Jennings Greenberg - Teacher Social and Emotional Competence Ser Un Buen Maestro

The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and
Classroom Outcomes
Author(s): Patricia A. Jennings and Mark T. Greenberg
Source: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 79, No. 1 (Mar., 2009), pp. 491-525
Published by: American Educational Research Association
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ReviewofEducational Research
Spring2009,Vol.79,No. 1,pp. 491-525
DOI: 10.3102/0034654308325693
© 2009AERA.http://rer.aera.net
The ProsocialClassroom:TeacherSocial and

EmotionalCompetencein Relationto
Studentand ClassroomOutcomes
PatriciaA. Jennings
The GarrisonInstitute
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
Mark T. Greenberg
PennsylvaniaState University
The authorspropose a modelof theprosocial classroomthathighlights the

importanceof teachers'social and emotionalcompetence(SEC) and well-
being in thedevelopmentand maintenanceof supportiveteacher-student
classroommanagement,and successfulsocial and
relationships,effective
emotionallearningprogramimplementation. Thismodelproposesthatthese
factorscontributeto creatinga classroomclimatethatis moreconduciveto
learningand thatpromotespositivedevelopmental outcomesamongstudents.
Furthermore, thisarticlereviewscurrentresearchsuggestinga relationship
betweenSEC and teacherburnoutand reviewsintervention tosupport
efforts
teachers'SEC throughstressreductionand mindfulness programs.Finally,
theauthorspropose a researchagenda to address thepotentialefficacyof
strategiesdesignedtopromoteteacherSEC and improvedlearn-
intervention
ingoutcomesforstudents.
Keywords: classroom management,school/teacher effectiveness,social

stress/coping,
progresses/development, teachercontext.
teachercharacteristics,
Overthepastdecade,multiple surveys indicatethateducators, parents,andthe
publicrecognizetheneedfora broadeducational agendatonotonlyimprove aca-
demicperformance butalso to enhancestudents'social-emotional competence,
character,health,and civic engagement (Metlife,2002; PublicAgenda,1994,
1997,2002; Rose & Gallup,2000). In additionto promoting students'academic
achievement, thisagendafocuseson helpingstudents in sociallyskilled
interact
andrespectful ways;practicepositive,safe,andhealthy behaviors;contributeeth-
and
ically responsibly totheirpeergroup,family, school,and and
community; pos-
sess basiccompetencies,workhabits,andvaluesas a foundation formeaningful
employment andengagedcitizenship (Elias et al., 1997;Jackson& Davis,2000;
LearningFirstAlliance,2001; Osher,Dwyer,& Jackson, 2002).
ThissetofgoalsforAmerican educationis a tallorder,anditis clearthata stu-
dent's formal context
learning is largelyshapedbythestudent's teacher(Eccles &
491

& Greenberg
Jennings
Roeser, 1999). Socially and emotionallycompetentteachers set the tone of the
classroom by developingsupportiveand encouragingrelationshipswiththeirstu-
dents,designinglessons thatbuild on studentstrengths and abilities,establishing
and implementing behavioralguidelinesin ways thatpromoteintrinsicmotivation,
coaching studentsthroughconflictsituations,encouragingcooperationamongstu-
dents,and actingas a role model forrespectfuland appropriatecommunicationand
exhibitionsof prosocial behavior.
These teacherbehaviorsare associated withoptimalsocial and emotionalclass-
roomclimateand desiredstudentoutcomes.An optimalclassroomclimateis char-
acterizedby low levels ofconflictand disruptivebehavior,smoothtransitions from
one typeof activityto another,appropriateexpressionsof emotion,respectfulcom-
municationand problemsolving,stronginterestand focus on task,and support-
iveness and responsivenessto individualdifferencesand students'needs (La Paro
& Pianta,2003).
When teacherslack theresourcesto effectively managethesocial and emotional
challengeswithintheparticularcontextoftheirschool and classroom,childrenshow
lowerlevels of on-taskbehaviorand performance (Marzano,Marzano,& Pickering,
2003). In addition,theclassroomclimatedeteriorates, triggering in theteacherwhat
we referto as a "burnoutcascade." The deteriorating climateis markedby increases
in troublesomestudentbehaviors,and teachersbecome emotionallyexhaustedas
theytryto managethem.Undertheseconditions,teachersmayresortto reactiveand
excessivelypunitiveresponsesthatdo notteach self-regulation and maycontribute
to a self-sustainingcycle of classroomdisruption(Osher et al., 2007).
Emotionallyexhaustedteachersare at riskof becomingcynicaland callous and
may eventuallyfeel theyhave littleto offeror gain fromcontinuing,and so drop
out of theteachingworkforce.Othersmay stay- althoughunhappily- coping by
maintaininga rigid classroom climate enforcedby hostile and sometimesharsh
measures bitterlyworkingat a suboptimallevel of performanceuntilretirement.
In eithercase, burnouttakes a serious toll on teachers,students,schools, districts,
and communities.Burned-outteachersand thelearningenvironments theycreate
can have harmfuleffectson students,especially those who are at riskof mental
healthproblems.
The purpose of this articleis to propose and presentsupportforthe prosocial
classroom mediationalmodel thatestablishesteachersocial and emotionalcom-
petence (SEC) and well-beingas an organizationalframeworkthatcan be exam-
ined in relationto studentand classroomoutcomes.We presenta graphicalmodel
and describe thevariables and theirrelationships.We propose a model to explain
how deficitsin teacherSEC and well-beingmay provokea "burnoutcascade" that
may have devastatingeffectson classroom relationships,management,and cli-
mate.We hypothesizethatthequalityofteacher-student relationships,studentand
classroom management,and effectivesocial and emotional learning(SEL) pro-
gram implementationall mediateclassroom and studentoutcomes. We review a
broad body of researchfromthe educational,sociological, and psychologicallit-
eratureto supportour proposed model. Finally,we review interventions thatmay
supportteacherSEC and well-beingand propose an agenda forfutureresearchin
thisnascentarea.
This review is not intendedto be a comprehensivemeta-analysis;we review
select studiesto provideevidence of relationshipsamong our variablesof interest
492

TheProsocialClassroom
(teacherSEC and well-being, teacher-student classroommanage-
relationships,
ment,socialandemotionallearning program implementation,andclassroomcli-
mate).We recognizethatthesevariablesarenotdiscreteandinteract inimportant
waysthatwe addressthroughout thisarticle.Furthermore,we highlighthoweach
elementofthemodelmaybe influenced bymultiple contextualfactors.
Although theresearchwe reviewdoes notcoverall gradelevelswithineach
areaofinterest, we believethatteacherSEC is important to positiveoutcomesat
all gradelevels,butpossiblytovarying degrees.Atdifferent gradelevels,teacher
SEC maybe moresalientin one areathanin another. Forexample,teacherSEC
maybe especiallyimportant to developingwarmandsupportive teacher-student
relationships and effectiveSEL programimplementation in theself-contained
classroomsof pre-Kthrough elementary school;teacherSEC maybe equally
important to classroommanagement gradelevels.
at all
The ProsocialClassroomModel
Figure 1 illustratesa modelinwhichteachers'SEC andwell-being influences
theprosocialclassroomatmosphere andstudent outcomes.First,we viewteacher
SEC as animportant contributortothedevelopment ofsupportive teacher-student
relationships. A teacherwhorecognizesan individual student'semotions, under-
standsthecognitiveappraisalsthatmaybe associatedwiththeseemotions,and
howthesecognitions andemotions motivate thestudent's behavior caneffectively
respondto thestudent'sindividualneeds.Forexample,ifa teacherunderstands
thata student'schallenging behaviorand difficulty withself-regulation results
fromproblems facedat home,he or shemayshowgreater concernandempathy
andbe better abletohelpthestudent learnto self-regulateratherthanresorting to
punitive orcoercivetactics.
Second,teachers higherinSEC arelikelytodemonstrate moreeffective class-
roommanagement; are
they likely tobe more proactive,skillfully
using theiremo-
tionalexpressions and verbalsupportto promoteenthusiasm and enjoyment of
learning andtoguideandmanagestudent behaviors.TheirSEC also supports more
effectiveclassroom management byunderstanding thedynamics ofclassroom con-
flictsituations.Forexample,students withself-regulationproblems often become
classroomscapegoatsandmaybe intentionally provokedbytheirpeersin ways
thatcanbe verysubtle.Becauseoftheirmoreobviousaggressive responsetothis
subtleyeteffective provocation,teachers oftenreinforce thesestudents' scapegoat
statusby punishing themwithoutnoticingand addressingthebehaviorof the
provocateur. A moresociallyand emotionally aware teachermay noticethis
dynamicandhandlethissituation in a waythatrespondsto bothbehaviorsmore
effectively.
Third,we proposethatteacherswithhigherSEC will implement social and
emotional curriculum moreeffectively becausetheyareoutstanding rolemodels
ofdesiredsocialandemotional behavior.Theirsocialandemotionalunderstand-
ingsupports theirability applyextensiveprocess-based
to activitiesin everyday
situationsas theynaturally occurin theclassroom.In addition, we conceptualize
a transactionalrelationshipbetween thesethreeaspectsofthemodelandtheoutcome
ofa healthy classroomclimate.In turn,a healthy classroomclimatedirectly con-
tributesto students' social,emotional, andacademicoutcomes.Improvements in
classroomclimatemayreinforce a teacher'senjoyment ofteaching, efficacy,and
493

FIGURE 1. Theprosocialclassroom:A modelofteachersocial and emotionalcompe-
tenceand classroomand studentoutcomes.
commitmentto theprofession,therebycreatinga positivefeedbackloop thatmay

preventteacherburnout.
Finally, we recognize thatvarious contextualfactors,inside and outside the
school building,may influenceteachers' SEC. These factorsinclude coteacher
support,principaland districtleadership,school climateand norms,school district
values and in-serviceopportunities,communityculture,and local and federaledu-
cation policy and demands.A teacher's overall well-beingand efficacyas well as
factorssuch as friendships,
maritalrelations,and degreesof lifestressin a teacher's
personallifemightalso affecttheperformanceof social and emotionalabilitiesin
theclassroom.
*
Teachers Social and Emotional Competence
Viewed as an outcome of SEL, SEC is a broad construct.We use the broadly
accepted definitionof social and emotional competence developed by the
CollaborativeforAcademic, Social, and EmotionalLearning(2008). This defini-
tioninvolves five major emotional,cognitive,and behavioralcompetencies:self-
awareness,social awareness,responsibledecision making,self-management, and
relationshipmanagement(Zins, Weissberg,Wang, & Walberg,2004).
Althoughwe value therelatednarrowerconstructof emotionalintelligence(El;
involvingperceptionof emotions,use of emotionsto facilitatethinking,under-
standingof emotions,and managementof emotions;Brackett& Katulak, 2006;
Salovey & Mayer, 1990) in presentingour model,we chose to use thebroaderSEL
constructthatincludescompetenciesmoststrongly relatedto adaptationand perfor-
mance. Using theSEL definitionalso moredirectlyconnectsteachercompetencies
with those they are entrustedto teach to theirstudents.(For a comprehensive
494

explanationofthesimilarities and differences betweenthesetwoconstructs, see Zins,
Payton,Weissberg,& Unte O'Brien, 2007). Later, we review researchand pro-
grammingthathas addressedEl in relationto teacherstressandjob performance. El
is associatedwitha wide rangeofcriticaloutcomesamongadultsand maybe useful
forunderstanding individualdifferences in teacherSEC. For example,higherscores
of theMayer-Salovey-CarusoEmotionalIntelligenceTest (J. D. Mayer,Salovey,
& Caruso, 2002) are associated with higherquality interpersonalrelationships
(Brackett,Warner,& Bosco, 2005; Lopes et al., 2004), academic performance and
social competence(Brackett,Rivers,Shiffman, Lerner,& Salovey,2006; Gil-Olarte
Marquez,Palomera,& Brackett,2006; Lopes et al., 2006), and important workplace
outcomessuchas stresstoleranceand peerand/orsupervisorratingsof interpersonal
facilitation(Lopes et al., 2006). Lower scores are associated withdruguse, alcohol
consumption, and deviantbehavior(Brackett,Mayer,& Warner,2004).
of sociallyand emotionally
Characteristics teachers.Socially and
competent
emotionallycompetentteachershave high self-awareness.They recognize their
emotions,emotionalpatterns,and tendenciesand know how to generateand use
emotionssuchas joy and enthusiasmto motivatelearningin themselvesand others.
They have a realisticunderstanding of theircapabilitiesand recognize theiremo-
tionalstrengths and weaknesses.
Socially and emotionallycompetentteachersalso have high social awareness.
They know how theiremotionalexpressionsaffecttheirinteractionswithothers.
Such teachersalso recognizeand understandtheemotionsof others.They are able
to build strongand supportiverelationshipsthroughmutual understandingand
cooperationand can effectivelynegotiatesolutionsto conflictsituations.Socially
and emotionallycompetentteachersare culturallysensitive,understandthatoth-
ers mayhave different perspectivesthantheydo, and takethisintoaccountin rela-
tionshipswithstudents,parents,and colleagues.
Socially and emotionallycompetentteachersexhibitprosocial values and make
responsibledecisions based on an assessmentof factorsincludinghow theirdeci-
sions may affectthemselvesand others.They respectothersand take responsibil-
ityfortheirdecisions and actions.
Socially and emotionallycompetentteachersknow how to manage theiremo-
tions and theirbehaviorand also how to manage relationshipswithothers.They
can manage theirbehavioreven when emotionallyaroused by challengingsitua-
tions. They can regulatetheiremotions in healthyways thatfacilitatepositive
classroomoutcomeswithoutcompromisingtheirhealth.They effectivelyset lim-
itsfirmly, They also are comfortablewitha level of ambiguityand
yetrespectfully.
uncertainty thatcomes from lettingstudentsfigurethingsout forthemselves.
SEC is associatedwithwell-being.Whenteachersexperiencemasteryoverthese
social and emotionalchallenges,teachingbecomes more enjoyable,and theyfeel
moreefficacious(Goddard,Hoy, & WoolfolkHoy, 2004). However, whereasthe
above teachercharacteristicswould be considered ideal in any educational set-
ting,littleattentionhas been paid to supportingteachers' SEC. Given the lack of
explicitpreserviceor in-servicetrainingaimed at teachers'personaldevelopment,
the currenteducationalsystemappears to assume thatteachershave the requisite
SEC to createa warmand nurturing learningenvironment, be emotionallyrespon-
sive to students,formsupportiveand collaborativerelationshipswithsometimes
495

& Greenberg
Jennings
difficultand demandingparents,professionallyrelate to administrators and col-
leagues,effectively managethegrowingdemandsimposedby standardizedtesting,
model exemplaryemotionregulation,sensitivelycoach studentsthroughconflict
situationswith peers, and effectively(yet respectfully)handle the challenging
behaviorsof disruptivestudents.Thus, contextualchanges includingalterationsin
the articulationof the broadersocietyand school districtgoals foryoungpeople,
policies and fociforpreserviceand in-servicetraining, new modelsof performance
assessment,and otherfactorsmightalterthevaluingand supportforteachers'SEC.
Because SEC is contextdependent,an individualmayfunctionin a highlevel in
one contextbutneed trainingand/orexperienceto adaptto another.For example,an
individualwho manageshis or hersocial and emotionallifewell in a workdomain
wherehe or she interactswithadultsin predictableways may notnecessarilyhave
thecompetencetofunctionwell in a classroomfullofenergeticyoungchildrenwith-
out additionaltrainingor support.Also, a teacherwho moves froma school witha
cohesive and high-qualityschool climateto one withweak leadershipand lack of
trustbetweenteachersmayrequirenew skillsand supports.A teacherwho movesto
a school composed primarilyof adultsand childrenfroman unfamiliarculturemay
need to adapt in new ways and receive additionaltraining(Matsumoto,2007).
Furthermore, thedevelopmentalneeds of studentsmay requirechanges in teacher
competencies.For example,a teacherwho adeptlyhandlesthesocial and emotional
needs of a first-gradeclass mayrequireextratrainingifhe or she transfers
to a sec-
ondaryschool classroomwherea different approachmaybe required.Finally,other
contextfactorssuch as school climateand administrator supportmay moderatethe
SEC a teachermayexhibitin a particularclassroomsetting.
Given theveryhighdemandsplaced on teachers,itis surprisingthattheyrarely
receive specifictrainingto address the importanceof social and emotionalissues
in the classroom or how to develop the SEC to successfully handle them
(Hargreaves, 1998). Althougha greatdeal of attentionhas spotlightedstudents'
development,therehas been littlefocus on teachers' own developmentdespite
evidence thatteachersmake importantcontributionsto desirable classroom and
studentoutcomes.
When teacherslack the SEC to handle classroom challenges,theyexperience
emotionalstress.High levels of emotionalstresscan have an adverseeffecton job
performanceand mayeventuallylead to burnout.Amongteachers,burnoutthreat-
ens teacher-student relationships,classroommanagement,and classroomclimate.
In our review,we provide supportforthe firstpartof the model by relatingwhat
is knownabout some componentsof teacherSEC (or lack thereof)to severalof the
model's mediators(teacher-studentrelationships,classroom management,etc.).
Next, thisarticlereviews literatureestablishinglinksbetweenthe threemedi-
atingcomponentsof ourmodel (teacher-student relations,classroommanagement,
and SEL programimplementation)and classroom climateand studentoutcomes.
Wherenotexplicitlyarticulatedin thisresearch,we describehow theevidencemay
suggestthatteacherSEC plays a role.
Teacher SEC, Emotional Stress,and Burnout
Today's teachersface ever-increasingdemands.Growingnumbersof children
are comingto school unpreparedand manyhave seriousbehaviorproblemsas early
as preschool (Gilliam, 2005). Evidence suggeststhatSEC is relatedto emotional
496

stressand burnout.In particular, the dimensionsof self-awareness and self-
management appearto influencea teacher'sabilityto cope withtheemotional
demandsof teaching.Society'sexpectation thatteachersmanagetheemotional
livesof theirstudents as well as teachsubjectmatter mayleave manyteachers
exhausted andburnedout(Hargreaves, 1998).Burnout resultsfroma breakdown
in copingabilityovertimeandis viewedas havingthreedimensions: emotional
exhaustion, and
depersonalization, feelings of a lack of personalaccomplishment
(Maslach,Jackson, & Leiter,1997).
Withever-greater emotional demandsplacedon teachers withlittleifanysup-
port, itis notsurprising thatthe rateof teacher burnout is increasing andthatteach-
ersareleavingtheprofession atan increasing rate(Ingersoll, 2001; Metlife, 2004;
Provasnik& Dorfman, 2005). Emotionalstressand pooremotionmanagement
consistently rankas theprimary reasonsteachersbecomedissatisfied and leave
2001;
teaching(Darling-Hammond, Montgomery Rupp,2005). & Indeed, com-
pared with many other professions, teachers report some of the highest levelsof
occupationalstress(International LabourOffice,1993). Consequently, thereis
growingconcernabouttheadverseeffects teacheremotionalstressand attrition
ratesmayhave on educationalquality(Travers,2001) and on schoolbudgets
(AllianceforExcellentEducation, 2005).
Unlikemanyotherprofessions, teachers areconstantly exposedtoemotionally
provocative situations andhavelimitedoptionsforself-regulation whena situa-
tionprovokesa strongemotionalreaction.For example,whenfeelinghighly
aroused,a teachercannotsimplyexcuseherselfuntilshecalmsdown.She must
stayin theclassroomwiththestudents. Indeed,copingwiththeirownnegative
emotional is a
responses major stressorfor teachers(Carson,Templin,& Weiss,
2006; Montgomery & Rupp,2005; Sutton, 2004). Emotionsmayinfluence teach-
ers' cognitive functioning andmotivation, andstudents' misbehavior oftenelicits
distracting negativeemotionsthatconsequently can have a negativeeffecton
teaching(Emmer,1994; Emmer & Stough, 2001; International LabourOffice,
1993).Experiencing frequent negativeemotionssuchas frustration, anger,guilt,
andsadnessmayreduceteachers'intrinsic motivation andfeelings ofself-efficacy
andlead toburnout (Kavanaugh& Bower,1985).In contrast, teacherswhoregu-
larlyexperience more positive emotions may be more resilient (Fredrickson, 2001;
Gu & Day,inpress),intrinsically motivated, andbetter abletocopewiththecom-
plexdemandsofteaching (Sutton& Wheatley, 2003).
Accordingto thetransactional modelof stressand coping(Aldwin,2007;
Epstein& Meier,1989; Lazarus,1991; Lazarus& Folkman,1984),individuals
reactto challenging situations byengagingin a cognitiveprocessof appraisalto
determine whether theeventposes a challengeor a threat in relationto theindi-
vidual's perceivedcompetence to handlethesituation. Next,an individualwill
in
engage cognitive and behavioral adaptationstrategies to managetheevent.
Whentheybelievetheyhavethecompetence to do so, teachersmayuse action-
focusedcoping:takingdirectactiontoeliminate thesourcesofstress.In situations
whereteachers believetheycando littletomodify thesituation, theymayengage
in emotion-focused coping and may use mental or physicalpalliativetechniques
to lessenfeelingsof stress(Kyriacou,2001). These palliativetechniquescan
involveconstructive strategiessuch as positivereappraisalor unconstructive
strategies such as avoidance or denial.An individual'sappraisaland adaptive
497

& Greenberg
Jennings
behavior is influencedby individual characteristicssuch as personality,demo-
graphics,currenthealthstatus,personallife stressors,and, we would argue,SEC.
Furthermore, teachersmay use the supportof fellow teachers,guidance staff,or
theiradministrative supervisor(e.g., principal)to help themcope.
The researchon teacherstressand emotionshas thusfarbeen primarilyexplo-
ratory:Cross-sectional and correlationalstudies have examined the contextual-
organizationaland personalfactorsassociated withteachers'emotions,stress,and
burnout(see Montgomery& Rupp, 2005, fora meta-analysisof studieson teacher
stress). Althoughthe limitationsof this researchmake it difficultto determine
causal relationships,findingssuggest thatteachers with inadequate SEC face
situationsthatprovoke emotionstheyhave difficulty managing,theirclassroom
management effortslack effectiveness,the classroom climate is suboptimal,and
theymay experience emotional exhaustion provoking "burnoutcascade." They
a
may develop a callous, cynical attitudetowardstudents,parents,and colleagues
(depersonalization)and eventuallygrowto feel theyare ineffectiveteachers(lack
of personalaccomplishment).Teachers who experienceburnoutare less likelyto
demonstratesympathyand caringto theirstudents,have less tolerancefordisrup-
tivebehavior,and are less dedicatedto theirwork(Farber& Miller, 1981).
Emotional regulationplays an importantrole in teacher burnout.Applying
affectiveeventstheory(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), Carson et al. (2006) exam-
ined thedaily emotionalexperiencesof 44 middle school teachersover a 2-week
period using Ecological MomentaryAssessmentprocedures(Stone & Shiffman,
1994) and teachers'dailyjournal entriesto examinehow ongoingemotionalexpe-
riences may contributeto burnout.Burnout was significantlyassociated with
reportsof daily emotions,events,emotionregulationstrategiesas well as teacher
self-reportedjob performance,which suggeststhatteacherburnout(and reduced
teacherperformance)resultsfromcumulativedaily experiencesof negativeaffect
provokedby taxingwork-relatedexperiences.Furthermore, the stressassociated
with attemptsto manage emotional displays appeared to exacerbate this effect
(Carson & Templin,2007).
Chan (2003) studiedrelationshipsamong thethreecomponentsof burnoutand
hypothesizedfour componentsof El (emotional appraisal, positive regulation,
empathicsensitivity,and positive utilization;Schutteet al., 1998) in a sample of
167 Hong Kong secondaryschool teachers.A structural equation model indicated
thatEmotional Appraisal (related to the SEL dimensionof self-awareness)and
Positive Regulation(relatedto theSEL dimensionof self-management) were sig-
nificantpredictorsof emotional exhaustion.Furthermore, emotional exhaustion
was a significantpredictorof depersonalizationthatpredictedlack of personal
accomplishment, supportingourhypothesisthatpoor SEC mayprovokea "burnout
cascade." Poor teacherSEC may contributeto a less optimalclassroom climate,
leading to teacheremotionalexhaustion,depersonalization,and lack of personal
accomplishmentin thisorder.
Evidence suggests that there is a relationshipbetween teacher emotional
exhaustionand classroom climate. In a studyinvolving3,044 Canadian teachers
across threegrade levels (1,203 elementary,410 intermediate,and 1,431 sec-
ondary), Byrne (1994) examined predictorsof the threefactorsof burnoutand
foundthatat every grade level classroom climate was a significantpredictorof
emotional exhaustion and emotional exhaustion was a significantpredictorof
498

depersonalization."These findingssuggestthatas the social climateof the class-
room deteriorates,teachersbecome emotionallyexhausted and develop increas-
ingly negative attitudestoward their studentsand the teaching profession in
general"(p. 665).
If, as we propose in our model, teacherSEC contributesto healthyclassroom
climate throughthe development of supportiveteacher-studentrelationships,
effectiveclassroom management,and qualitySEL programimplementation, per-
haps contextualchanges thatpromoteteacherSEC may preventthedeterioration
of classroomclimatethatleads to teacherburnout(see section"Teacher Effectson
Studentand Classroom Outcomes" forexamples of contextualsupports).
Althoughresearchhas demonstratedthatemotionallychallenging situations
such as maintainingdisciplineand teachingstudentswho lack motivationare fre-
quentlyexperienced stressorsfor teachers (Hargreaves, 2000; Kyriacou, 2001;
Sutton & Wheatley,2003), thereis a paucity of research directedtoward how
teachers' abilityto regulateintenseemotionsin response to these stressorsmay
contributeto or preventburnout(Carson & Templin,2007; Sutton,2004). In addi-
tion,littleresearchhas focusedon how teachers'SEC supportstheirabilityto cope
withthesestressorsand regulatetheaccompanyingemotionsto promotesupport-
ive relationshipswiththeirstudentsand preventand manage disruptivestudent
behaviors(Chan, 2006).
Althoughthereis evidence thata teacher'swarmthand sensitivity contributeto
healthyteacher-student relationshipsand classroomclimate(Pianta,La Paro,Payne,
Cox, & Bradley,2002), littleresearchhas exploredhow a teacher'sSEC maybe asso-
ciated withgreaterpositive affectand studentand/orclassroom outcomes. More
researchis needed to establishthe relationshipsbetween specific dimensionsof
teacherSEC and themediatingvariablesofourmodel(teacher-student relationships,
classroommanagement,and SEL programimplementation); thereis growingevi-
dence to suggesttheirrelationship and to supportthelinksbetweenthesemediators
and studentand classroomoutcomes.Next,we reviewthisevidence.
Teacher Effectson Studentand Classroom Outcomes
There is growingrecognitionthatteachersmake a crucial contributionto the
social and emotionaldevelopmentof theirstudents(Birch & Ladd, 1998; Hamre
& Pianta, 2001, 2006; Murray& Greenberg,2000; Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman,
2003) thathas lastingeffectson theirlives well intoadulthood(Pederson,Fatcher,
& Eaton, 1978). Teachers influencetheirstudentsnotonly by how and whatthey
teachbutalso by how theyrelate,teachand model social and emotionalconstructs,
and manage theclassroom.This influenceis affectedby numerouscontextualfac-
tors(e.g., school climate,principal,and parentsupport).In theirreportof a classic
naturalexperimenton school effects,Rutter,Maughan, Mortimore,Ouston, and
Smith(1979) concluded that"teachingperformanceis a functionof school envi-
ronmentas well as of personalqualities" (p. 39).
In thissection,we theoreticallylinkthecore dimensionsof teacherSEC to the
primarymediatorsof our model: healthyteacher-studentrelationships,effective
SEL programimplementation, and effectiveclassroommanagement.Whereavail-
able, we review research supportingthese linksand the linksbetweenthe media-
torsand theclassroom and studentoutcomes.Throughout,we address contextual
issues thatmay affectteacherSEC and theotherdimensionsof our model.
499

& Greenberg
Jennings
Healthyteacher-student relationships. Betweenages 4 and 12,childrenaredevelop-
ingtheskillsvitalto SEC and thisdevelopmentcan be supportedby a child's positive
relationshipwithadults(Denham,1998; Dodge, 1986).Thereis a growingbodyofevi-
dence thatsupportiveteacher-student relationshipsplay an important
rolein healthy
schoolandclassroomclimate,students'connectionto school,anddesiredstudentout-
comes,bothacademicand social-emotional(Abbottet al., 1998; Darling-Hammond,
Ancess,& Ort,2002; Gambone,Klem,& Connell,2002; McNeely,Nonnemaker, &
Blum, 2002; Osher et al., 2007). Furthermore, supportivestudent-teacher relation-
ships providethekeystoneto effectiveclassroommanagement.Indeed,in a meta-
analysisofmorethan100 studies,Marzanoet al. (2003) foundthatteacherswho had
high-quality relationshipswiththeirstudentshad 3 1% fewerbehaviorproblemsover
thecourseof a school yearthanteacherswho did not.
Students'perceptionsof teachersupporthave a directeffecton theirinterestand
motivation(Wentzel, 1998), and teachers' expectationsof studentachievement
(which has an affectivecomponent)influencethe way theybehave towardtheir
studentsand thuscan affectstudents'motivation,self-perceptions, and academic
performance(Jussim& Harber,2005). However, teachersupportin the formof
care forstudents'well-beingand comfortmaybe necessarybutinsufficient to pro-
mote masterygoal orientation:Care and concernforstudents'learningmay also
be required(Patrick,Anderman,Ryan,Edelin, & Midgley,2001).
Teachersare role models who continuouslyinduceand respondto theemotional
reactionsoftheirstudents.Piantaet al. (2003) appliedcomponentsofattachment the-
ory(Ainsworth,Belehar,Waters,& Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1982) in understanding
teacher-student relationshipsand theteacher'sfunctionas an important role model.
Accordingto attachment theory,relationships withsupportivecaregivers,character-
ized bytrust,responsiveness,and involvement, promotesocial and emotionaldevel-
opmentthroughthedevelopmentof healthyinternalizedworkingmodels.Children
withsupportiveinternalworkingmodels feela sense of securitythatallows themto
explorenovel situations(Bretherton & Munholland,1999). Therefore,whenteach-
ers are warmand supportive,theyprovidestudentswitha sense of connectedness
withtheschool environment and thesense of securityto explorenew ideas and take
risks- both fundamentalto learning(Mitchell-Copeland,Denham, & DeMulder,
1997; Murray& Greenberg,2000; Watson,2003).
However, it is not always easy to be warm and supportive,especially when
provocativestudentbehaviorsthwartthe teacher's efficacyto performhis or her
primaryinstructional role and/ortheschool culturepromotespunitivecontrolmea-
suresover moreauthoritative approaches(G. R. Mayer,2001). Althoughthequal-
ityof student-teacher relationshipdepends, in part,on how teachersexpress and
process negativeemotions(George & Solomon, 1996), as we reviewedabove, for
manyteachers,regulatingnegativeemotionsin theclassroom can be challenging
and is a commonlyreportedstressor(Carson & Templin, 2007; Sutton,2004).
Althoughtheyregularlyface situationsthatprovokeanger,contempt,disgust,sad-
ness, and frustration,
to develop and maintainhealthyrelationshipswiththeirstu-
dentsteachersmustfindappropriateways to express(or inhibit)theirfeelingsin a
classroomsetting(Hargreaves,2000). Althoughteachersrecognizetheimportance
of regulatingtheiremotionsand thinktheyare keepingtheirfeelingshiddenfrom
students,oftentheyare less successful than theyimagine (Carson & Templin,
2007; Sutton,2004; Sutton& Wheatley,2003).
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Emotionallychallengingeventsthatteacherstypicallyface ofteninvolve inter-
actions with studentswho are not emotionallywell regulated,including those
caughtin anger,anxiety,and sadness. These students,at highestriskof develop-
ing behavioraldisordersand emotionregulationdifficulties, are theverystudents
in greatestneed of a supportiverelationshipwiththeirteacher(U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1999). A teacher's supportand sensitivereactions
to theirchallengingbehaviors may have lastingpositive effectson the students'
social and emotional development, especially in the early grades (Lynch &
Cicchetti,1992).
Teacher reportsof stressand emotionalnegativityare associated withstudent
misbehaviors(Yoon, 2002), and as one mightexpect, teachersexpress negative
emotionsin responseto studentbehaviorson a routinebasis (Carson & Templin,
2007; Hamre & Pianta,2001; Pianta et al., 2003; Sutton& Wheatley,2003). This
stressis magnifiedwhen teachershave more thanone or two disruptivestudents
in a classroom: Even teacherswho would normallycope quite effectivelyunder
less stressfulcircumstancesmay become coercive and harsh(Conduct Problems
PreventionResearch Group, 1992).
Teachers who are overwhelmedby negativeemotionexpressa lack of enthusi-
asm forcultivatingpositiverelationshipswiththeirstudentsand reportbecoming
less involved,less tolerant,and less caring(Blase, 1986). Furthermore, teachers'
negative affectmay have long-term effects on students.
Indeed, Hamre and Pianta
(2001) foundthatkindergarten teachers' reportsof negativeaffectin relationto a
studentwere meaningfulpredictorsof studentsocial and academic outcomes
throughat least fourthgrade.
Inadequate relationswitha teachermay lead to dislike and fearof school and
over time may lead to feelingsof alienationand disengagement.When students
feel alienatedfromschool theyare at greaterriskof developingantisocialbehav-
iors,delinquency,and academic failure(U.S. Departmentof Education, 1998). In
contrast,supportiverelationshipswithteacherscan promotefeelingsof safetyand
connectednessamong students,providingthe social supportnecessaryto thrive
socially,emotionally,and academically.
Althoughthis is trueforstudentsat all grade levels, it is particularlyimpor-
tantforyoungerstudentsas a young child's experience with his or her teacher
can affect future relationships with teachers and peers. The link between
teacher-studentrelationshipqualityand studentoutcomes has been examined in
several studies. Next, we review studies demonstratingthe effectof teachers'
support on student outcomes at early elementary,later elementary,middle
school, and high school.
Relationshipmanagementis a coredimensionof SEC thatplaysan important role
in teachers'abilityto develop and maintaincaringand supportiverelationshipswith
theirstudents.Birchand Ladd (1998) studied199 Midwesternkindergarten children
(predominantly Euro Americanand lowerand middleclass) and theirteachers(N=
17) longitudinally. The studyused an innovativemethodologythatincludedboth
teacher(theStudent-Teacher RelationshipScale [Pianta,Steinberg,& Rollins,1995]
and Child Behavior Scale [Ladd & Profilet,1996]) and peer sociometricreportsof
aggressivebehavior.They demonstrated thatthekindergarten teachers'perceptions
of thequalityof theirrelationshipswithstudentssignificantly affectedthestudents'
behaviorand teacherrelationshipin firstgrade.More specifically,aftercontrolling
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forgender,studentswhose kindergarten teacherreportedhaving an antagonistic,
disharmoniousrelationshipwiththemwereless likelyto exhibitprosocialbehavior
in firstgrade.The authorsconclude that"childrenwho are involvedin conflictual
relationshipswithteachersmaybe less motivatedto displayprosocialbehaviorand
may feel thatthebehavioraloptionsavailable to themare constrainedby theaver-
sive natureof theserelationships"(Birch & Ladd, 1998, p. 943).
In anotherinnovativestudy,Hughes,Cavell, and Willson (2001) examinedhow
peerperceptionsof students'teacher-student relationshipsaffectpeer sociometric
nominationsand ratingsamong an ethnicallydiverse sample of 993 third-and
fourth-grade students(497 boys and 496 girls).Once again, bothpeer sociometric
and teacherreportsof behaviorwere assessed independently.Moderate to strong
significantcorrelationswere foundbetween peer reportsof teacherconflictand
peer reportsof both studentrelationaland overtaggression(r = .53 and r = .77,
respectively;p < .0 1), whichsuggestedthatthesame studentsnominatedas aggres-
sive are also nominatedby theirpeers as having conflictualrelationshipswith
teachers.Peer reportsof teacher supportand teacher conflictwere moderately
correlated(r = .59), whichsuggestedthattheymake independentcontributions to
outcomevariables. Althoughgirlswere ratedhigheron teachersupportand boys
were ratedhigheron teacherconflict,genderwas notfoundto moderatetherela-
tionshipsamong teachersupport,teacherconflict,or peer ratings.
A seriesof multipleregressionanalysesindicatedthatbothteacherconflictand
teachersupportcontributed uniquelytopeerratingsofcooperative,overtaggression;
relationalaggression;and "likedleast"status.Furthermore, even afteraccountingfor
of
peerratings aggression,ratings of teachersupportuniquelyaccountedfor10% of
thevariance.Thus,ifstudentsperceivedthata studenthad a supportiverelationship
withtheteacher,theywere morelikelyto ratethestudentas likable.
Furtheranalysis of a selected subgroup of aggressive studentsshowed that
teachersupportuniquelypredictedpeer preferencewithintheaggressivestudents.
This suggests thatpeer perceptionof teacher supporthad a bufferingeffecton
peers' social preferenceof aggressive studentsand thatstudentstake cues from
theirteacherin determining whethera peeris likableor not.This findinghas impli-
cations forintervention strategiesforimprovingthe social statusof rejectedand
aggressivestudents.Interventions thatdirectlytargettheteacher-student relation-
ship by promotingSEC may enable teachersto offersupportto studentsdespite
theirtroublingbehaviorand may make a differencein studentsocial statusamong
peers contributing to theirfeelingof connectednesswiththe school community.
In a studyof students'school connectedness,Murrayand Greenberg(2000) per-
formeda clusteranalysison data collectedfrom170 fifth- and sixth-grade students
(55.9% female, 38.8% studentsof color, 33.2% mild to moderatedisabilities).
Studentsself-reported on theirrelationshipswiththeirschool,classmates,and teach-
ers usingPeople in My Life (Cook, Greenberg,& Kusche, 1995). The authorsclas-
sified25% of studentsas Dysfunctionalbecause theyscoredlow on theAffiliation
withTeacher and School Bond factors(but above average on Dissatisfactionwith
Teacher and School Dangerousness),28% as Functional/Average because theyhad
moderateto average scores on all thefactors,38% as PositivelyInvolvedbecause
theyhad highscoreson Affiliation withTeacherand School Bond,and 9% as School
Anxiousbecause theyhad highscoreson theSchool Dangerousfactor(and average
scores on theotherthreefactors).
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Usinga multivariate analysisof variance,theauthorsexamineddifferences
betweenthefourclusterson a varietyof social and emotionaladjustment vari-
ables,including measuresindependently completed byteachers.Students classi-
fiedas Dysfunctional had poorerself-reported social and schoolcompetence,
moredelinquency, conductproblems,anxiety,and depressionwhencompared
withthestudents identifiedas Positively Involved.Teacherreports indicated that
students classifiedas Dysfunctional hadpoorerfrustration tolerance,lowertask
orientation, andmoreexternalizing behaviorsthanthoseclassifiedas Positively
Involved.Studentsclassifiedas School Anxiousalso had poorerself-reported
socialand schoolcompetence andmoreemotionalproblemsthanthePositively
Involvedgroup.
Thesefindings indicatethatstudents' relationships withtheirteachersas well
as theirfeelings ofconnection withschoolarerelatedtosocialandschoolcompe-
tenceandmentalhealth.Although further researchis requiredto determine why
thesestudents do notfeelconnected to theirteacherandschool,a teacherhighin
SEC maybe moreabletoinfluence a student's feelingofconnectedness andis an
important factor to consider in future work.
Similarfindings haveresultedfromstudiesof adolescents.In a studyof 353
(93% EuropeanAmerican)middleschoolstudents, Goodenow(1993) foundthat
belonging and teacher support were related to motivation (Pintrich & DeGroot,
1990)andthatbothbelonging andmotivation influenced classroomachievement.
Teachersupportexplainedovera thirdof students'assessmentof theinterest,
importance, andvalueoftheacademicworkintheclass.Thesefindings lendfur-
thersupport to theimportance ofteacherSEC andsuggestthatstudents'impres-
sionsofteachersupport influence theirmotivation andclassroomperformance.
Ina studyconducted as partoftheAddHealthlongitudinal studyofadolescents
inGrades7 through 12, 12,118 students (a random stratifiedsubsampleof90,118
students from themainsample)wereinterviewed abouttheirriskybehavior, health
status,family dynamics, peernetworks, andconnectedness toteachers andschool
(Resnicketal., 1997).Regression analysesindicated thatteacherandschoolcon-
nectedness was a significant contributor toadolescent emotional health,lowerlev-
els ofviolence,andless use ofalcohol,cigarettes, andmarijuana. Thesefindings
suggestthat,evenamongadolescents, schoolandteacherconnectedness is a pro-
tectivefactor.
Theseandtheearlierfindings pointtotheneedforresearch tobetterunderstand
whatindividualteachercharacteristics andcontextual factorscontribute to their
abilitytooffer socialsupport andacademicencouragement, especiallytostudents
whoexhibitchallenging behavior.We suggestthattheSEC dimensions ofsocial
awareness, and
self-management, relationship management may play an important
role.Thesefindings also highlight theneedforpoliciesandinterventions thatcan
betterprepareteachersto developsupportive relationshipswithall students and
promote students' feelings of connectedness to school. Next, we review research
thatlinksSEL program implementation to classroomand student outcomesand
addresstheroleteachers'socialandemotional skillsplaysinhowtheyimplement
thisprogramming.
Effective SEL programimplementation. Duringthepastfewdecades,numerous
evidence-based intervention programs havebeendesignedto promoteSEL and
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preventbehaviorproblemsamong students(see Durlak & Wells, 1997, fora meta-
analysis,and Bear, Webster-Stratton, Furlong,& Ree, 2000, and Greenberget al.,
2003, forreviews and critiquesof these programs).A recentlyconductedmeta-
analysis of SEL programsdocumentedsignificantbenefitsto students,including
improvedacademic achievementon standardizedtests(Weissberg,Durlak,Taylor,
Dymnicki,& Unte O'Brien, 2008).
To review,SEL is theprocess of acquiringthe skills to recognize and manage
emotions,develop care and concernforothers,make responsibledecisions,estab-
lish positiverelationships,and handle challengingsituationseffectively.Inspired
by Daniel Goleman's (1995) book Emotional Intelligence,the field of SEL was
developed in response to child developmentresearchfindingsemphasizing the
importanceof enhancing social and emotional competencies both to promote
healthyfunctioningand preventthe developmentof mental illness (Greenberg
et al., 2003).
A multitudeof primarypreventionprogramsprovidecurriculato facilitateSEL
in classroom environments(Collaborative forAcademic, Social, and Emotional
Learning,2003). These curriculaprovide lessons and supportforteachingemo-
tional literacy,self-control,social competence,positive peer relations,and inter-
personal problem solving (Zins et al., 2004). However, these programs are
primarilyfocused on teaching studentsthese skills and do not provide explicit
instruction to promotesocial and emotionalliteracyamong teachers.
For example, the Caring School Community (CSC, formerlythe Child
Development Project; Solomon, Watson, Delucchi, Schaps, & Battistich,1988)
includes role-playingactivitiesforemotionand social-perspectivetakingto pro-
mote empathy and social cohesiveness. The PATHS (Promoting Alternative
THinking Strategies) curriculumalso includes techniques for facilitatingcon-
trolledemotion expression such as teachingstudentshow to calm down before
engagingin problemsolving (Kusche & Greenberg,1994).
Both CSC and PATHS offermethodsfor improvingclassroom climate and
teachers' responsivityto students'psychosocial and emotionalneeds. They both
involve extensiveprocess-based activitiesthatteachersapply to everydaysitua-
tions as theynaturallyarise in the classroom and thusemphasize the importance
of teachermodeling.Althoughthese activitiesrequirea greatdeal of SEC on the
partof theteacher,theseprogramsdo notprovidedirectinstruction forteachersin
thisregard.Most SEL programsassume thatthe teacheris preparedto act as an
effectiveemotionalcoach and role model.
Whereasnumerousstudieshave demonstrated theefficacyof SEL programsfor
students(Greenberget al., 2003; Zins et al., 2004), theirsuccessfulimplementation
maydependon theteacher'sSEC to createan environment thatis conduciveto SEL,
forexample,providea positiverolemodeland facilitateinterpersonal problemsolv-
ing and conflictresolution.Recent findingsindicatethatdiverse factorssuch as
teachers'own teachingefficacy,thesupportof an effectiveprincipal,and thequal-
ityoftherelationship withthoseprovidingongoingcoachingin an SEL programcan
all affectthequalityofimplementation (Domitrovich& Greenberg,2000; Ransford,
2007; Ransford,Greenberg,Small, & Domitrovich,2006).
There is substantialevidence suggestingthatthequalityof teacherimplemen-
tationof SEL programsstudiedat the elementarylevel affectsstudentoutcomes
and thatteacherimplementationquality depends on the dimensions of SEC, in
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particularself-awareness, social awareness,and relationshipmanagement(Conduct
ProblemsPreventionResearchGroup,1999; Dane & Schneider,1998; Domitrovich
& Greenberg,2000; Solomon, Battistich,Watson, Schaps, & Lewis, 2000). CSC
researchersexaminedteacherpracticesassociated withstudents'sense of theclass-
roomas a community(Solomon, Battistich,Kim, & Watson, 1997) and developed
an index of programimplementationqualitybased on seven scales derivedfrom
classroom observationsand fourself-report teacherattitudescales mostof which
focusedon factorsassociated withSEC (Battistich,Schaps, Watson,Solomon, &
Lewis, 2000). Thus, teachers' SEC was associated withimplementationquality
thatpredictedstudents'personal,social, and ethicalattitudes,values, and motives
(Solomon et al., 2000) as well as reductionsin students'druguse and otherproblem
behaviors(Battistichet al., 2000).
In a studyof morethan150 elementaryschool classrooms,thequalityof teacher
implementation of thePATHS Curriculumwas relatedto improvementsin class-
roomclimate.Teachers who were ratedhigheron understanding theprogramcon-
in the
cepts, generalizing program skills throughout day throughcoaching and
the
modeling, and managing their classroom effectivelyshowed reductionsin class-
room aggression(Conduct ProblemsPreventionResearch Group, 1999). Indeed,
these implementationeffectsremainedaftercovaryingfordosage such thatthe
numberof PATHS lessons providedwas not as importantas the qualityof those
lessons. Thus, teachers' understanding and willingnessto integrateSEL concepts
and skills intotheirinteractionswiththeirstudentsrequireSEC and may be criti-
cally importantforclassroom improvements.
Furthermore, studentsweremoreengagedin SEL intervention whentheteachers
provided lessons in an engaging manner and generalized the core conceptsinterac-
tivelythroughout the day (Conduct ProblemsPreventionResearch Group, 1999).
The teacher'sabilityto activelyapplySEL skillsduringactualpeerconflictsorwhen
studentsare frustrated, angry,sad, or overexcitedrequiresflexibility, openness,and
awarenessof theemotionalneeds of students.Appropriateplanningthatincludes
teacherinvolvementand high-quality trainingis criticalto ensuringqualityimple-
mentation.When teachersare alreadyfeelingoverburdened,the haphazardintro-
ductionof anothercurriculuminitiativemay not providethe necessarysupportto
help teachersrealizehow important theiraffectand engagementis to qualityimple-
mentationand developingstudents'competence(Kress & Elias, 2006).
It has been suggestedthatthe "psychological-mindedness" (here relatedto the
dimensionsof self-awareness,social awareness,self-management, and relationship
management)of theteachermay play an importantrole in the teacher's abilityto
implementan SEL programeffectively(Kusche, Riggs, & Greenberg,1999). A
teacherwho is aware of his or her emotional responses and can recognize and
empathizewitha student'semotionalresponsesmay be betterpreparedto imple-
mentan SEL programexplicitlythroughlessons and generalizingthe curriculum
throughactivitiesmentionedabove and also as an exemplaryrole model. In a study
of teachersusing the PATHS Curriculum,Buss and Hughes (2007) found that
teachers'awarenessof theirown emotions(the self-awarenessdimensionof SEC)
was predictiveof curriculumimplementation quality.
Classroom and schoolwide climatemay also affectSEL programimplementa-
tion (Elias et al., 1997). However, therehas been littleresearchto examine this
question (Bryk & Schneider, 2002). Positive interpersonalrelations among
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school staffmay have a robusteffecton the quality of implementationas well
(Domitrovich,Cortes,& Greenberg,2005). Thus, thesocial and emotionalcompe-
tenciesof theadultsin theschool environment mayplay a pivotalrolein thequality
of implementation.
Teachers are rarelygivensufficient preparationand ongoingsupportto develop
the necessary skills and attitudesto successfullyimplementSEL programming
(Elias, 2003). The guidanceprovidedto educatorsto implementSEL programming
is typicallylimitedto explanation of the importantconstructsand information
about how to teach themto students(Zins, Travis, & Freppon, 1997). Given that
SEL programmingis scaling up in responseto statemandates(now in Illinois and
New York), addressingteacherSEC becomes imperativeto promotesuccessful
programimplementation on a large scale, as well as to reduceteacherburnout,ris-
ing health care costs, and so on.
Next,we examineevidencethatlinkseffectiveclassroommanagementto class-
room and studentoutcomes and explores how teachers' SEC may contributeto
theirabilityto effectivelymanage theirclass.
Effective classroommanagementskills.In responseto educationalresearchand the

resultingchange in the views of the natureof students'learning,therehas been a
move towarda more authoritativeand proactiveapproach to classroom manage-
ment.This approachencouragesprosocialand cooperativebehaviorsthroughestab-
lishingwarmand supportiverelationshipsand communities,assertivelimit-setting
and guidance,and preventative strategiesratherthancontrollingnegativebehaviors
throughcoercive measures such as punishment(Angell, 1991; Bredekamp &
Copple, 1997; Brophy,2006; DeVries & Zan, 1994; Ginott,1993; Glasser, 1988,
1998a; Kohn, 1996; Levin & Nolan, 2006; Marzano et al., 2003; Noddings,2005;
Osher et al., 2007; Watson,2003; Watson & Battistich,2006). In addition,thereis
evidencethattheseapproachespromotestudents'commitment to school,academic
engagement,and achievementamong elementaryschools (Solomon et al., 2000),
middleschools (Goodenow, 1993), and highschools (Bryk& Driscoll, 1988).
This new perspectivestressesthe importanceof self-regulationamong both
teachersand studentsforthecreationof an environment wherestudentsbehave out
of a sense of sharedresponsibilityfora healthylearningenvironmentratherthan
to avoid punishmentor earn rewards (Weinstein, 1999; Woolfolk Hoy &
Weinstein,2006). New models thatintegratepositivebehavioralsupportand SEL
are beginningto demonstrateeffectivenessin reducingproblembehaviorsamong
elementary,middle,and high school students(Osher et al., 2007).
Althoughthisnew perspectivehas no shortageof richtheoreticalframeworks,
it lacks empiricalsupport.Descriptivepresentationsof potentialare offeredwith
littleprescriptivedirection.Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein (2006) suggest,"We
need systematicinquiryintohow teachersestablishand maintainpositive,caring
relationshipswithstudents,fosterautonomyand self-regulation, and build com-
munity"(p. 211).
Given thenewness of thisorientationto classroom managementand the short-
age of empirical findings,it is not surprisingthat little research has directly
addressedteacherSEC and classroommanagement.However,some important find-
ings fromearlierclassroommanagementresearch,theSEL intervention literature,
and the psychological literatureon emotionsuggestthatteachers' SEC supports
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theirclassroommanagementefforts and mayin factbe an essentialcomponentlink-
ingthisnew orientation towardclassroommanagement,healthyclassroomclimate,
and positivestudentoutcomes.
The 1970s saw the firstfederallyfunded,large-scale researchto identifythe
teacherbehaviors most related to desired studentoutcomes. As a resultof this
research,the emphasis in classroom managementshifted"froma paradigmthat
emphasizesthecreationand applicationofrulesto regulatestudentbehaviorto one
thatalso attendsto students'needs fornurturing relationshipsand opportunitiesfor
self-regulation" (Weinstein, 1999, p. 151).
Weinstein(1999) further articulatesthisparadigmshiftas involvingfourmajor
changesin approachall requiringvariousdimensionsof teacherSEC. Weinstein's
firstchangeis "frommanagementas a 'bag of tricks'thatcan be acquiredin a two-
hour'in-service'to managementas a body of knowledgeand a setof practicesthat
requirethoughtful decision makingand reflection"(p. 152). This change implies
theneed forSEC dimensionsof self-awareness, awarenessof others,and theability
to make responsibledecisions.
The secondchangeis "frommanagerialpracticesdesignedtoobtaincomplianceto
practicesthatfosterstudents'capacityforself-regulation"(Weinstein,1999, p. 152).
This changealso impliestheneedforSEC dimensionsof self-and other-awareness as
andtohelpothersself-regulate
wellas theabilityto self-regulate throughguidance and
example.Helpingstudentsself-regulate (ratherthanimposingrules)requiresa high
degreeof awareness,sensitivity, and thoughtful decisionmakingto observe,under-
stand,and respondrespectfully and effectivelyto individualstudentbehaviors.
The thirdshift"froma purelycognitiveperspectivethatemphasizes theimpor-
tanceof developingand teachingrulesto a combinedcognitive-affective perspec-
tivethatalso recognizestheneed to establishcaring,trusting relationshipsbetween
studentsand teachersand amongstudents"(Weinstein,1999, p. 152) is yetanother
example thatnecessitatesteacherSEC. Teachers highin SEC know how to build
strongand supportiverelationshipsthroughmutualunderstanding and cooperation
and can effectivelynegotiatesolutionsto conflictsituations.
Finally,thefourthchange,"frommanagementstrategiesthatsupporta view of
classroomsas places forroutinized,teacher-directed workto managementstrategies
thatare consistentwitha view of classroomsas places foractive,student-centered
learning"(Weinstein,1999, p. 152), also necessitatesteacherSEC. Teachers high
in SEC knowtheirboundariesand can assertivelysetlimitsfirmlyyetrespectfully,
buttheyalso are comfortablewitha level of ambiguityand chaos thatcomes from
lettingstudentsfigurethingsout forthemselves.
Thus, it can be arguedthatthismajor paradigmshifthas necessitateda greater
degreeofteacherSEC thanwas essentialforclassroommanagementinthepast.This
shiftwas presagedby theworkof Kounin (1977), who was curiousas to whysome
teacherswere able to maintaina highdegree of on-taskbehaviorwhen compared
withothers.He discovereda constructhe identifiedas "withitness"associated with
theteachers'highdegreeof awarenessof individualand groupsocial and emotional
dynamicsand theabilityto influenceand regulatethesedynamics(i.e., SEC).
In his studyof 80 first-and second-gradeclasses each containingat least one
emotionallydisturbedchild he foundthatteachersidentifiedas "withit"were able
to notice subtle changes in students'emotionsand behavior and respond proac-
tivelyby lettingstudentsknow theywere aware, by matter-of-factly reminding
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themof thetaskat hand and offeringa runningcommentaryto monitortheclass's
progress(Kounin, 1970). This findingsuggeststhattheSEC dimensionsof social
awareness, self-management,and relationshipmanagementmay help teachers
maintain attentivemonitoringand responsiveness, which preventsdisruptive
behaviorand supportsstudenton-taskbehavior.
Indeed, in a meta-analysisof morethan100 studiesof classroommanagement,
"mentalset" was foundto have the largesteffect(d = -1.3) on reductionsin dis-
ruptivebehavior (Marzano et al., 2003). The constructof mentalset is similarto
Langer's (1997) constructof "mindfulness"involving"a heightenedsense of sit-
uational awareness and a conscious controlover one's thoughtsand behaviorrel-
ative to thatsituation"(Marzano et al., 2003, p. 65). In contrast,"mindlessness"is
a state of "automaticpilot" where one operates withlittleconscious awareness.
Mental set also includes emotional objectivity(relatedto the SEC dimensionof
self-management). Teachers who remaincool underpressureaddressingdiscipli-
naryissues in a "matter-of-fact" way withouttakingbehaviorspersonallyare most
effectiveclassroom managers.
When teachersfostera sense of communityin theirclassrooms,studentsexhibit
a moreprosocial orientation(cooperative,helpful,concernforothers),resultingin
fewerdisruptivebehaviors (Battistich,Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997). The
ongoingresearchto studytheeffectivenessof theCSC provideslongitudinalevi-
dence. CSC is an intervention programdesignedto enhanceprosocialdevelopment
throughproviding studentsopportunitiesto collaborate with and help others,
reflecton theexperiencesand needs of othersto promoteempathyand perspective
taking,reflecton theirown and others'behavioras itrelatesto fundamentalproso-
cial values, develop and practicesocial competencies,and learn to participatein
joint decision makingwithregardto classroomrulesand guidelines.The program
is based on theassumptionthatstudentshave a basic needtobelongto andcontribute
to a community - "a cohesive, caringgroupwitha sharedpurpose"(p. 138)- and
when thisneed is satisfied,studentsbecome bonded withthe school community,
and theyare inclinedto behave in accordance withthe school's values reducing
theneed fortheexternalcontrolof adults.
Battistichet al. (1997) examinedtheeffectsof theCSC programin a longitudi-
nal studyof 24 diverseelementaryschools in six school districtsacross theUnited
States(totalof 550-600 classrooms).Two schools fromeach districtwereassigned
to theexperimentalcondition,whereastheothertwowerechosenas matchingcom-
parisonschools. Treatmentand comparisonschools wereassessed at baseline prior
to the programintroduction in the fall of 1992 and annuallyover a 3-yearperiod.
Assessmentsincluded90-minclassroom observationsconductedfourtimeseach
school year.Questionnaireswere administeredannuallyto teachersand studentsto
assess theirimpressionsof school climateand sense of community.
Results showed thatthetrainingand use of CSC practicesled to an increasein
teacherwarmthand supportiveness, emphasison prosocialvalues, encouragement
of cooperation,elicitationof studentthinkingand expressionof ideas, and extrin-
sic controlamong CSC teacherscomparedwiththose of thecomparisonteachers.
AmongCSC classrooms,an increasein thesepracticesresultedin improvements in
students'self-reported academic engagement,sense of influence,and positiveinter-
personal behavior and thatthese studentbehaviors promotedstudents'sense of
community,whichwas associated withschool liking,enjoymentof class, learning
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motivation,concernforothers,conflictresolutionskills,democraticvalues, sense
of efficacy,and altruisticbehavior.Many of theserelationshipsremainedsignifi-
cantwhencontrollingforschool povertylevel (Battistich,Solomon, Kim, Watson,
& Schaps, 1995). Indeed,thedata suggestthatsuch teacherpracticesmay createa
classroomatmospherethatis protectivedespitethenegativeeffectsof povertyon
academic performance.
A follow-upstudyexamininga subsample of 1,246 (700 CSC and 546 com-
parison) middle school studentsfound continuingpositive effects,especially
among those fromthe elementaryschools identifiedas having a high level of
implementation quality as assessed by classroom observationand teachers' self-
reportedattitudestowardstudents(Battistichet al., 1997; Solomon et al., 2000).
These data establishthatbuildinga sense of communityin schools reducesstudent
problembehaviors.Althoughcommunitybuildingmayreducetheneed forexplicit
teacher-directed behavior managementinterventions, we argue thatit requiresa
highdegreeof SEC on thepartof theteacher(Solomon et al., 1997).
Supportingtheparadigmshiftin classroom managementwas thedevelopment
of self-determination theory(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000),
whichproposes thatthepursuitof extrinsicgoals, such as rewardsand honors,is
associated withpoorer mentalhealththanthe pursuitof intrinsicgoals, such as
relationshipsand community.
In a series of studies focused on learning, Vansteenkiste,Simons, Lens,
Sheldon, and Deci (2004) testedthe hypothesisthatintrinsic(vs. extrinsic)goals
and autonomy-supportive (vs. controlling)learningclimate would advance stu-
dents' learning,performance, and persistence.Whereasall threestudiesconfirmed
theirhypothesis,we focus on thelast because it involvedhighschool students(as
opposed to adultlearners).
The thirdstudytestedthehypothesiswitha groupof 224 Belgian 10th-and 1lth-
gradestudentsin an educationalsetting.The studentsweretaughtTai-bo exercises
duringphysicaleducationclass and were randomlyassigned to one of fourcondi-
tions across two dimensions: motivationand learningclimate. The motivation
dimensioninvolved assignmentto eitherthe intrinsicgoal condition(prompting
thatTai-bo would improvetheirhealth)or theextrinsicgoal condition(prompting
thatTai-bo would improvetheirphysical attractiveness).The motivationdimen-
sions werecrossedwithtwo learningclimatedimensionsthatinvolvedassignment
to eitherthe autonomy-supportive assignmentor the controllingcontextassign-
ment.These were promptedby the wordingof directionsthatwere eithervery
directive(e.g., "you should,""you have to," "you must")versusmoreautonomous-
supportivedirections(e.g., "you can," "you might,""if you choose").
Studentswho were assigned to the intrinsicgoal ratherthanthe extrinsicgoal
condition and the autonomy-supportive ratherthan controllingcondition were
foundto be moreautonomouslymotivated,demonstratedbetterperformance, and
were morepersistent.Examininginteractioneffects,the authorsfounda positive
interactionfor intrinsicgoal and autonomy-supportivelearning climate for
autonomousmotivationand fortestperformancebut notpersistence.
This studyfromthe psychological literaturesupportsthe classroom manage-
mentparadigm shiftdescribed above, suggestingthe importanceof promoting
intrinsicgoals and autonomouslearningclimates.Furthermore, effectiveteachers
encourage engaged student learningby generatingenthusiasm and passion forthe
509

& Greenberg
Jennings
curriculum (Fried,1995). We hypothesize thattheseimportantdimensions of a
learningenvironment requiregreaterteacherSEC topromote thando thepromo-
tionofextrinsic goalsandcontrollinglearningclimates.Ratherthansimplycreat-
ing rules and eitherofferingpunishments or rewardsfor complianceor
noncompliance, teachersmust establish thatpromote
relationships eachstudent's
discoveryoftheintrinsic rewardforlearning andcreateresponsive environments
thatallowautonomy andcooperative learning.
We have examinedhow teacherswho lack SEC mayexperienceemotional
stressandburnout andthenegativeeffectsthishasonteacher-studentrelationships
andclassroommanagement. We alsoreviewedfindings thatdemonstrate thecom-
plexinteractions amongthevariousfacetsofourmodelthatmakea contribution
to a prosocialclassroomclimate.We also examinedhowdimensions of teacher
SEC arerelatedto SEL program implementation qualityandclassroom manage-
ment.The findings reviewedaboveprovidecompelling evidencefortheneedfor
interventionstrategiestohelpteachersdevelopSEC toavoidteacherburnout and
toenhanceeffectiveness. Next, we discussseveral intervention
possible strategies
topromote teacherSEC.
PromotingTeacherSEC and Weil-Being
Decades ofresearchhavegenerated base thatcan be usedtopro-
a knowledge
moteteachers'socialandemotionalawarenessandto aid in thedevelopmentof
thesecompetencies(Eisenberg,2003; Ekman,2004a). However,untilrecently,
neither
teacherpreservicenorin-service haveused thisrichsourceof
programs
material
tohelppromote thesesocial-emotional
processesinteachers.
EmotionalIntelligenceTraining
Thereareseveraltraining programsinthedevelopmental stagesthatmayfacil-
itatethedevelopment of SEC amongteachers.Although mostSEL programs do
notaddressteacherSEC in theirteachertraining, theEmotionallyIntelligent
Classroom(Brackett & Katulak,2006) program is anexception.TheEmotionally
IntelligentTeachertraining (Brackett& Caruso,2006) was designedtopromote
teachers'emotion-related skillsandemotionalawarenessandapplication ofthese
skillsand awarenessin theschoolenvironment as supportfortheSEL program
forstudents.The trainingcoversthreemajorareas: recognizingand labeling
emotions,understanding emotion,and expressingand regulating emotionin
responsetosituationscommonly encountered
by in
teachers classroom situations.
For example,duringthesectioncoveringunderstanding emotion,thetraining
introduces teachersto information abouthow emotionscan affectlearning;for
instance,positiveemotionssuch as joy and excitement can fostercreativity,
whereasanxietycan impairmemoryand theabilityto perform certaintasks.
Althoughresearchhas documentedsignificant changesin studentoutcomes
fromtheoverallprogram,
resulting nodatahavebeenpublished thatlinksteacher
SEC toclassroomandstudent outcomes.
Interventions
Mindfulness-Based
Anotherapproachto reducingstressand promoting well-being,emotional
andprosocial
awareness/regulation, behavior
isthrough mindfulness
practicing orcon-
practices(Brown,Ryan,& Creswell,2007; Carmody& Baer,2008;
templative
510

Eisenberg,2002; Kabat-Zinnet al., 1992; Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone, &

Davidson2008a; Lutz,Slagter,Dunne,& Davidson,2008b; Ortner, Sachne,& Zelazo,
2007). Research indicatesthatcontemplationand mindfulnesspracticesincrease
awarenessofone's internal experienceandpromotereflection, self-regulation, andcar-
ing forothers. Ekman (2004a) and the 14thDalai Lama (Dalai Lama & Ekman, 2008)
haveproposedthatduringmeditation, thefocuson automaticbiologicaleventssuchas
thebreathmaypromotetheabilityto be moreaware of automaticemotionalreactiv-
ity,promoting theabilitytohavegreatercontroloverone's responses.Thisability,they
argue,promotespsychologicalbalance and compassion.
Research is beginningto supportthis premise.For example, regularcontem-
plative practiceenhances mentalhealthand increases the abilityto regulatedis-
tress(Ramel, Goldin,Carmona,& McQuaid, 2004; Shapiro,Schwartz,& Bonner,
1998). Individualswho can manage theirdistresswhen exposed to a person who
is suffering are morelikelyto show empathyand compassion and do somethingto
reduce suffering(Eisenberg et al., 1989). Contemplativepracticemay facilitate
emotionalself-awareness(Brown & Ryan,2003) and contributeto engagementor
"psychological presence," defined as "feeling open to oneself and others,con-
nectedto workand others,completeratherthanfragmented, and withinratherthan
withouttheboundariesof a given role" (Kahn, 1992, p. 322). Thus, mindfulness
practicesmay promotecognitiveand emotionalregulationby supportingtheabil-
ityto reflecton one's internaland externalexperiencefroma broaderperspective
thatprovidesa widervarietyof interpretations of and responsesto stressfulsitua-
tions(Zelazo & Cunningham,2007). As a result,mindfulness-based interventions
be
may ideally suited to the
support development of a mental set that is associated
witheffectiveclassroom management.Mindfulnesstrainingmay help teachers
reduce stress.A studyof 21 secondaryschool studentteachersfoundthatmind-
fulnesstrainingreduced stresssymptoms(Winzelberg& Luskin, 1999). Half the
teachersparticipatedin four45-minutesessions wheretheylearneda mindfulness
practiceinvolvingfocusedattentionand othermindfulnessstrategiesthatcould be
used throughoutthe day to reduce stress.Compared to the controlgroup,inter-
ventiongroup teachersreportedsignificantreductionsin emotional,behavioral,
and gastronomicstresssymptomsas measured by the Teacher Stress Inventory
(TSI; Pettigrew& Wolf, 1982).
A promisingstrategycombines emotion awareness trainingand mindfulness
practices. Kemeny et al. (2008) reportfindingson the CultivatingEmotional
Balance training, an innovativecombinationthatuses Ekman's EmotionAwareness
Trainingsystemforteachingemotionawareness(Ekman,2004b; Ekman& Friesen,
1978) and secularizedmindfulnesstraining.This hybridtrainingmodel consisted
of an 8-week,42-hrtrainingprogramdesignedto reduce"destructiveenactmentof
theemotions"and enhanceempathyand compassion. It was testedon a sample of
82 femaleteachers(pre-K-12) usinga randomized,controlledtrialdesign.Results
at both posttestand 5-monthfollow-up indicatedthatthe trainingsignificantly
reduced self-reporteddepression and ruminationand increased emotional self-
awareness. In addition, in an experimentaltask, interventionteachers showed
an increase in compassionate respondingto sufferingwhen compared with the
comparisonteachers.
Pilot data fromthissame trialon a subsample of classrooms suggeststhatthe
changes in teacherSEC may translateintoimprovedclassroomclimate(Jennings,
511

& Greenberg
Jennings
2007). Observersblindto theexperimentalconditionratedtheclassroomsof a sub-
sample of 21 teachers(13 experimentalgroup,8 controlgroup) using two stan-
dardized observationalmeasures of classroom climate (La Paro & Pianta, 2003;
Solomon et al., 1988). As predicted,the interventiongroup classrooms scored
higheron mostdimensionsof classroomclimatewhencomparedwiththoseof the
waitlistcontrolgroup,which suggeststhatthepsychologicalchanges observedin
theinterventionteacherstranslatedintoimprovedclassroomclimate.
Enhancing Commitment to Teaching

Otherpromisingprogramsworthnotingfocuson thedevelopmentofthe"inner
lives" of teachers.These programsfocus on supportingthepersonaldevelopment
of teachersand othereducationalprofessionals.Courage to Teach, developed by
ParkerPalmer (1998), involves participationin 3-day quarterlyretreatsfora year
intendedto help teachersdevelop moretrustingand caringrelationshipswithcol-
leagues and studentsand to exploretheconnectionbetweenattendingto theinner
life of educators and the renewal of public education (Center for Courage &
Renewal, n.d.). The InnerResilience Program(formerly ProjectRenewal; Lantieri,
Nambiar,& Chavez-Reilly,2006) was developed to help New York City"ground
zero" teachers cope with the trauma of 9/11. It aims to provide teachers with
skills, tools, and strategiesto strengthen
resiliencyin theface of griefand trauma
and to model these skills fortheirstudents.The trainingincludes residentialand
day-longretreats,after-schoolworkshopsand institutes, technicalassistance and
training,individual stress-reductionsessions, and yoga classes. Althoughonly
anecdotal evidence supportseitherof these models, withsupportfromthe Fetzer
Institute,bothof theseteacherrenewal models are currently undergoingrandom-
ized trialsto examine efficacy.
Trainingin StudentSocial and EmotionalDevelopment

Teachers rarelyreceive and are notrequiredto takecourses on social and emo-
tional developmentin childhood as partof theirteachertraining.However, we
hypothesizethatteachersneed thisknowledge to betterunderstandthe develop-
mentalprocessof SEC and theneeds of studentsat different ages, to develop effec-
tive and caring classroom management,and to betterunderstandthe relations
betweenemotion,cognition,and behavior.For example,youngchildrenoftenhave
difficultyregulatingtheiremotionalresponses.A youngstudentwithemotionreg-
ulationdifficultiesmay exhibitchallengingclassroom behavior.Ratherthanrep-
rimandinga studentforsuch behavior,a well-informed teachermightfindways to
help the studentself-regulate.To do this,the teachermustunderstandhow emo-
tionregulationdevelops and how to supportits development.
To our knowledge,thereare no preserviceor in-servicetrainingprogramsthat
focus on improvingteachers' knowledgeand skillsregardingstudents'social and
emotionaldevelopmentthathave been carefullyevaluatedto examinetheireffects
on teacher and classroom functioning.However, a recentstudyexaminingthe
effectof Montessori schooling found that urban minoritystudentsrandomly
assignedby lotteryto a Montessoripublic school demonstratedsignificantly supe-
riorsocial, emotional,and cognitivedevelopmentwhen compared withstudents
randomlyassignedbylottery toregularpublicschoolprograms.These resultssuggest
512

thattheMontessori curriculum andteachertraining maybe one effective model
forsupporting teachers'understandingof socialandemotionaldevelopment and
theirabilityto applythisknowledgeto helpingstudents (Lillard&
self-regulate
Else-Quest,2005).
As reviewedabove,manytypesoftraining andsupport havesoundtheoretical
modelsforimproving teacherSEC and studentoutcomes.These rangefrom
changesin preservice trainingfocusedon socialandemotionaldevelopment and
classroommanagement to in-servicemodelsof stressreduction, mindfulness,
explicitteachingofemotional awareness,andthedeeperdevelopment ofteachers'
innerlives. Indeed,some have arguedthatpsychology, particularlyan under-
standing ofsocialandemotional developmental issues,shouldhavea morepromi-
nentrolein standardizedteachertrainingcurriculum (Poulou,2005).
AgendaforFutureResearch
Researchhas demonstrated evidenceof relationships amongvariouscompo-
nentsofourproposedprosocialclassroommodel.Supportive teacher-studentrela-
tionshipsand effectiveclassroom management are relatedto healthy classroom
climate.Healthyclassroomclimateis associatedwithpositivesocial,emotional,
andacademicstudent outcomes (La Paro& Pianta,2003;NICHD EarlyChildCare
ResearchNetwork, 2002,2003; Pianta,1999,2003; Piantaet al., 2002,2003). In
thereis evidencethatteachercharacteristics
addition, andprincipal andcontextual
supportplaya criticalrolein SEL program implementation qualityand student
outcomes(Battistich etal., 2000; ConductProblemsPrevention ResearchGroup,
1999; Dane & Schneider, 1998; Domitrovich & Greenberg, 2000; Kam, Greenberg,
& Walls,2003; Solomonetal., 1997,2000).
Although theseresults
support hypothesized relationships
proposed inourmodel,
thereareseveralareasthatneedfurther research thatmight employmultiple meth-
ods including theuse ofcase studies, longitudinal,observationalstudies,and more
extensiverandomized controlled Itshouldbe notedthatmanyoftheconstructs
trials.
delineatedin ourmodelhavewell-validated measuresthatcan be usedto testthe
model. These include measures of teacherstress,teacherburnout, thequalityof
student-teacher relationships,classroom management, classroom atmosphere, the
qualityof implementation of SEL programs, and student cognitive and social-
emotional outcomes. The dimensions ofSEC mayposea significant measurement
challenge.Teacher is
self-reportsusceptible to social biases,
desirability and as
mentioned earlier,thesedimensions may be highly context dependent. Therefore,
observational measures mayneedtobe developedtodetermine a teacher'slevelof
SEC within thecontext oftheir classroom environment.
ResearchQuestions
Severalresearchquestionsneedtobe addressedto assessthevalueofthepro-
posedmodel.The first studiesand
canbe addressedwithdescriptive/longitudinal
case studiestoexaminerelationshipsnotalreadyestablished The
intheliterature.
secondwillrequirethedevelopment ofinterventions
usingrandomized,controlled
trialstoevaluatetheirefficacy.
Longitudinal hereinhaveusedcross-sectional
studies.Mostofthestudiesreported
datato examinetherelationship betweenteacherstressandburnout andteacher
513

& Greenberg
Jennings
functioning(teacher-studentrelations,classroom management)or how teacher
functioningis related to classroom atmosphereor studentoutcomes. There has
been a paucityof longitudinalstudies,and thosethathave been reportedhave only
examinedpartsof theprosocial classroom model.
A question thathas received littleattentionis whetherthereis a relationship
betweenteacherSEC and teacherfunctioning (teacher-student relationships,class-
room management,SEL programimplementation).A varietyof dimensionsof
teacherSEC mightbe studiedincludingmeasuresof teachers' emotionalaware-
ness and emotionalknowledge(J.D. Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey & Grewal,
2005), emotion recognition,measurementof aspects of personality(sociability,
social insight,empathy,prosocialresponding),as well as bothself-report and phys-
iological measuresof stressand stressresponse.
A second step is to demonstratethatthese factorsare relatedto observational
measuresand studentreportsof classroom climate.Furthermore, throughtheuse
of longitudinalmultivariatemodels (structural and growthcurvemodels),boththe
directand indirectpathwaysbetweenteacherSEC, teacherfunctioning, classroom
atmosphere,and studentoutcomescan be tested.These analyses will need to con-
trolfordemographicvariables,years of teaching,level of functionof the student
population,and so on and contextualfactorssuch as grade level, typeof school or
educationalsetting,culturalbackgroundof studentsand teachers,and so on. It also
would be of interestto examine healthcare utilization,healthcare costs,and attri-
tiongiventheyare importantoutcomesforteachersas well as educationalpolicies
and financing.
Testinginterventions. Althoughtestsof structural models can illuminaterelation-

ships among variables,only throughthemanipulationof aspects of themodel can
truecausal relationshipsbe established.Therefore,the second line of researchwe
propose involves randomized controlledtrials to address a series of questions:
(a) Can interventions be developed to improveSEC? (b) Do these interventions
resultin reducedteacherstressand burnoutand increasedwell-being?(c) Do these
interventions resultin improvementsin teacher-studentrelationships,classroom
management,SEL programimplementationquality,classroom climate? (d) Do
theseinterventions improvestudentacademic outcomesand well-being?
Randomized controlled studies pose numerous challenges in educational
settings,includingsamplingvariability,numberand choice of unitsof analysis,
treatment-related and heterogeneity
attrition, of implementation quality(Campbell
& Stanley,1966). A discussion of these issues is beyondthe scope of thisarticle;
however,theymustbe fullyconsideredduringtheplanningphase of theresearch.
Randomized controlledstudiesof traininginterventions involve several steps.
First,a theoreticallysound interventionis developed and piloted with teachers
withina school contextto determinewhetherthe trainingis feasible and accept-
able and to collect preliminaryqualitativeand evaluativedata to testthemeasure-
mentprotocol.Teacher participantsare recruited,assessed, and thenparticipatein
the training.Afterthe training,theyare assessed again. Analyses are conducted
comparing data collected from the two time periods to determinechange. If
the variables of interestshow improvement,measurementintegrityand training
effectivenessare suggested,althoughthesedata do notconfirmcausality.Often,a
514

number ofpilotstudiesarenecessary torefinethetraining,
recruitment, andreten-
tionofparticipantsandthemeasurement protocol.
The finalstepinvolvesthefullrandomized controlled trial.Participantsare
recruited,assessed,andrandomly assignedto variousconditions, usuallyat the
classroomor schoollevel. Often,earlystagetrialsinvolvetwo conditions:an
experimental conditionanda controlor waitlistcondition. Findingscomparethe
effectsofreceivingthetrainingwithnotraining.Thefinalstageoftheprocessmay
involvean activecontrolcondition. Ratherthanproviding no interventiontohalf
oftheparticipants,they instead receivealternativetrainingto testtheeffects of
attentionortotestwhatmightbe theactivecomponent ofthetarget intervention.
We hypothesize thateffectiveteacherSEC training whencombinedwithhigh-
qualitySEL curriculum in theclassroomwill showa synergistic effect.Thus,
futurestudiesmight compare fourconditions:
SEC trainingalone, SEL curriculum
trainingalone,SEC + SEL training,andnotraining. Aneffective interventionmust
focuson waystopromote teacherSEC.
Conclusion
We haveproposeda modeloftheprosocialclassroomthathighlights theimpor-
tanceofteachers'SEC andwell-being in developingandmaintaining supportive
teacher-student relationships, effectivelymanaging theirclassrooms, andimple-
SEL
menting programs effectively.
TeacherSEC also has implications forschoolreform. Social trustwithina
schoolcommunity keyis a resource forimproving schools (Bryk& Driscoll,1988;
& Schneider, 2003). Many school reformers -
argue andresearchsupports
Bryk
thisview- thatstudents learnbetter whentheyarehappy,respected, andfeelcared
for(Noddings, 2005),feelbondedtoschool,trust thepeopleatschoolhavetheir best
interests atheart(Bryk& Schneider, 2002), andhave high levelsof self-efficacy
(Dweck,2006; Glasser,1998b).Although thesesocialandemotional factorshave
beenidentified as beingassociatedwithpositiveacademicoutcomes, littleresearch
has examinedhow teachers'SEC maypromotethesefactorsand subsequent
student outcomes.
Researchhas demonstrated thatmanyteachersdeal withhighlystressful
emotionalsituations in waysthatcompromise theirabilityto developand sus-
tainhealthyrelationships withtheirstudents, effectively managetheirclass-
and
rooms, support student We
learning. propose thatattention be directedto a
researchagendathatexploresthelinksin thismodel.Finally,we proposethe
testingofa variety ofpossibleinterventions thatmayhavethepotential topromote
teacher SEC.
It will be important to explorewhetherthese interventions can resultin
improvements in SEC and whether theseimprovements resultin positive class-
roomandstudent outcomes. Thelivesofteachers andtheirconcerns withpersonal
andprofessional improvement havelongbeenputon the"backburner" ofeduca-
tionalpolicyandresearch.Ifwe areto improvetheconditions ofschooling,sup-
portthe caringand commitment of teachers,and improvethe academicand
social-emotional growth of students,thesecriticalresearch, policy,andpractice
questions demand greater attention.
515

& Greenberg
Jennings
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Authors
PATRICIA A. JENNINGS, MEd, PhD, is the directorof the Initiativeon Contemplation
and Education at the Garrison Instituteand research associate at Pennsylvania State
UniversityPreventionResearch Centerforthe Promotionof Human Development. Dr.
Jenningsdevelops and testsinterventions to promoteteachersocial and emotionalcom-
petence and the effectof these interventionson classroom climate and studentsocial,
emotional,and academic outcomes.In additionto herintervention research,Dr. Jennings
has extensiveresearchand teachingexperiencein thefieldof education.She foundedand
directedan experimentalschool and served as Directorof InternTeachers at St. Mary's
College Graduate School of Education in Moraga, California,where she taughteduca-
tion courses, supervised studentresearch, developed teacher trainingcurriculum,and
supervised studentteachertraining.
MARK T. GREENBERG, PhD, holdsThe BennettEndowed Chairin PreventionResearchin
PennsylvaniaState's College of Healthand Human Development.He is currently Director
of the PreventionResearch Center for the Promotionof Human Development and the
Associate DirectorforthePennsylvaniaStateConsortiumon Children,Youth and Families.
Since 1981, Dr. Greenberghas been examiningtheeffectiveness of school-basedcurricula
(thePATHS Curriculum)to improvethesocial,emotional,and cognitivecompetenceofele-
mentary-aged children.Since 1990, he has servedas an investigatorin Fast Track,a com-
prehensiveprogramthataims to preventviolenceand delinquencyin families.His research
has focusedon therole of individual-,family-,and community-level factorsin prevention.
525


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The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and

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The ProsocialClassroom:TeacherSocial and

The authorspropose a modelof theprosocial classroomthathighlights the

Keywords: classroom management,school/teacher effectiveness,social

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commitmentto theprofession,therebycreatinga positivefeedbackloop thatmay

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This content downloaded from 136.167.34.54 on Tue, 19 Nov 2013 09:17:56 AM

This content downloaded from 136.167.34.54 on Tue, 19 Nov 2013 09:17:56 AM

This content downloaded from 136.167.34.54 on Tue, 19 Nov 2013 09:17:56 AM

This content downloaded from 136.167.34.54 on Tue, 19 Nov 2013 09:17:56 AM

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Effective classroommanagementskills.In responseto educationalresearchand the

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Eisenberg,2002; Kabat-Zinnet al., 1992; Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, Johnstone, &

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Enhancing Commitment to Teaching

Trainingin StudentSocial and EmotionalDevelopment

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Testinginterventions. Althoughtestsof structural models can illuminaterelation-

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