
it decided the fate of the following Italian states. In the congress the following dictions
were made on Italian states:
 Venetia and Lombardy was given to Austria;
 Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca restored to local princes;
 Piedmont Sardinia recognized independent;
 Nepal and Sicily (the kingdom of the two Sicilies) restored to local rulers under
Austrian domination.
B. The presence of foreign powers; like France and Austria in Italy.
C. The negative position and role the papacy; the papacy was against the unification
because the church leaders believed the unity will end the independence of the Papal
States.
1.1.2.2. Factors that Facilitated the Italian Unification
Some of the major facilitated factors were:
A. the presence of foreign power like France and Austria; that arose national fleeing;
B. he revolutionary movement in Italian states, during 1848; which revived nationalism in
Italy and made Piedmont Sardinia to have her own constitution;
C. the work of nationalists like Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1875) and Giuseppe Garibaldi
(1807-1882);
D. the skillful diplomacy of Count Camillo Benso de Cavour (r1810-1861); the prime
minister of the state Piedmont Sardinia.
1.1.2.3. The Process of the Unification
 The unification was started by educated people before 1948 and it also went through
several Stages. Generally as the Historian explained the Italian unification realized by
two methods:
A. The “Below” method
 This method was Master minded by the two Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini and
Giuseppe Garibaldi.

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 Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
 Leader of Young Italy (Jovani Italy) movement.
 Mazzini aim to create democratic republic of Italy.
 Preaches the Renaissance (rebirth or “Risorgimento”) of Italy.
 Popular uprising (made by Young Italians) that was led by Mazzini in the north
United Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Nepal Romania states with Piedmont Sardinia
in 1859.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
 Leader of the “Red Shirts or thousands” (the name of the Garibaldi’s army).
 Garibaldi United Nepal and Sicily (the two Sicily) by fighting with king Francis II in
1960.
B. The “Above” method
 The “above” method was master minded by the skillful diplomacy of count
Camillo Benso de Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia
Cavour (1810 - 1861)
 The man from family of a wealthy land owner, he was the Prime Minister of Piedmont
Sardinia
 The brain of Italian Unification, who used a diplomatic skill and greatly contributed to the
unity. Cavour used four historical wars to finish the Unification. These were:
 the Crimean war (1853-56); in which France and Britain fought against Russia.
In Crimean war Cavour systematically allied on the side of France and Britain, to
gain a diplomatic support of these two great nations, in his fought against Austria.
 Austro - Italian war, in which Cavour was fought to gain Lombardy as he was
calculated; he won to get the support of France in this war.
 Austro - Prussian war of 1866. In this war Cavour allied with Prussian and got
Ventia from Austria, by peace agreement after the war.
 Franco - Prussian war of 1870, which ended the reign of Napoleon III and his
Second Empire (r1852 - 1870) in France, Cavour sided with Prussia and got Rome.
 Notes to be remembered:
 The state, Piedmont – Sardinia served as nucleus of the Italian unification.
 Cavour was the master mind of the Italian unification.
 The Kingdom of Italy proclaimed in Turin in 1861.
 Franco - Prussian war was the final event that completed both the Italian and
the Germany Unification.
 Emanuel I, was the first king of united Italy and Rome was the first capital of
united Italy

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1.1.3. Unification of Germany (1819- 1871)
1.1.3.1. Factors that Preceded the Unification of Germany
 Some of the preceded factors for the German unification were:
 the war of Napoleon Bonaparte. This war arose national feeling of the Germans.
 the Congress of Vienna. This gave the German state to feudal German princess and
kept the German confederation of the Rhine under Austria.
 the idea of liberalism and nationalism that developed in Germany in favored of the
unification.
 the revolution of 1848, that helped Prussia (the nucleus of the unification) to gain a
constitution under the domination of the monarchy and Junkers (land owning
nobility).
1.1.3.2. Factors that Hindered the Unification of Germany
 Here are some of the major obstacles of the German unification
 Australian domination in the German Confederation (north German States).
 Religious differences between the protestant north east, and Catholic south.
 Political differences between the autocratic north and liberal south.
 Economic disagreement between an agrarian east, dominated by the Junkers (land
Lords of Prussia) and industrialized west.
 The presence of foreign power like France and Austria. France, that dominated
Catholic German states in the south, was against the creation of united and strong
Germany that becomes revival to French power in Europe. Austria which was an
important member of the German Confederation in the north also greatly weakened
the Germans patrioticism by strict control.
1.1.3.3. The Process of Unification of Germany
 German unification was achieved gradually and the unification achieved through “Blood
and Iron”, as Bismarck planned. This method involved the diplomatic skill of Bismarck,
war and economic integration through customs union (zollverein).
 The German unification achieved with Prussia serving as a nucleus. Bismarck called this
careful and effective method of unification as realpolitik, which means carful weighing of
every factor and without missing the course by sentiment, emotion or by principles in
politics work.
 he German unification was completed by the following two methods:
A. Zollverein
 This was economic unit that promoted before political unification.
 Zollvering included most of the German states, but not Austria.
 This was a custom union (economic union), with Prussia as a nucleus.
 It was a method of eliminating tariff barriers in trade among German States and it
was also pave the way for political unification.
B. Diplomacy and War
 This was a systematic elimination way of foreign powers and this was achieved
gradually. Otto Von Bismarck, the master mind of the unification, the Chancellor of
Prussia, used both methods of diplomacy and War to finish the unification. To this end he
fought the following wars:

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 1. The Danish war (1864), in this war Austria and German fought against Denmark to
get German states; Holstein and Schleswig. After victory Holstein was given to
Austria and Schleswig to Prussia.
2. The Austria – Prussian war (1866); in this war Prussia defeated Austria at the battle
of Sadawa in 1966 and regained the state Holstein. In this war Italy supported Prussia
and also won to get Ventia. This war ended the domination of Austria and in 1867
Prussia formed a new confederation under her domination.
3. Franco - Prussia war ( 1870 - 1871 ) , the cause for this war was the question of
succession to the Spanish throne that the Prussia king was proposed and Napoleon
III of France was against this idea so he declared war on Prussia but France was
defeated at the battle of Sedan by the Prussian force, and this helped German state
to unite With the states Prussia(the nucleus of the German unification). In 1871 at
Versailles (in France), Bismarck proclaimed William I as the first Emperor (Kaiser)
of the united Germany. After this war the Frankfurt Treaty (1871) was signed
between German and France.
The Frankfurt treaty:
At this treaty
 France was forced to give a coal and iron rich provinces of Alsace and Loraine to
Germany.
 France was agreed to pay a huge war indemnity to Germany.
 They also agreed that the German army to stay in France until the war compensation
was paid.
1.1.4. The American Civil War (1861 - 1865)
1.1.4.1. The Condition of U.S.A before the Civil War (1783 - 1861)
In 1783 thirteen Colonies got their independence from Britain. Here some features of U.S.A
before the Civil War:
 U.S.A developed economically at a relatively at a faster rate.
 There was a continuous westward expansion beyond Allegheny Mountain.
 The thirteen Colonies (original States that served as a nucleus of U.S.A) Strengthened
their union.
 The number of state that joined the union or the federation increased and it reached
thirty-three during the period of Abraham Lincoln ( 1960 - 1965 ) some this state were
acquired either by negotiation or purchased ( states like Louisiana, Florida, Alaska,..
etc).
 Unequal or uneven economic development between the North and the South State of the
federation (the union).
1.1.4.2. The Cause of the American Civil War
The major causes of the American Civil War were:
 economic difference between the North (industrial States that used hired labor) and
South (the agrarian states, based on plantation agriculture using slave labor).
 political difference between the North (Abolitionist, Unionist or Federalist) and the
South (Separatist or Co federalist) on the idea of slavery. The North wanted to abolish
slavery but the South needed to preserve it.

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1.1.4.3. The Courses of the American Civil War
 In February 1861, eleven Southern States broken away from the federation (the union), under
the leadership of Jefferson Davis (1809 -1889), and establish the Confederate State of
America (C.S.A). Due to this action historian called them Co federalist or Separatist.
 In March 1861, the North American States (Abolitionist, Unionist or Federalist) led by
Abraham Lincoln (1809 - 1865), the 16th president of U.S.A, anti slavery leader; declared
war against the Separatist (Southern States).
 Between 1861 and 1863 the victory was on the favor of the Southern ( Confederate States )
but
 In 1863 the balance power shifted to the Northerners (federal States), due to the introduction
of two laws by Abraham Lincoln. These two laws were Emancipation Proclamation (a law
that freed slaves) and the Homestead Law (a law that gave the right for plot of land for
slaves in the West). These two laws weakened the economy of the South.
1.1.4.4. The Result of the American Civil War
 The American civil war had the following consequences
 The North American won the war because of :
- Homestead and Emancipation Proclamation Laws.
- The effective leadership of General Ulysses S.Grant and William T.Sherman;
commanders of the federal army.
- The dedication of Abraham Lincoln to end the war in victory.
 Jefferson Davis was captured and on may 26, 1865 the last Confederate States army
surrendered.
 Social bitterness between the North and the South increased. Agriculture was
devastated in the South and this lead to disease and starvation in the South.
 Slavery was officially abolished but racial discrimination survived to 1960's.
 The political union was preserved and America was saved.
 Abraham Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's theater in Washington DC by an agent of
defeated slave owner, named John Wilkes Booth on 14 April 1865.
1.2. Colonial Rivalries of European powers
1.2.1. The Relation of Africa with Europe
The relation of Africa and Europe was based on the changing interest of Europeans. European
colonial penetration in Africa passed through several stages.
A. The First Stage ((before 1500)
 At this stage European regarded Africa as a "Dark Continent" meaning that was not
explored and well known.
 At this stage the European only have knowledge about the Mediterranean coast of
Africa and some other shores.
B. The Second Stage (1500 - 18th century)
 This was the stage of early European contacts.
 At this stage the major enters of European was trade in profitable commodities, like
gold, ivory and slave (Atlantic slave trade also included here).
C. The Third Stage (from 19th century - 20th centuries)
 This was the era of imperialism (empire building by conquest).
 The main interest of European at this stage was exclusively economic.

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  This was the stage of scramble (partition) for Africa, meaning the period of
colonialism.
1.2.2. Scramble for Africa
Scramble for Africa refers to the rush for acquiring colonial territories in Africa.
1.2.2.1. Causes for the Scramble for Africa
A. Basic Causes
 The development of industrial capitalism (Industrial Revolution) in Europe and the need
for raw material, markets, new area for investment and the price of cheap land and labor
in Africa.
 The emergence of powerful nations like German and Italy changed the balance of power
in Europe and it aroused international competition for acquiring large colonies. This
rivalry among the European nation made the British to form a large empire in Africa
which boasted them to say "The sun never set on the British empire". The rivalry also
created a sort of conflict between colonizers, for instance British and French were very
near to war at Fashoda, in Sudan, in 1889. This colonial event known as in history
Fashoda Incident. But later the incident was avoided by French agreement for question
of the British over the vital water way.
B. The Immediate Cause
 The opening of Suez Canal in 1889, in Egypt and the occupation of Egypt by British in
1882. This condition made British and French to become bitter rivals in the rest of
African continent.
 The direct involvement of King Leopard II of Belgium and Germany in the colonization
of Africa. The coming of these new powers aggravated the ongoing rivalry for colonies.
 The involvement of Italy in the Horn of Africa by the help of the British to check France
advanced beyond Djibouti (Obock). To this end the British invited the Italian to control
Massawa in 1885, after the evacuation of Egyptians. Gradually the colonial power come
to understand that agreement was needed to partition Africa without going to war so
they arranged the Berlin Conference.
1.2.2.2. The Berlin Conference (Nov. 1884 - Feb 1885)
 This conference was arranged by Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany in order to
partition Africa peacefully or without going to war. To this end the map of Africa was drawn.
1.2.2.3. The Process of Colonial Occupation of Africa
There are some factors that made the colonial occupation of Africa possible. We call this factor
the permissive factors.
The permissive Factors:
These were factors that paved the way for the Europeans to know about African and lay the
ground for colonization; some of these factors were:
 the coming of European explorers; Like David Living Stone, James Bruce, Mungo Park,
Clapperton, Samuel Bakere…E.t.c.
 European missionaries; followed in the footsteps of explorers aimed at evangelizing the
African peoples.
 the coming of fortune seekers who were accompanied by companies were followed by
colonial governments.
1.2.2.4. Method of Conquest
The colonial governments used the following method to control Africa:

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  Treaties with local rules and gradually acquired the land of these rulers.
 Fake treaties, in which they falsely claimed to, have been given possession of lands by
local African rulers.
 Military conquest;
Example,
- The British occupation of Sudan, in 1898 by defeating Mahdist’s resistance at the
battle of Omdurman.
- The British occupation of Somalia by defeating Seyyid Muhammad Abdile Hassn's
in 1920….. etc
1.2.2.5. Factors that Attributed to European Success to Scramble Africa
Here are some major factors that helped the European to control Africa:
 European modern weapons and trained professional armies.
 African technical backwardness and lack fire armies.
 Lack of coordination between African resistances.
1.2.2.6. Method of Colonial Rule
 European colonial rule varied in forms, but generally we can divide those rules in two;
A. Direct rule (assimilation policy)
 The French kind of administration, in which instruction was given directly for
colonies by the French.
B. Indirect rule (Divided and Rule)
 This is the rule of the British in which they made local chiefs obey their wishes often
by giving them instructions.

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 UNIT TWO
THE FORMATION OF THE MODERN ETHIOPIA EMPIRE (1855 -
1906)
2.1. The Ethiopian Long Distance Trade in the 19th century
2.1.1. The Nature of Long Distance Trade
2.1.1.1. Trade
 As a human activity, trade can be defined as the exchange of goods involved peoples of
either the same or different religions.
 It was mainly an outcome of sedentary life, surplus production and social division of labor.
 Based on geographical coverage, people and region involved trade divided in to local trade
(trade in a fixed day and place) and long distance trade.
2.1.1.2. Long Distance Trade
 The long distance trade in Ethiopia was characterized by:
 the domination of Muslim merchants. This was because the trade was linked to the
Muslim Middle East and lack of agricultural land in Muslim states;
 the involvement of different peoples, regions a variety of trade item;
 the conduction of Caravan merchants;
 the conduction of local and foreign merchants.
2.1.2. The Revival of Long Distance Trade in the 19th century Ethiopia
2.1.2.1. Factors for the Revival of the Long Distance Trade
 The political stability of the Horn Africa due to the rise of Mohammed Ali of Egypt, in
1830s. This regional stability resulted the revival of trade in the Red Sea and Arabia,
and then Ethiopia becomes a base for exporting items.
 The conquest of the Caucasus by Russia. The conquest closed the supply of some
goods of high demand and concubines to the Ottoman Turks. This resulted in an
increased demand for Ethiopian slaves and items.
 The revival of European interest in Ethiopia in 19th century due to their commercial
competition in the Horn of Africa.
 The rise of Oromo monarchical state in the Gibe region and their political stability;
this endured Caravan traders to travel deep in to the interior of South Western Ethiopia
in search of exported items.
2.1.3. Merchants of the Long Distance Trade
 The long distance trade of the 19th century involved different groups of merchants. Some of
The major merchants were:
Jabarti: - Muslim merchants of northern Ethiopia trade as far as the red sea coast.
Jalaba: - the North West Sudanese merchants.
Saffare: - the group of merchants that dominated trade in South Ethiopia that linked
Somalia and Kenya.
Afkala: - where South West Ethiopian merchants. Afkala and Jabarti were the two most
dominant merchants of the long distance trade.
Afar and Harari Merchants: - merchants of east-west lines of long distance trade who
traded between Shoa and Ports of Djibouti and Gulf Aden.
Somali and Borena Merchants: - merchants that dominated Southern Ethiopia, Kenya and
Somalia.

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2.1.3.1. Caravan Merchants of 19th Century Ethiopia
 The characteristics of Caravan merchants
 They traveled in group; often consisting of up to hundred merchants in a group for the
sake of safety and security.
 They had a leader of their own known as Nagadras (heads of the merchants). Some of
the Responsibility of Nagadrases were:
- mobilizing the groups;
- fixing the day of departure;
- choosing camping sites for rest;
- settling disputes among merchants and;
- paying taxes at custom posts.
 Consisted entirely men. Women did not take part in long distance trade as merchants
but they only involved in local transactions and have the following Responsibility:
- helping their partners in packing goods;
- taking care of stored goods;
- preparing provisions for merchants;
- taking over homestead managements in absence of men.
 They traveled on foot, though few rich merchants rode mules, horses or camels and
they cover a long distance.
 They consisted foreign merchants of Greeks, Arabs, Indians, Armenians, Sudanese
(Jalaba), Somalia and Kenya (Saffare).
2.1.4. Items of the Long Distance Trade
 Long distance trade was based on an exchange of both import and export items.
1. Imported Items
 The major imported items Included copper, brass, spices, clothes, breads, silk, silver,
firearms, cartridge... etc.
2. Exported Items
 The major exported items Included gold, musk (the secretion of civet cats, which has
high demand in the perfume factories of Europe and the Middle East), Ivory, coffee,
most of all slaves (human commodities). The major area of supply for exported items
was the region of south western Ethiopia.
2.1.5. Slavery and Slave Trade in the Long Distance trade Ethiopia
Slaves
 Slaves were the major item of export. The 19th century Ethiopia slave trade was characterized
by:
 Most of the slaves were exported to Sudan and the Middle East (Arabia).
 The major area for the supply of slaves was South West Ethiopian and most of Slaves
were acquired through:
- war ( as a prisoner of war );
- slave raiding;
- Failure of pay debts...etc
 Majority of the slaves were females. This was because:
- they were easily captured;
- the growing demand in the Arabian markets;
- they got high prices than boys…etc

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  Slave was the major item that shows a booming in the last quarter of 19th century due
to;
- the frequent war of conquest and the territorial expansion
- the enlargement of slave hunting ground
- the introduction of modern firearms in slave raiding.
 The price of the slaves also related to age and physical fitness; the young and the strong
brought higher prices.
Slaves Atrocities
 Some the major deep griefs of slaves were:
 slaves traveled long distance on foot and exposed to dangers that threatened their lives;
 separation from parents, husbands, wives or children;
 female slaves suffered from sexual harassment;
 hard chain, mainly on adult slaves’… etc.
Results of Slavery and slave Trade
 The 19th century Ethiopian slave trade had the following results:
 depopulation of the region (decreasing in number of population);
 discouraged productivity (discouraged the population to produced and store more);
 insecurity of life and property due to frequent slave raiding;
 ethnic animosities and regional frictions (because it persisted on certain regions and
ethnic groups);
 Ethiopian economic backwardness; because it targeted the most productive age group of
the society. Slave trade and slavery survived in Ethiopia until it was outlawed in the
1920’s.
2.1.6. Markets, Trade Routes and Medium of Exchanges of Long Distance
Trade
2.1.6.1. Markets of the Long Distance Trade
 Market served many function in 19th century Ethiopia. 19th century Ethiopia People visited
markets primarily to buy or sale goods, besides these, however they went to market to:
 look for their lost cattle;
 select a would be lover;
 settle dispute;
 send or receive massage…etc
 Usually held weekly on fixed day.
 The major markets Located along the major trade routes. the most prominent markets were:
 Bonga ( in Kaffa ), Hirmata ( in Jimma ), Sakka ( in Limu Enarya ), Assandabo ( in
Wellaga ), Basso ( in Gojam, major slave center), Adwa ( in Tigray ), Darita and Yifag
(in Begmidir). These were markets located along the west-north long distance trade
routes that linked the south western regions with the northern regions of Ethiopia.
 Markets located along the east-west long distance trade were, Sodo in Gurage, Ankober,
Aliyu Amba and Abdul Rasul in Shoa, Ancharo and Dawe in Wollo, and Dire Dawa and
Harar in Hararge. These markets served trade routes leading to the ports of Tajura and
Obock in Djibouti and Zeila and Berbera in Somalia.
2.1.6.2. Trade Routes and Ports of the Long Distance Trade
 The major trade ports and routs were:
 Zeyla and Berbera ( in Somalia ).
 Tajura and Obock ( in Djibouti).

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  Mettema (inland outlet located on Ethio-Sudanese border).
 Massawa (in Eritrea).
2.1.6.3. Medium of Exchange
th
 In the 19 Ethiopia, there was no uniform use of a single medium of exchange in the markets
of the 19th century trade of the Ethiopia region. Here is some of the medium of exchange that
was used in the trade:
 traditional Bartering (exchange of goods by goods);
 Amole or salt bar. Amole was one of the widely used medium of exchange in the local
market, which also used as medium of tribute payment. Despite of its wider acceptance
however Amole was easily breakable and it was heavy for transportation;
 Maria Theresa (the currency which is a silver coin of Austria; named after Queen Mari
Theresa Thaler).
2.1.7. The Effects of Long Distance Trade
The 19th century long distance trade in Ethiopia had the following effects:
 it served as a major means of economic ties and interdependence among states and
peoples in the regions;
 it consolidated economic and the political power states;
 it contributed to the political and religious transformation of the Gibe Oromo States; by
consolidating the economic and military powers of the Abba Dullas. The introductions
of Islam by the long distance traders also helped war leaders to legitimize their authority
through adopting Muslim laws, customs, taxes and other practices;
 it increased the states in came. This was because the introduction money helped rulers to
collect taxes in the form of cash;
 it encouraged territorial expansion and created regional revelries. These revelries were
created by the computation to control resourceful regions and trade routes.
2.2. The Revival of Imperial Power in the Christian Highland
Kingdom and Process of Empire Building from 1885- 1900 in
Ethiopia
 The two major historical events of 19th century Ethiopia were:
1. The formation of Ethiopian Empire by
 strengthening imperial authority in central Highland Kingdom and by incorporating
states through expansion. The territorial expansion started by Tewodros II and
finished by Menelik II.
2. The struggle against foreigners.
 The Struggle was mainly against Egypt, Sudan (Mahdist), and Italy. And it was a
successful struggle except losing of Mereb Mellash. Generally we can say Ethiopia
entered the 20th century politically united, her boundary defined and victorious over
colonialism.
2.2.1. The Attempt of Emperor Tewodros II (r.1855 - 68)
 For about a century before the rise of Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855 - 68), the Christian
Kingdom went through a period of great crisis called Zemene Mesafint (the era of war lords).
Zemene Mesafint or the era of princess (1776 - 1855)
The characteristics of Zemene Mesafint
 Endless civil war and death.
 Decentralization (decline of imperial power) and regionalism.

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  Peasant impoverishment and insecurity of life (it was better to be a soldier than to be
a farmer during this period of the Zemene Mesafint).
 Regional Orthodoxism. Orthodox Church suffered from internal division caused by
doctrinal issues. (Some branches of Orthodox Church were, yekebat lejoch, ye kara
lejoch, ye sega lejoch, and ye kara lejoch).
 It was the period of puppet or defacto kings, the so called the Yejju dynasty ( the
wara sha or weraseh)
 Foreign threats against the survival of Ethiopian independence.
 The period of crisis come to an end with the rise of Kasa Hailu, from Quara district of
Bejemidir province, to royal power. Kasa Hailu, “the son of Koso Vender” fought the
following battles before his coronation as an emperor:
 the battle of Guramba in November 1852, in which he defeated Dejjach Goshu of
Gojjam.
 the battle of Gorgora Bichen in April 1853, where he defeated Ras Biru Aligaz, (the
commander of Ras Ali II’s army) and three other war leaders in 1853.
 the battle of Ayshal in June, 1953, in which he won Victory over Ras Ali II of Gondar
(the last King of the Yejju dynasty).
 the battle of Daresge in February, 1855, where he defeated Wube of Semen and Tigray.
Following this battle, Kasa crown himself as Emperor Tewodros II at Deresge Mariam
Church. After he becomes an emperor, Tewodros wanted to restore imperial power. He
wanted to become a ruler of an empire that was politically united, properly
administered and free from foreign threats.
2.2.1.1. The Characteristics of the Period of Emperor Tewodros II
 Tewdros’s period was characterized by:
1. the introductions new reforms
Some of his reforms were:
 he declared Orthodox Tewahdo as the official faith (because as a precondition for
political unity he sought to bring religious unity) and expelled leader of the Catholics
from Ethiopia .i.e. De Jacobis;
 he also tried to established a national salaried army, but not successful because he found
it practically difficult to pay them their salaries;
 he ordered Amharic to be the national language of his empire;
 Tewodros also tried to abolish slavery, but because of many reasons his anti slavery law
not implemented.
2. a series military expedition. To create a centralized unitary state, emperor Tewodros made
a serious of military expeditions to Wollo, Shoa, Gojjam... etc and in all these campaigns, he
was victorious.
3. the modernization attempt. From 1866-1867, emperor Tewodros station at Gafat, near
Debretabor, where he tried to manufactured a modern canon called Sebastapol, with the
power of imprisoned European missionaries. Gafat symbolized the modernization nature of
emperor Tewodros.
4. civil war with rebellious, regional lords and nobilities. The civil war was resulted due to
the centralization policy of emperor Tewodros II. Ultimately the dream of emperor Tewodros
II turned out to be very difficult to establish supreme political and military power over the
Christian Kingdome.

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2.2.1.2. The Downfall of Emperor Tewodros II
 Factors that contributed to downfall of emperor Tewodros II
1. His centralization policy. This policy angered regional lords to fought hard against him.
2. His unpopularity and the exhaustion of his arm due to frequency wars. Tewodros
become unpopular because of his harsh punishment.
3. His conflict with the clergy due his plan of redistributing Church land, reducing the
number of priests and deacons and his order of the clergy to pay due tribute to the
State. Tewodros took these measures as one solution to financial constraints on his plan
of modernization. The anti propaganda of the clergy was more effective among the
masses after Tewodros imprisoned the Bishop Abune Selama in 1864. The Bishop died
in prison in 1867. The conflict with the clergy further isolated Tewodros from the
people and then in 1866 /67 Tewodros station at Gafat near Debretabor where he tried
to manufactured modern armies with missionaries power. Gafat symbolized the
modernization nature of Emperor Tewodros. Later he moved to his center to Mekdela
fortress in Wollo, where he committed suicide fighting with British soldiers lead by
Robert Napier (Baron of Mekdela), in 1863 on April 13.
4. His External Policies and his Enmity with Queen Victoria of England due to his
imprisonment of European missionaries. Tewodros imprisoned the European because
he couldn't get a response to his letter of 1862 that he wrote for the Queen. When he
was ordered to free the prisoners, He refused to release them so in 1868 the British
military expedition under the commander of General Robert Napier reached Ethiopia.
On April 10 1868, the battle of Eroghee was fought between the Tewodro”s General
Fitawrari Gebriya and the British army. At his battle the army of Tewodros was
completely defeated and he lost his brave General Fitewrari Gebriya. Later when the
British stormed Mekdela and rush to captured Tewodros, he committed suicide on 13
April, 1868.
 Notes to be remembered
 Gafat symbolized the modernization nature of emperor Tewedoros.
 Mekedela symbolized Tewdoros’s defiance not to surrender.
 Tewedoros left Ethiopia as divided as he saw before.
 After Tewedoros’s suicidal death at Meqdala in 1868, there was no return to the
Zemene Mesafint as expected by many.
2.2.1.3. The Three Power Contenders After the Death of Tewodros
 After the death of emperor Tewodros His rivals all hoped for the throne, to become emperor
over a politically united empire. Here are the major power contenders after the death of
Tewodros:
A. Wabshum Gobeze Gebremedhin of Last, who had been rebel against Tewodros in
Lasta took the throne and became emperor Tekle Giyorgis, immediately after the death
of Tewodros. The reign of emperor Tekle Giyorgis was very brief, he ruled from 1868
-1870. During this year’s Ras Kasa Mircha of Tigrai was challenged Tekle Georgis and
was fighting for imperial power.
B. Ras Kasa Miricha of Tigray (who later renamed as Emperor Yohanness IV).
C. Nigus Menelik of Shoa (who later become Emperor Menelik II).

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2.2.2. The Period of Emperor Yohanness IV (r.1872 - 1889)
 In July 1871, Ras Kasa Miricha defeated Emperor Tekle Giorgis at the battle of Assem in
Tigray. Then he was crowned Emperor Yohanness IV, on 21 January 1872, six months after
the battle of Assem. As a successor of Tewodros Yohannis only inherited regional
oppositions and foreign treats.
2.2.2.1. The Characteristics of Yohannis’s Period
 The period of emperor Yohannis IV was characterized by:
A. military expedition
 For building imperial authority, as soon as Yohannis ascended to power he made an
expedition to Gojjam, Bejemidir, Hamassen, and Yejju to get the submission of local chiefs.
B. loosen federalism and diplomacy
 Unlike Tewodros Yohannis did not persist with the use of force for building imperial
authority. In instead he recognized the local hereditary chiefs so long as they accepted him as
an overlord and paid tribute.
 He also followed a sort of “Loosen Federalism" in which he recognized local hereditary
rulers to rule their respective regions. For example he shared power in the kingdom for the
following vassal rulers; Adal Tessema (later Nugus Teklehaimanot) who recognized as king
of Gojjam and later Kaffa and Menelik of Shoa also recognized as Negus of Shoa and later
Wollo.
 The diplomatic nature of emperor Yohannis can be explained by the Lich Agreement and the
Waraillu Conference of 1882.
The Liche Agreement of 1878
 Menelik was competing for the throne starting from the death of Tewodros. He also lost the
chance twice to be an emperor of Ethiopia, 1868 and 1872 respectively. Above all he did not
want to recognize Yohannis’s overlordship. Yohannis realized the challenge of Menelik in all
those three years of his reign in which he was busy in strengthening his power in the north.
 However, in 1878, Yohannis secured a peaceful submission of Menelik of Shoa, at Liche
Agreement. It was an agreement that was made between Menelik of Shoa and emperor
Yohanness IV near Ankober in Shoa, on March, 1878.
By the treaty of Liche:
 Menelik agreed to pay tribute to Yohannis and accepted his emperorship;
 Menelik agreed to drop the use of the title Niguse- Negest (king of Kings) and use only
the title king;
 Menelik agreed to stop independent contact with foreigners; which he didn’t respect
later;
 emperor Yohanness recognized king Menelik's and his descendants as hereditary rulers
of Shoa. he also accepted Menelik’s control over Wollo;
 both Menelik and Yohanness agreed to help each other against the common enemy,
which practically not performed.
 A Liche Agreement put an end to shoan administrative autonomy without bloodshed. It also
saved Menelik’s shoa from possible destruction by imperial army. Menelik also realized the
fact that he needed time to build a strong army if he wants to see his dreams come true.
C. religious unification and christianization
 The period of Yohannis was a period of Orthodoxies or Orthodoxization. Unlike Tewodros
Yohanness was very serious on the Orthodox (religious) issues. That's why he called
religious Council of Borumeda on May 1878, at Wollo.

15
 The Council of Borumeda
At this council:
 Orthodox Tewahdo declared as an official faith of the country;
 Islamization was out flawed and all Muslims were ordered to convert in to Christianity.
Those who refused were threatened by confiscation of their land. For instance, Muslim
rulers of Wollo and their subordinate chiefs were offered a choice between conversions
or loss of their power. They choose conversion to Christianity. For example,
Mohammed Ali was baptized and renamed as Michael, and also Ahmed Liban (Aba
Watew) became Haile Mariam. Some Islamic rulers like Sheikh Talha of Argoba
rebelled against this action of Yohanness, but the rebellion was crushed by the joint
force of Menelik and Yohanness and some people in Wollo who refused the conversion
and fear the persecution exiled to such far off the regions as Gurage, JIimma, Metemma
and Arsi;
 Catholic evangelization was ordered to be stopped.
D. south western expansion of regional Lords
The two computing regional lords in the expansion were Adal Tessema or Negus
Teklehaimanot of Gojjam, and Menelik of Shoa. This regional war lords in their ways to
the South West once met at Embambo,in wollega, on 6 June 1882. Despite the emperor’s
order to avoid fighting the two kings went war. At this battle the force of Gojjam, that was
ruled by Dejazmach Dereso crushed by the Shoan army which commanded by Gobena
Dachee and Adal Tessema himself was captured. When Yohanness heard this news he
called both local rules at Waraillu in Wollo, in 1882.
The Warraillu Conference
After this conference:
 Yohanness took Kaffa and Agew Midir from Teklehaimanot;
 Wollo was taken away from Menelik;
- but later Yohanness made a political marriage between Zewditu (daughter of
Menelik) and with his son Ras Araya Silassie and allowed Menelik to expand
South Western Ethiopia. Gobena Dache, Menelik's"General" was taken the
responsibility of this expansion.
 Notes to be remebered
 The battle of Embambo was a passport to Menelik to the South West and it was a
battle in which Yohanness realized that Menelik was a serious challenging to his
imperial power this could be a reason why he made (perform) a political marriage
with him.
E. Egyptian aggression over Ethiopia
 The Egyptian expansion policy in Ethiopia and the Horn Africa started in the period of
Emperor Mohammed Ali, (the architect of the idea of the “Greater Egypt”, Albanian general,
the commander of Ottoman army who founded a new dynasty that ruled Egypt up to 1952) of
Egypt, in 1805.
 The conflict of Egypt with Ethiopia reached its peak during the period of king Khedive Ismail
Pasha (r.1863 - 1879) of Egypt, Ismail sought the trade routes to North - East Africa as a
major source of income, to pay back what he borrowed from European, for the construction
of the Suez Canal and other programs. In 1872 Ismail launched an attack on Ethiopia
encouraged by the following developments in Ethiopia and Europe:

16
  the death of Tewodros that made Egyptian to believe there will be a political turmoil
after Tewodros's death;
 British's military success over emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia made the Egyptian to
think Ethiopia was weak;
 the European help. Ismail saw European as friends to Egypt, who would not give
military support to Ethiopia. Because he know that he opening of the Suez Canal,
considerably added to the strategic and economic value of Egypt.
 Ismail ordered his invasion in to Ethiopia in three directions under the architect of Werner
Munzinger( a Swiss German, and once French Consul at Massawa, who entered in Egypt in
1871). Ismail made Munzinger his agent because Munzinger had a good deal of knowledge
about Ethiopia and red sea region.
The three directions of Egyptian aggression over Ethiopia, in 1975
1. From the port of Tajura into Afar.
 In 1872, Munzinger led an invasion into the region of Bogos, in the present day of
Eritrea. After this Egyptian invasion, Yohanness IV tried to find a solution for
“Bogos crisis” by diplomatic campaign but he was diplomatically isolated, because
the European were inclined to Ismail, not risk their trade and investment in Egypt.
 Munzinger led a small Egyptian army about 400 men from the port of Tajura into
Afar territory in Ethiopia. The aim of the expedition was to control the trade routes
of Wollo and Shoa. However the force of Muzinger including himself were killed
in late November 1875 by the Afar peoples who fiercely resisting the invaders.
2. From the port of Zeila , to the Emirate of Harar
 At this direction the Egyptian invasion force was led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha
and controlled Harar from October 1875 up to 1885.
3. Via Massawa, through Mereb Mellash
 In this North direction about 2500-3000 modern Egyptian invasion force led by the
Demnark mercenary called Colonel Arrendrup.
 Almost three thousand well armed and trained soldiers were included here, but the
armed forces of Egyptian were completely defeated at Gundet by the army of
Yohanness IV on 23 October, 1875. After this battle Ismail was determined to
avenge his defeat and reequipped 15000 Egyptian soldiers under the commander of
Mohammed Rattib Pasha and the American General Loring. On his side
Yohanness try to find a peaceful solution but it was impossible so he launched an
attack on Egyptian force and defeated the second Egyptian force at Gura on
March, 1876.
 Even though Yohanness scored two victories over Egyptian, within matter four months, yet
he couldn't clear the Egyptian out of his territories and Egypt also unwilling to restore
Ethiopian territories.
 The year from 1876 - 1884, was the period of “no peace, no war". A peaceful resolution of
the condition in both sides was failed including Gordon mission (Gordon was a British
General who was sent by Ismail for peaceful negotiation on the behalf of Egypt, in1877).
 The only historical event in this period of “no peace, no war" was the Egyptian agreement to
free trade with Ethiopia and the released of the prisoners of war on the side of Yohanness.
F. Mahdist invasion in the north Ethiopia.
 Mahdists or mahdia were religious revivalist and nationalists in Sudan. Cause of the Mahdist
invasion in the north Ethiopia was the Adwa or Hiwott Treaty on 3 June, 1884.

17
The Adwa Treaty (Hiwott Treaty)
 It was a treaty between emperor Yohannis and Egypt, which was performed by the
involvement of British on the behalf her colony. The treaty was named after the British man
who was sent to negotiate i.e. Rear Admiral William Hewett, at Adwa.
 The British involvement in the Ethio-Egyptian crisis was the result a serious Mahdist
challenge over Anglo- Egyptian rule in the Sudan. Among the Articles of Hewett treaty the
following were included:
 the right of free transit through the port of Massawa for all goods including firearms
to and from Ethiopia;
 restoration of Bogos to Ethiopia, and
 ethiopian agreement to help in the safe evacuation of the trapped Egyptian army
via Massawa.
The Consequence of Hiwott Treaty
 The Hewett treaty might appear to have been a diplomatic victory for Ethiopia. In reality,
however, it had the following disastrous consequence on Ethiopian independence:
 to fulfill his promise, Yohanness fought Mahdists at the battle of Kufit in September
1885, by using his general Ras Alula. By doing so Yohanness exchanged the weak
enemy Egypt by the strong Mahdist Sudan;
 though Egyptian finally lost control of all regions of Ethiopia, Ethiopia did not
regain Massawa. Instead of restoring Massawa to Yohanness the British gave it to
Italian in 1885. By doing so, the British invited another strong enemy for Ethiopia;
 the treaty finally made emperor Yohanness to lose his life while fighting with the
Mahdist at the battle of Mettema, on March 1889.
 Mahdists attacked Ethiopia on the side of Ethio - Sudanese border because of Yohanness
help to evacuate the Egyptian trapped army in Sudan in 1887. The Mahdists distracted the
city of Gondar through Mettema.
 As soon as Yohanness heard this news, he ordered his vassal Nugus Teklehaimanot of
Gojjam to fight them, but he was defeated at the battle of Sarwuha, North of Lake Tana. By
1888 Emperor Yohanness encountered what we called in history “Triangular Tension" .i.e.
Mahdists from Gondar (Western Ethiopia), Italian from Mereb Melash (North Ethiopia) and
Menelik and Teklehaimanot (in the center) was plotted against him.
 Consequently, Emperor Yohanness was forced to postpone his confirmation with Italian and
matched to the South to deal with Teklehaimanot of Gojjam and later Menelik after the
submission of this two vassals, then he turned his attention towards Mahdists and went to
fought them, but on 9 March, 1889 the force of Yohanness defeated at the battle of Mettema.
Yohanness was wounded at this battle and died in the next day. The Mahdists captured his
dead body and be headed it.
 Notes to be remembered
 As the successor of Tewedoros, Yohannis only inherited regional opposition and foreign
treat.
 The Liche Agreement and the Werillu Conference symbolized the diplomatic nature of
emperor Yohannis.
 By the Lich Agreement Menelik buy time to fulfill his dream to became the emperor of
Ethiopia.

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  The Borumeda Council shows how emperor Yohannis was very serious on religious
issues.
 By the Hiwott Treaty Yohannis exchanged one weak enemy Egypt by two strong
Mahadist and Italy.
2.2.3. Expansion to the South, South West and South East
The process of expansion and formation of modern Ethiopia Empire was completed during the
reign of Emperor Menelik II.
2.2.3.1. Menelik’s Expansion to the South, Southwest and South east
The process of Menelik's expansion was characterized by:
 unlike the others expansion, it covered wider territory; aimed at forming a vast Empire;
 it went beyond the old provinces of the Christian Kingdom; it included the South, South
West and East states;
 the expansion was at increasing scale and greater magnitude that hoped in forming of a vast
empire;
 peaceful subjugation (most of Western Ethiopian states were included here) and forceful
submission (here Muslim Gurage, Arsi, Harar, Walayta and Kaffa included).
2.2.3.2. The Phases of Menelik’s Expansion
A. The First Phase of the Expansion (1875 - 1889)
 This was an expansion as he was a king of Shoa.
 At this phase Menelik was succeeded in subduing and incorporating the regions of Gurage,
Illubabur, Wollaga, the Gibe Oromo States, Arsi and Harar
 In this first phase Christian Gurage, Illubabur, Wollaga and the most of Gibe Oromo States
were incorporated peacefully by promising local autonomy but state like Muslim Gurage
(who fought Menelik under their leader Hasan Enjamo, until they defeated in 1888), Harari
and Southeast Oromo States (subdued at Chelenqo in 1889) and Arsi (who defeated at the
battle of Anzule) incorporated by forceful means.
 Facilitated by the Liche Agreement (the agreement made Menelik to concentrate on the
expansion), the battle of Embambo (wher Menelik eliminated a strong rival of his expansion)
and Menelik's relation with Italians (that enabled Menelik get a fire arms).
B. The Second Phase of the expansion (1889 - 1896)
 This was an expansion after Menelik become an Emperor.
 This phase was facilitated (motivated) by the Great Famine called the Kefu Qan (from 1888 –
92), that caused by cattle epidemic which forced people to move out of famine zone) and war
with Italians (this motivated Menelik to move to the South to mobilize resource).
 In this phase Menelik incorporated Wolayta (after bloodiest war with last King of Kawo
Tonna, in 1894), Bale and Sidamo (other than Borena) were incorporated at this phase.
C. The third phase of the expansion (1896 - 1900)
 This was an expansion after the battle of Adwa.
 The main motive of this expansion was to create buffer zone between the Ethiopia interior
and the adjustment colonies.
 At this phase Menelik subdued Kaffa (after bloodiest war with last king of Kaffa, Tato Gaki
Serecho, in 1897), Benishangul, and Borena.
2.3. Italian Colonialism in the Horn of Africa
 In 1869 - an Italian private shipping company had bought the Assab from local chiefs.
Thirteen Years later, the possession of the port was transferred to the Italian government.

19
 February 1885 - the Italians landed at the port of Massawa by the help of British as a
watchdog against French expansion in the region and Italians used Massawa as a spring
board to her colonial expansion in to Ethiopia.
 On March 1885 - Italian occupied the coastal Ethiopia in Eritrea like Aylet, wia and Saati
more over they blocked the import of fire armies and imposed heavy tax on the merchants.
Emperor Yohannis complained this action of the Italians to the British, but the British
advised him to live in love and peace with the powerful Italians.
 25 January 1887 - Italians continued their expansion in to Mereb Mellash. Ras Alula
Engida, the governor of Mereb Mellash, checked their advance at Saati and later defeated
them at Dogali; this event was known as the Dogali Victory. The battle of Dogali created a
shock and urgent desire for revenge in Italy.
 October, 1887 - Menelik signed a Convention of Neutrality with Italians on their war
against Emperor Yohannis IV. The relation of Italia with Menelik started in 1876, were
Menelik gave a camping site at Let Marefia in Shoa, to Italian Geographic Society under
Untinori, the battle of Dogali increased the value of Menelik to the Italians. The Italian
wanted Menelik to fight Yohanness but Menelik was unwilling that why he signed the
convention of neutrality.
 November 1887 - Portal Peace Term (Portal Mission; named after British negotiator
Gerald Portal) the treaty was between Yohannis and Italians. At this treaty Portal proposed:
 Yohannis to ask apology for Alula's “unjust attack" on the Italians;
 Itallian's protectorate right over the regions of Assawrta and Habhab and
the occupation of Saati by the Italians;
 the retention of the regions of Saati and Wia by the Italians.
Yohannis was not to accept this peace terms. Thus, Portal mission failed and Yohannis was
very anger on British diplomatic mischief. Meanwhile, he declared war on the Italians and
called his people to arm.
 March, 1888 - Yohannis marched to fight the Italians at Saati; with 70,000 troops. Where
the Italians had built a strong fortification. But by seen the numerical superiority of the
Emperor's army, Italians refused to engage in battle and they feared even to come out of
their fortification. This condition lasted for a month due to this Yohannis’s army suffered a
shortage of food. While Yohannis was at Saati, he received two news. The first was the plot
of his vassal kings and the second was Mahdist invasion of Gondar. Then Yohannis went to
Gondar where he died fighting against Mahdist. After his death king Menelik of Shoa
declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia.
2.3.1. The Treaty of Wuchale, the Birth of Eritrea as An Italian Colony, and
the Battle of Adwa
2.3.1.1. The Treaty of Wuchale
 On 2 May, 1889 Menelik signed Wuchale treaty with the Italians, in Wollo. At the treaty
Italians were represented by Count Pretro Antonli. The treaty was so named after the place
in north Wollo where it was signed. Emperor Menelik forced to sign the Wuchale treaty
because;
 as he had not yet established a firm imperial power over his empire, Menelik seemed
to have found it difficult to dislodge Italian by force;
 he feared that any disagreement with the Italian would result in their subversive
activity among his rivals for the throne mainly the Tigrean princes like Ras Mengesha
Yohannis.

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2.3.1.1.1. The Articles of the Wuchale Treaty:
The Wuchale treaty had almost 20 Articles from this Articles the most crucial were Article III
and IIV
A. Article III of the Wuchale Treaty
 Deals with the boundary delimitation between Ethiopia and Italian occupied of Mereb
Mellash(Eritrea).
 This article further ratified by the Rome conventions, in 1889, in which Italian signed
with Ras Mokonen at this convention Italians added the clause “effective occupation".
This clause stated that boundary demarcation would base on actual possession.
 By the Article III of the Wuchale Treaty Italian owned Eritrean as their colony, in
January, 1990.
B. Article IIV (seventeen) of the Wuchale Treaty
 Deals with Italian role in Ethiopia's foreign relations. By this article Italians wanted to put
Ethiopia under their protectorate. To This end they wrote two contradictory versions.
 The Amharic version says "Ethiopia could use the service of Italy" and the Italian version
say “Ethiopia must use the service of Italy in her foreign relation with the Europeans".
 So the Italian version reduced Ethiopia to the status of Italian protectorate. Accordingly,
in October 1889 Italy notified the major power of Europe that Ethiopia had became her
protectorate.
 Most of European recognized the Italian protectorate claim based on Article IIV but
Russia and France had reservations.
 December, 1891 - Italy signed the Mereb Convention with Ras Mengesha Yohannis and
other Tigrian local ruler, near Mereb river, in which they sword an oath of friendship. This
was an Italian policy of subversive activity. But this Italian subversion failed. Later the
Tigrean regional rulers left the Italian camps.
 June, 1894 - the Mereb Convention was failed. Ras Mengesha and Ras Alula left the Italian
camp and renewed their loyalty to Menelik.
 February 1893-emperor Menelik was unwilling to accept the Italian version of Article
seventeen. He also requested the Italian king Umberto to correct the Article but Italy was
not willing to change it. In 1893, Menelike, however, notified European powers about the
abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty.
 December, 1894 - Italian faced a peasant rebel at Akale Guzay, in Eritrea due to the policy
of White settlement and racism. This rebellion was led by the Italian former collaborator
Dejazimach Bahts Hagos but the rebellion was crushed, but it led to further resistance to the
Italian colonialism.
 1895-The battle of Qoatti and Senafe was fought between Ras Mengesha of Tigrai and
Italians.
 September, 1995 -Menelik issued general mobilization order. On December,1995 100,00 of
Menelik's soldiers crushed an Italian army at the battle of Ambalage in southern Tigray. In
the same year Italian army that fortified at Mekelle was surrendered the fortress to the
Ethiopian due to the lack of water and provisions for two weeks. The closing of Italian
access to water was proposed by Empress Taytu (wife of Emperor Menelik II). We called
this event “the Singe of Mekelle". The Italian driven out of Mekele.

21
2.3.2. The Battle of Adwa
 The Italian army was defeated at the battle of Adwa on 1 March, 1896, in Tigray. The battle
lasted for one full day. Ethiopian troops displayed a high degree of courage and unity. The
battle of Adwa was extremely blood. The Italian lost the battle.
2.3.2.1. The Consequences of the Victory of Adwa
 The Italian lost one- third out of their total 20,000 troops, about 2000 captured and 1500
wounded. Italians cleared out of Tigray, but not from Eritrea.
 Ethiopia lost 7000 soldiers out of 100,000 troops. The war was concluded with the
complete Ethiopian victory.
 The downfall of Italian Prime Minister Francisco Crispi.
 The Adwa victories become a symbol of black dignity and self rule. It inspired further
black solidarity and nationalism. In countries of South Africa, it sparked the emergence of
“religious separatist “called Ethiopianism. This was a preference for African churches
independent from European missionary Churches. The Church formed part of the anti-
colonialist struggle.
 Inspired the early Pan - Africanist movement.
 Ethiopia lost her Red Sea port and access to the Sea. Eritrea remained under Italians up to
1941 and the battle also caused Italians to invaded Ethiopia in 1935, from Eritrea as a
base.
 October 26, 1896, the Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed between Italy and Ethiopia.
2.3.2.1.1. The Addis Ababa treaty
Signed On 26 October, 1896 between Ethiopia and Italy. By this treaty:
 Italy accepted the total abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty;
 Italy recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia, and
 Italy agreed to observe the boundary along the rivers Mereb, Belessa and Muna. The
boundary between Ethiopia and Eritrea was formally delimited later 1900.
The Tripartite Treaty (December 1906)
The three colonial powers Britain, France and Italy, signed what was come to
Known as the Tripartite Treaty to divided Ethiopia. In this treaty French defined her
Interest in Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail way. British interest was the Nile basin and Italian
Interest was to construct a rail way that links her colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland.

22
 UNIT THREE
THE ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMERGENCE OF AUTOCRACY 1906 – 1935
3.1. Internal Power Struggle and Foreign Intervention in the Early Twentieth
Century
3.1.1. The Problem of Succession and the Tripartite Treaty
 The empire of Ethiopia entered the twentieth century
 politically centralized;
 victorious over colonial aggression and
 Internally stable.
 However, the stability lasted only for a short period. Power struggle in the palace and political
instability in the empire began. This was because of:
 Menelik's illness.1906,Menelik suffered a stroke and unable gave effective leadership,
and
 the death of Ras Mokonen Woldemichael, a cousin of the Emperor and the would be
successor.
 The above two historical problems of the 1906 created the following two conditions in Ethiopia:
 power struggle in Menelik's palace , political instability in the empire, and
 revival of foreign threats. By seeing the internal crisis, the adjacent colonial powers i.e.
Britain, France and Italy signed the Tripartite Treaty, in 1906, to divide Ethiopia, which
later became a tiger paper.
 Despite the deterioration of his death, the Emperor took the following three steps to solve the
internal and external problems:
 he wrote a letter to the signatories of the Tripartite Treaty, in which he underlined the
need to maintain the unity and independence of his country;
 he established Council of Minister, in 1907. The aim of this new minister was to ensure
the normal running of his government. This ministerial system was the first in the history
of Ethiopia and it was symbolic than real because it included the same old place officials
and not practical.
 to solve the problem of succession in May 1909. The emperor officially announced Lij
Iyasu as his heir under the regent of Ras Tesema Nadew. This condition created power
struggle between Titu, Emperor's wife, and the Shoa nobilities. Titu need Zewditu to be
the successor than Lij iyasu.
3.1.2. Power Struggle between Empress Taytu and the Shoan Nobility
(1906 -1910)
 Empress Taytu Bitule, who had no child of her own, was against the appointment of Lij
Iyasu. She rather favored princess Zewditu, the daughter of Menelik from another woman to
be the successor under the regent of Ras Gugsa Wolle Bitule (Taytu's Nephew). This was
because:
 she want to keep her political significant, and
 she feared that the succession to power of a ruler with no blood ties to her might affect
her role in the future politics of the country.
 From the period of 1906 - 1910 Empress Taytu made the following steps to suppress the
power of the Shoan nobilities, the council of ministers and the regent.

23
  She arranged series of political marriages among her relatives and important political
figures, families and local dynasties.
 She appointed her close allies and relatives to high ranking positions.
 She dismissed her political opponents including members of the council of ministers.
 She also tried to dissolve the Council of Ministers, but this condition speeded up her
downfall. In March 1910, Taytu was removed from the government duties, and forced to
exile at Enteto and died there in 1918, after death of her husband’s in 1913.
3.1.3. The Challenge of Lij Iyasu (r.1913 -1916)
 Lij Iyasu was a grandson of Menelik from his daughter Princess Shewareged and Ras
Michael (formerly Imam Mohammed Ali), who was the ruler of southern Wollo.
3.1.3.1. The Characterstics of the Period of Lij Iyasu
The Period of Lij Iyasu was characterized by:
A. Power struggle between Shoan Nobilities and Lij Iyasu. It began after the death of Ras
Bitweded Tessema, the regent of Iyasu, in 1911. This was because:
 the Shoan nobility didn't support Lij Iyasu, as he was the son of non - Shoan regional
rulers .i.e. Ras Michael of Wollo.
 Iyasu's refusal to accept any other regent to replace Ras Tessema (one of the Shoan
nobility),and
 Iyasu's declaration that he could lead the country by himself.
B. The introduction of several modern reforms. The brief reign of Iyasu was strained by
internal and external problems. However, Iyasu had introduced many positive reforms. For
instance:
 he modified the traditional method of tithe (Asrat) collection;
 he outlawed the traditional Lebashay or method of traditional detection system;
 he also outlawed the Quragsna system by which an accused and accuser were
chained together until Justice was given;
 Iyasu established the Trumbulle or modern municipal police. Trumbulle consisted of
former soldiers that served as Italian colonial troops in Libya. The name Trumbulle
was named after the capital capital city Libya, Tripoli;
 he separated education from Orthodox Church
 he introduced an "Auditing System" meant to protect public property.
C. The expansion of Islam
 Lij Iyasu had more liberal policy toward Ethiopian Muslims. He encouraged the
building of Mosques and respects the right of Muslims.
3.1.3.2. The Dawn fall of Lij Iyasu
There were two factors that contributed to the downfall of Lij Iyasu:
A. Internal factors;
 The pressure of Shoan nobility and their struggle to overthrow Iyasu was the major internal
factor. The internal opposition came mainly from the old Shoa officials of Menelik. The root
causes of internal oppositions were:
 Iyasus attitude towards the old Shoa nobility and His political measures that were seen
as a threat to Shoan political supremacy. Indeed, Lij iyasu had no respect for the old
officials.
 the dismissal of old Shoa noblemen and the replacement of them with Iyasu’s young
friends and relatives.

24
  the coronation of his father, Ras Michael as Nugus of Wollo, Tigray, Begmidir, and
Gojjam. Iyasu made his father the king of Northern Province. Of all his measures, this
was most serious political threat to Shoan nobilities.
To accused and overthrow Iyasu, the Shoan nobilities used the following personal
condition of Lij Iyasu, as an advantage:
- Iyasu's personal weakness.
- His polygamous marriage and pro-Muslim policy.
- His lack of attention to government affairs.
- His marriage with Muslims. This was taken as an attempt weakening the
Orthodox Church.
B. External factors
 The pressure of British, France and Italy due to Iyasus foreign policy. The causes of External
Oppositions of foreign powers like British, France and Italy were:
 Iyasu's relation with German and Ottoman Turkey which were the major enemies of
Britain, France, and Italy in the First World War ( 1914 -1918 )
 Iyasu's moral and material support to the Somali nationalist Sayyid Mohammed
Abdile Hassan, in his struggle against British and Italian colonialism.
 The three colonial powers united with the Shoan nobilities moved to depose Iyasu's in his
visit to Harar and Jigiga. On 27 September, 1916, Iyasu was excommunicated by the then
Bishop Abune Metheos and official deposed.
 On hearing his deposition Iyasu headed towards the capital but his opponents and Iyasu's
men met at Mieso, near Asebe Tafari (Chiro) town. At mieso, Lij Iyasu was defeated and
fled to Wollo. He then becomes fugitive for five years until he was captured in Tigray in
1921. He was in detention at Fich up to 1921 and then transferred to Garamuleta in Hararge,
where he stayed in detention until his death in 1936.
 Meanwhile Nigus Michael,the father of Iyasu, had made an attempt to restore his son to
power, and to this end he fought at the battle of Segele near Sheno town with the central
government. But he was defeated and capture, on 27 October 1916. He died in prison two
years later.
 The blood coupe against Lij Iyasu ended up with the restoration Shoan political supremacy.
The coup makers then proclaimed Zewditu, the daughter of Menelik, Empress under the heir
and regent of Ras Tafari, the son of Mokonen, on February 11, 1917. A woman took the
imperial power for the first time in Ethiopian history.
3.1.4. The Period of empress Zewditu (1917 - 1930)
The Shoan nobility chosen Zewditu because:
 She was politically less ambitious, and
 They think she could maintain their interest as a daughter of Menelik.
3.1.4.1. The Characteristics of the Period of Empress Zewditu
The period of empress Zewditu was characterized by:
A. The Diarchy
 The term diarchy in Ethiopia politics refers to the period of dual rule between 1016
and 1930. Two central powers existed during this period. These were Zewditu and
Ras Tafari. Zewditu was the empress, but her heir and regent, Ras Tafari, exercised
extensive powers. Thus the period has often been referred to as the diarchy.
B. Power struggle

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  At the beginning the diarchy appears to be the period of political stability, but soon a
political crisis and a persistent power struggle emerged between two political groups
who are referred to as the traditionalist and the progressive.
The Traditionalist Group
 The Traditionalists,consisted of the old nobility represented by the Empress and the
Council of Ministers that was mainly consisted of the old Shoan nobility like;
 Fitewrari Habte Giorgis Dinagde (the chairman of the Council and the war
minister).
 Abune Metheos ( the Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox church)
 Dejazimach Balcha Sofa ( Balch Abba Nebso ,the governor of Sidamo )
 Dejazimach Abba Waqaw (the commander of palace guards)...etc
 This group defended the old Order of religious, social, economic and political system.
 They opposed modernization, extensive diplomatic relations and foreign investment in
Ethiopia. They were above all opposed to the growing power of Ras Tafari.
The Progressive Groups
 The progressive, consisted of commercial strata, the young and educated as well as the
enlighten nobility rallied around Ras Tafari. These were prime-movers of progressive
ideas.
 This group criticized a feudal order, heavy taxation, corruption and slavery.
 These groups also believe in the expansion of modern education, veterinary services,
health services, and the expansion of infrastructure and abolition of the Gebar System.
A new paper named Berhan ena Selam served as a forum of their critics.
Later Ras Tafari realized the important of recruiting domestic and foreign allies and the need to
eliminate internal challenges to his power. He took the following measures to illuminate the
traditionalists:
 In 1918, He dismissed the members of the Council of Ministers except the war minister,
Fitewrari Habte Giorgis. The ministers were removed by the pretext of corruption,
under the agitation of the Mehal Sefari ( soldiers and civil servants around the palace)
 The Council of Ministers was replaced by the Crown Council (A Crown council was an
advisory body, staffed mainly by Ras Tafari's allies).
 He established printing press, welcomed foreign investors and missionaries. Modern
education was expanded.
 In 1923, Ras Tafari was won Ethiopia's admission to the League of Nations as a
precondition to her membership and anti- slavery trade decree was issued. In 1924, a
decree on the eradication of domestic slavery was issued, but slavery continued up to
1930's.
 In 1924, Ras Tafari and some nobility made an extensive tour to Europe. This gave Tafari
popularity.
 In 1926, Ras Tafari took over the title of the war minister, after the death of Fitewrari
Habte Giorgis. The same year Abune Metheos was dead. This removed a serious
obstacle to Ras Tafari and his allies.
 In 1927, Ras Tafari obtained the unconditional surrender of one of the powerful opponent
to his power, Dejazimach Balcha Safo, a veteran of Adwa and a governor of Sidamo. He
was then made a prisoner, but he later died fighting against fascist Italy in 1937.

26
  In 1928, Ras Tafari succeeded to get the submission of Dejazimach Abba Waqaw, the
commander of palace guard; he rebelled in defensce of Zewditu. Abba Wagaw was
sentenced to death though this was later changed to life imprisonment.
 October, 1928, Ras Tafari , crowned as Nugus by the demand of the 'mehal sefari' with a
ceremony attended by foreign diplomats.
 On 31 March 1930, Ras Tafari, defeated Ras Gugsa Wolle, his last opponent at the battle
of Anchim (in Begmidir). The conflict between Ras Gugsa and Tafari had personal,
political and economic causes. But the main cause was Ras Tafari's plan to centralize the
customs of the Mettema trade. Gugsa was dead at Anchim battle.
 On 33, March 1930, Empress Zewditu died, Tafari was crowned Haileslassie I on to
November 1930. The dual rule then comes to an end. It was replaced by a monarchy
headed by Haileslassie as an undisputed autocrat.
3.2. Emergence of Autocracy in Ethiopia (1930 - 35)
 Autocracy refers to a political system in which power is virtually concerned in the hands of
a ruler. Thus, Haileslassie was an autocratic ruler, because Haile Selassie built his
government with a highly centralized system of rule to exercised unlimited power.
 To lay a foundation of autocratic rule, Haile Selassie took the following steps:
A. Introduced the 1931 constitution.
 The first written constitution in Ethiopian history. According to one of the emperor’s
speeches of the time, the reason for its introduction was the need for:
 regulating the relation between the monarchy and nobility;
 to demonstrate interest to modernization;
 to establish friendly relations with foreign powers;
 to keep" fair rule" and guarantee" justice" for the people.
 These emperors’ speeches pointed out to a combination of internal and external factors
behind the need for the constitution. Internally, the emperor wanted to solve the challenge of
regional forces to the central government and the problem of the succession.
 Externally, the emperor wanted to demonstrate his interest to modernize the country. Above
all the constitution gives extensive power to the Emperor. He was empowered to:
 appoint and dismiss civil and military officials;
 declares and end wars;
 established parliament which he could convene or disband at his own will;
 decide on the size of the army and command it;
 issue decrees and sign treaties in the absence of parliament. The Haile Selassie
parliament had two houses, known as the Chamber of Senates and the Chamber of
Deputies. Chamber of Senate, were appointed by the Emperor and Deputies were
nominated by the nobility and local chiefs.
 Generally the 1931 Constitution:
 reduced the power of hereditary nobilities of the province. It only respects their rights
over the tributary lands;
 also consisted of the rights and duties of citizens. It granted free movement, security of
private property, appointment to civil and political posts and due process of law to
those accused of crimes before any punishment and it also order to pay government
tax, tribute and giving of military service and civil rights. However all those rights and
duties remained on paper.

27
  chiefly aimed to legitimizing the autocratic rule of the Emperor. To this end Haile
Selassie took the following administrational, economic and military reforms.
B. centralized the administration
 In the areas of the administration, Local hereditary chiefs were dismissed one after the
other, and replaced by loyal appointed officials. The only region that was allowed to
continue to be ruled by local chief was Tigray, by the grandson of Emperor Yohanness
IV, Ras Seyum Mengesha and Ras Gugsa Araya. The emperor wins the loyalty these
Tigray local rules through political marriages.
C. Centralized the Economic
 Economically the Haile Selassie government, Centralized the financial resources.
Reforms were made, on income - land tax and tax on goods. Tribute in kind and labor
was gradually changed to cash payments at the rate 30 Maria Theresa per Gasha (40
hectares of land). Traditional customs paws were reduced in number. Land began to
sell in the South. This further reduced peasants to landless.
D. Reformed the Military
 In 1930, he trained Imperial Bodyguard by Belgian officers. In 1934 the first military
academy for training officers was opened at Holota Gennet, on the way to Ambo, in
Shoa, instructed by Swedish officers. However, the outbreak of the Italo - Ethiopian
war of 1935 soon forced the closure of this Holota Military Academy.
3.3. Socio - Economic Development 1906 - 1935
Despite some political crisis; there were a wide range of socio-economic developments during the
period from 1906 to 1935 in Ethiopia. For instance,
1. Urbanization flourished
 Garrison centers (military camps of Menelik army) were gradually evolved in to
Ketemas (towns). These ketemas later grew into provincial towns. Addis Ababa was
founded in 1886, by Taytu’s choice. In the rail way lines a number of new cities like
Dire Dewa, Miesso, Nazreth, Mojo, and Debrezeyt (Bishoftu ) were emerged.
2. Trade was expanded
 The introduction of the railway also brought about the revival of external trade through
Djibouti. The European powers also interested in maintaining commercial relation
with Ethiopia. However Ethiopian external trade was dominated by foreign merchants
of Indians, Greeks, Armenians and Syrians
3. Communication technology expanded, modern transportations systems, banking
systems and modern schools were introduced
 There were also developments in the areas of modern communication technology,
telephone, telegraph and postal services introduced.
 In the areas of transportation, motor car was introduced in 1904. The rail way and air
plane was introduced in 1917 and 1929 respectively.
4. Foundation of modern Ethiopia was laid. Bank of Abyssinia was introduced in 1905,
Menelik II School was opened in 1908, Menelik II hospital established in1910 and different
small scale industries and public service were introduced.
5. The Gebar System was modified, slavery and corvee labour was abolished. The
foundation of modern Ethiopia was laid.

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 UNIT FOUR
AFRICAN RESISTANCE TO COLONIALISM AND STRUGGLE AGAINST
COLONIAL RULE, THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION
4.1. The African People Resistance against Colonial Expansion from 1870's
to 1914
The struggle against colonialism had passed through different stages. Methods of resistance in
different parts of Africa were equally different.
4.1.1. Stages of the African Resistance:
 The early stage of resistance.
 The inter war period resistance
 The post war period resistance
4.1.1.1. The Early African Resistance
 It was a military resistance in the course of European expansion from 1870 – 1914.
 It was a resistance of people and states that already existed at the time of colonial conquest.
some of the examples of the early African resistances were:
A. the Samori Toure Resistance.
B. the Ashanti Resistance.
C. the Urabi Pasha Rebellion.
D. the Mahdist Resistance.
E. the Maji Maji Rebellion.
 These resistances were successfully subdued by the colonialists.
A. The Samori Toure Resistance (1886-1898)
 Samori Toure was a leader of the resistance against French colonialism in West Africa
Empire that included Senegal, South East Mali and Guinea.
 Samori, had admirable military skill and leadership qualities which earned him the phrase
“the Napoleon of West Africa".
 In his fight against French Samori acquired weapons through trade with coastal towns and
from Madinka crafts men.
 After a long fight in 1898, the Samori resistance was crushed, and he was finally exiled in the
French colony of Gabon died two years later at the age of seventy.
B. The Ashanti Resistance (1874-1900)
 Ashanti were the ancient people in Ghana (Gold Coast) who built an Ashanti empire that was
ruled by an Asantehene (the Ashanti Kings).
 The Ashanti (Asante) was a resistance against British colonialism in Gold Coast, in from
1874 to 1900.
 In 1900, even though the Ashanti fought bravely their empire was fallen under the British
colonizers.
C. The Urabi Pasha's Rebellion in Egypt(1881-1882)
 The opening of Suez Canal in 1869 was one of the causes that created a colonial competition
between French and the British on Egypt.
 Suez Canal was built by the help of British and French by giving a loan to the king Khadive
Ismail Pasha. To collect their loans these two European nations took many measures. One of
them was cutting the payment for officers of the Egyptian army.

29
 Urabi Pasha was a Colonel in the Egyptian army who fought against British and French
imperialism and the puppet Egyptian rules.
 In 1881, the Colonel Urabi Pasha resistance crushed by the British force at the battle of Te
El-Kabir.
 In 1882, Egypt felt under the British colony, then after a bitter British-French colonial rivalry
started in Africa because the French felt they were cheated by the British.
D. The Mahdist Resistance (1881-98)
 Mahdists were a religious revivalist and anti-colonial resistance movement in Sudan against
Anglo-British rule.
 Mahdist got this name from their leader, Mahadi or Muhammed Ahmed Ibn Abdallah.
Mahadi literally means the one who shows the true way of practicing Islam.
 In 1881, the Mahdists defeated the force of the Anglo-Egyptian army commander Gordon,
who was the colonial governor in the Sudan. Gordon was killed and beheaded by Mahdists.
Also some of the Egyptian army was trapped until they were escaped by the help of emperor
Yohannis IV of Ethiopia. Sudan achieved independent until it was invaded again in 1898.
 In 1898, the Mahdist resistance was crushed by the British General Kitchner, at the battle of
Ombudsman. At this battle Mahdists were led by Khalifa Abdullahi (the successor of
Mahdi).
 In 1898, the Mahdist resistance felt under the joint Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, but the
real masters of the joint rule were the British.
E. Maji Maji Rebellion (1905-1907)
 In 1885, Bushiri Ibn Salim (an Arab Sugar Planter) organized a resistance against German
colonizers in Zanzibar, but it was crushed and the leader was killed. Germany declared a
protector over the Tanganyika mainland.
 Maji Maji was a peasant rebellion in Tanganyika caused by forced growing of cotton for
export by the German.
 The term Maji means water, in the Swahili language, as strategy leader of the movement
gave the revolt a religious dimension. They claim that German bullets could be made
ineffective when warriors sprinkle their bodies with Magic water and the people believed
them.
 In 1907, the Maji Maji revolt was brutally suppressed by the Germans

4.2. The First World War (1914-1918)

4.2.1. Causes of the First World War
4.2.1.1. Basic Causes of the War
 The rivalry among imperialist power.
 The rivalry was caused by Industrial Revolution and Nationalism. Industrial Revolution
made European to struggle each other in search of raw material and market.
Nationalism feeling also created tension between France and Germany. France wanted
to avenge its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 and to regain its lost
provinces of Alscace and Lorrasine. Balkan Nationalism was another source of tension.
They struggle to be independent from the Ottoman Turks domination. .
 Crisis Preceding the War
 The Moroccan crisis of 1905 and 1911.

30
  In 1904 by anti-German cordiale of British and France, France got a free hand in
Morocco and England also had a free hand over Egypt and Sudan. German opposed the
agreement and conflict started between Germany and France, where German opposed
the French claim over Morocco. This disagreement was resolved in the international
conference. Again in 1911, Germany challenged French claim over Morocco. In 1912
this disagreement was resolved when Germany allowed controlling some parts of
Congo, formerly belonging to France. France then established o protectorate over parts
of Morocco in 1912.
 The Bosnian Crisis
 This crisis was between Serbia and Austria -Hungary.
 The Cause was the annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina in 1908 by Austro-
Hungary. Bosnia was the former colony of the Ottoman Empire. This condition
initiated the Balkans to rise up against the Ottoman Turks domination.
 The result of this crisis was a Balkan War of 1912 and 1913 which eliminated
Turk from Balkan Peninsula.
 Military Alliances
 This was another development that added tension on the eve of the First World War.
Here the two major military alliances:
1. Triple Alliance (the Central Power)
- Originally (in1882) this alliance was between Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Italy, but later in 1914 Ottoman Turks was added and the group was renamed
as Central Powers. Italy left the camp in 1915, at the same year Bulgaria
joined the camp of the Central Powers.
2. Triple Entente (the Allied Power)
- In 1904, British and France formed Entente Cordiale. In 1907 Russia joined
the cordiale and it was transformed in to Triple Entente. Later U.S.A, Japan,
USSR, South Africa, Portugal, Romania and other twenty countries joined. In
the course of the war this group renamed as the Allied Powers.
 Mutual Suspicion
 European powers were engaged in arms race because of mutual suspicion and fear of
one another. This was a persistent competition among European powers to get ahead of
others in terms of quantity and quality of weapons.
4.2.1.2. The Immediate Cause of the War
 This was the event that triggered the tensions built over the past years to explode. The
assassination of Francis Ferdinand, the Austro- Hungarian Crown Prince (Archduke), in
Serbia (Sarajevo) by the Serbian nationalist called Gavrilo Principle, on June 28, 1914.
 Austro-Hungary reacted to the condition by sending an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that
Serbia to stop anti Austrian propaganda and allow Austria to investigate the plot in Serbia but
Serbia was unwilling to this Demand of Austro-Hungary.
4.2.1.3. The Course of the First World War
 On July 31, 1914, Russia in supporting of Serbia warned Austro-Hungary. Germany declared
war on Russia and then on France. When Germany invaded Belgium, Britain declared war on
Germany to help defend France.
 On August 6, 1914, Austro-Hungary declared war on Russia. This chain of events finally
dragged members of both military camps into war different war fronts.

31
4.2.1.3.1. War Fronts in the First World War
 The First World War was fought on different fronts. The two dominant fronts were the
western front and the eastern front.
The Western Front: The characteristics of the western front
 The Western front was the most decisive of all fronts.
 In this front the German followed the Schlieffen Plan, which was designed by the
German chief of staff Alferd Von Schlieffen.
 The Schlieffen Plan was a plan to attack France through Belgium and occupy Paris
within six weeks in a “Swinging Door” operation. Then to turn East against the
Russian whom they contemptuously assumed to mobilize slowly.
 The Schlieffen plan was failed because the Russian made rapid mobilization and
attacked German in the eastern front, and then Germany was forced to transfer part of
their army to eastern front.
 The Western front was a front where France, Britain and Belgium on one side and
German on the other. When opposing camps came to stalemate, they dug trenches that
run from English Channel to Switzerland, the space between opposing trenches came to
known as “No man’s Land". Where they fought a battle of attritions using new
modern weapons such as poison gas, tank and airplane.
 In April 6, 1917, U.S.A declared war on Germany, because of Germans's attack on
commercial ships of U.S.A. The entrance of U.S.A shifted the military balance to the Allied
Powers. In 1918, Allied force reinforced by fresh American troops of two million men. Then
the Allied Powers started an offensive against the Central Powers. By late 1918, the German
and the Central Powers were defeated.
4.2.1.4. The Consequence of the War
 The World War First had the following consequence:
 Destruction of industrial plants, bridges and other infrastructure were destructed. About
10 million soldiers lost their lives. Million of civilians died as a result of hostilities,
famine and disease and families were dislocated.
 The United States of America and Soviet Union became leading World power.
 Three major European dynasties: the Hohenzollern of Germany, the Hapsburgs of
Austro-Hungary and Romanov of Russia were dethroned.
 New national State arose in central Europe, due to the disintegration of the Ottoman
Empire. Arab states became independent later.
 The League of Nations was formed to solve international problems and advance world
peace.
 Influenced the anti- colonial struggle in Africa.
 German was punished at the peace agreement that was signed in Versailles on June 28,
1919, France.
4.2.1.4.1. The Treaty of Versailles (June, 28, 1919)
 The American president, Woodrow Wilson’s proposed “Fourteen Points” that served as a
guide line for this peace treaty. One of his proposal points was the right of self-determination
for colonies. According to this treaty:
 German lost territories in Europe. Her over Sea colonies were divided among the allies
(chiefly Britain and France) as mandate (to give independence later).
Example
- German East Africa (Tanganyika) was given to Britain.

32
 - Rwanda and Burundi was given to Belgium.
- South West Africa (Namibia) was given to South Africa.
- Samoan Island to New Zealand.
- New Guinea to Australia.
- Marshal Island to New Zealand.
- Marshal Island and Pacific Island north of equator to Japan.
 The German military power was limited. Rhine land which was rich in mineral
deposits was demilitarized and taken away by Allied troops. It was decided that the
occupation was to last for fifteen years.
 The unfair Treaty of Brest Litovsk, which German signed with Russia in 1918, was
cancelled and German was obliged to withdraw from Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
 German was also required to pay large amount of war reparations.
4.3. The Russian Revolution
4.3.1. Causes of the Russian Revolution
4.3.1.1. Basic Causes of the Russian Revolution
The major causes of the Russian Revolution were:
 Czarist Autocracy
 As a feudal state Russia was ruled by the Czar (the name given to the Russian
Emperors). Since 1613 members of the Romanov dynasty had been ruling Russia as
absolute monarchs. Under czarist autocracy Russians were deeply exploited and worker
had leaded their lives under difficult conditions. This situation created discontent
throughout the country.
 Peasant poverty and ineffective government. The Russian peasants did not own land until
1861. They had been living as serfs. Conditions only improved in 1861 after Czar Alexander
II by his Edict of Emancipation freed all serfs and allowed some peasants to own land in
Russia.
 A growing and politicizing of the urban workers mainly workers around Moscow and
Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg).
 The expansion of the idea of socialism… etc
4.3.1.2. Immediate Cause of the Russian revolution.
The immediate causes of the Russian revolution were:
 the defeat of the Russian army in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05;
 the 1905 massacre at winter palace the so called the "Bloody Sunday".
4.3.2. The Political Groups in Russian Revolution
The discontent in Russian gave rise to different political groups who worked in secret.
The major political groups were:
A. The Liberal Groups
 Demanded the replaced of czarist absolutism by democratic parliamentary
government.
B. The Social Revolutionaries
 These political groups though that peasant should rise up and size the land of the all
landlords. Such groups encouraged the peasant to rebel.
C. The Marxist Groups
 Of all the groups the most radical group was that of the Marxist.
 This group followed the teaching of Karl Marx (1818-1883).

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  In 1898, these revolutionaries formed the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
(RSDLP). This Party later divided in to Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
1. Bolsheviks Party
 The Bolsheviks (majority) were led by Lenin, whose real name was Vladimir Illich
Ulyanov.
 This group wanted to have a party with small numbers of selected and dedicated
members only. Bolsheviks were more radical than the Menshiviks.
 The popular slogan of this group was “All Power to the Soviets" and “Peace, Land and
Bread”.
 Later this group formed Soviets (Council or coordinating bodies of peasants, workers
and soldiers) at Petrograd.
 Bolsheviks, in 1917 controlled power by overthrown the Provisional Government and
ruled Russia up to 1924.
2. Mensheviks Party
 The Mensheviks (minority) wanted to include all who were supporters of Marxist ideas.
 These groups were less radical than Bolsheviks. Mensheviks were rather reformists.
4.3.3. The Three Revolutions in Russia
4.3.3.1. The 1905 Russian Revolution
A. Basic Causes of the 1905 Revolution in Russia.
 The prevailing popular discontent.
 The defeat of the Russian army in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05.
B. Courses of the 1905 Revolution in Russia
 On Sunday 21 Junuary 1905 peaceful demonstration led by Priest Father Gapon
and others marched to the Czar's (the name given to Russian Emperors) Winter
Palace to present a petition. Czar Nicholas II’s troops fired on the peaceful and
unarmed demonstrators.
C. Results of the 1905 Revolution in Russia
 In the 1905 demonstration at Winter Palace, many people were killed; this day came
to known as in history Bloody Sunday. This event eradicated the belief of the
masses that the Czar was the "Father of the People"
 As a result of popular pressure, Nicholas agreed to form Dumas (parliament), but
only land lords of the richest were allowed to elect for the parliament.
 The 1905 popular revolution was crushed by Nicholas II’s troops. Absolutism
continued until another revolution challenged it once again.
4.3.3.2. The March 1916 Revolution in Russia
A. The Basic Causes of the March 1916 Revolution in Russia
 The appointments and dismissals of the government officials by Czarina Alexandra (the
German wife of Nicholas II). She was advised by ‘holy man’ called Gregory Rasputin
(1872-1916). Rasputin had bad behavior made him unpopular and disliked by the
people. In December 1916 Rasputin was assassinated by discontented peoples.
 Incompetent, unpopular and corrupted ministers.
 Food shortage and inflammations in the towns.
B. The Immediate Cause of the March 1916 Revolution in Russia
 The military losses of the Russian army in the First World War. In the First World War
Russia sided with the Entente Powers under the commander-in-chief of Czar Nicholas
II. The Czar was not really an effective commander.

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C. Courses the March 1916 Revolution in Russia
 In 1916, the "Holly Man" was killed by discontented people. In 1917 living conditions
in towns worsened due to food shortage and inflation. In Petrograd, workers went on
strikes, riots become common. Soldiers in Petrograd finally joined the people of the
city.
D. Results of the March 1916 Revolution in Russia
 On 3rd March 1917, Czar Nicholas II was deposed, and then the 300years of the
Romanov dynasty rule came to an end.
 Provisional Government was formed by the influential members of the Duma.
4.3.3.3. The October 1917 Revolution
A. The Causes of the October 1917 Revolution in Russia
 The weakness of the Provisional Government to meet the demands of the people. It was
unable to solve the shortage of food and bringing the Russia out of World War First.
B. The Courses of the October 1917 Revolution in Russia
 The Provisional Government lost popular support. In the meantime Peasant, workers
and soldiers in Petrograd came together and formed Soviets (co-coordinating bodies or
the councils). Bolsheviks under Lenin demanded that ineffective Provisional
Government be dissolved. In September 1917 military takeover was attempted by
General Kornilov; the commander in chief of the Russian army, but it was failed. On 25
October 1917, the Bolsheviks of the Petrograd Soviets made insurrection and the head
quarter of the Provisional Government fell in the hands of the Bolsheviks.
C. The Results of the October 1917 Revolution in Russia
 The 1917 Russia revolution had the following results:
- the provisional government was removed from power;
- the Bolsheviks seized political power. They established a regime led by Premier
Lenin and war minister Leo Trotsky;
- The Russia was transformed from feudal to socialist state.
4.3.4. The Bolsheviks rule in Russia (r.1917 – 1924)
The Bolsheviks rule in Russia was characterized by:
A. Socialist reforms like:
 nationalization of industries.
 the introduction of eight hour working day.
 confiscation of land of the landlord and given to the peasants. This was an important
measure meant to solve the age old agrarian problem.
 Russia was formally withdrawn from World War I, after signing the treaty of Brest -
Litovsk with Germany in 1918.
B. Civil War ( 1918 - 1922)
 This civil war was between the internal enemies of the revolution led by the ex- czarist
officers who organized the "White Armies" by the help of West European Allies and
the "Red Army" (Russian Revolutionary Army). The Western European helped the
"White Army" because they feared that the upheaval of the revolution would set a bad
example to their own people. In 1922, the Red Army of the revolutionary government
succeeding in crushing the rebel forces and saved the revolution.
C. The introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP), in 1921
 In 1921, in order to solve the mounting economic problems, Russia facing. The
Bolsheviks introduced New Economic Policy. This policy:

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 - restored small enterprisers to their owners, and
- allowed peasants to sell their grain for profit and revived commerce.
D. The establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic Russia (USSR), in 1918, a
secret police called Cheka was also established to save USSR from counter revolutionaries.
4.3.5. The Period of Joseph Stalin in Russia
In 1924, Lenin was died, Joseph Stalin come to power after a duel with Leo Trotsky for supreme
power. In 1928, Leo Trotsky sent in to exile. He was assassinated in Mexico in 1940. The period
of Joseph Stalin was characterized by:
A. Purges in the communist party
 This was between 1928-1938, when Stalin carried out terror with in the Soviet
Communist Party to strengthen and deepen his totalitarian rule, by eliminating his
oppositions.
B. The introduction of "Five Years Economic Plan"
 This economic plan had three phases:
- the First Five Year Plan: in this plan that was launched from 1928-1932, all foreign
influence in Russia industry was abolished. Industrialization showed rapid
progress. But the process of forceful collectivization of farms faced serious
reactions particularly from the rich farmers (kulaks) and as a result Russia faced
severe food famine.
- the Second Five Year Plan: the famine was somewhat alleviated.
- the Third Five Year Plan: had just begun when Nazi Germany attacked Russia in
1941. By the time Stalin had already transformed Russia from agricultural nation
into a modern industrial state.
4.3.6. The Influence of the Russian Revolution
 It inspired colonial peoples of Africa and Asia in their colonial struggle.
 The strengthening of the U.S.S.R. after World War Second changed the balance of
power.
 U.S.S.R became a strong supporter of the national liberation struggle in Africa.
 The idea of Communism was expanded in the world.
 It paved the way to Cold War ….etc.
4.4. Anti-Colonial Struggle in Africa between the Two World Wars
After World War I African struggle for independence against colonial rule gained momentum.
The African peoples struggle against colonialism between the two world wars can be termed as
the Inter War Period Resistance.
4.4.1. The Inter War Period Resistance
 The inter war period of African resistance was characterized by:
 a new form of struggle using self –help or associations and political parties. African
self –help associations demanded the restoration of the expropriated lands to the natives.
Emergent political parties mobilized African for national independence.
Example:
- Kikuyu Association in Kenya.
- Bataka Association in Uganda.
- the ANC Party in South Africa.
- the Wafd party in Egypt.
- the Neo-DtSure Party in Tunisia.

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  This inter war period was just a transitional resistance that prepared the ground for the
more determined liberation movements of the post world war II Africa.
4.4.1.1. The Young Kikuyu Association (1921- 1922)
 Kikuyu are the largest communities in Kenya. The association was organized by African
workers in urban area and white farm land.
 The basic cause for the formation of this association was the British colonialism and white
settlement. But the immediate cause was the ganging up of white farmers in order to cut the
pay of all their African farmers. The association was founded by Harry Thuku, young
telephone worker.
 The major demand of the association was the return of land expropriated by white settlers.
 In 1922, the British took repressive measures against the association and imprisoned Harry
Thuku.
4.4.1.2. The Bataka Association (1947-48)
 Prior to the advent of Britain to Uganda there were Kingdoms like Ankole, Bunyoro, Toro
and Buganda.
 The name Bataka was taken from the ancient Buganda kings; It was a title used by clan
leaders but later the name replaced by the title called Kabaka ( king)
 In 1900, by the help of Christian missionaries, the British gradually declared a protectorate
over Uganda. In the same year the British made an agreement with Buganda rulers (Kabaka),
which allowed the king to represent the people in colonial assembly known as the Lukiko.
 The Bataka association was a party of common people formed by Young and educated
Uganda to oppose the Lukiko and the government of the protectorate of Uganda.
4.4.1.3. African National Congress (ANC from 1912-up to now)
 The earliest of all political parties that emerged in South Africa to coordinate a struggle
against white minority rule, racial discrimination and economic operation.
 ANC was established in 1912 and had members from different sectors of South Africa
society. ANC greatly influenced outside Africa, with those workers of Basutoland (Lesotho)
and Swaziland.
4.4.1.4. The Wafd party (1922-1956)
 Wafd was an Egyptian nationalist party emerged following World War First (WWI).
 The word Wafd literally means delegation and it was led by Saad Zaghlul Pasha.
 In 1919, the Wafd party demanded Egyptian independence, at Versailles Peace Conference,
but the British deported Saad Zaghlul Pasha to Malta, the Mediterranean island colony of
British.
 In 1922, pressed by Versailles demand, the British recognized independence for Egypt.
However, the British troops did not evacuate Egypt until 1956.
4.4.1.5. The Neo-DatSur Party
 In Tunisia, the successor of Datsur party (which means party of the constitution).
 It was founded under the leadership of Habib Bourgiba (the first president of Tunisia).
 In 1956, Tunisia to win independence from the French colonial rule.
4.4.1.6. Abdel Kerim Resistance
 It was a military resistance against the French and Spanish colony, in Riff Republic in
Morocco.
 This armed struggle that was carried out without a political party, under the leadership of
Abdel Kerim in 1920, was finally crushed by the combined military of France and Spain.

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