Volume 63 Whole No.

304
Number 9 1949

P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h s :

G e n e r a l a n d A p p l i e d

Combining the Applied Psychology Monographs and the Archives of Psychology

with the Psychological Monographs

H E R B E R T S. C O N R A D , Editor

R e l i g i o n a n d H u m a n i t a r i a n i s m :

A S t u d y of I n s t i t u t i o n a l I m p l i c a t i o n s

By

CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

Chairman, Department of Sociology

Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana

(Accepted for publication, May 26,1949)

Price $0.-75

Published by
T H E AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, INC
Publications Office
1515 MASSACHUSETTS AVE. N.W., WASHINGTON 5, D.C.
 Copyright, 1950, by the
American Psychological Association
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This monograph was prepared with aid of research funds
from the Graduate School of the University of Minnesota.
Thanks are due Bernard James, Gloria Laven, and Yukiko
Nagano for valuable assistance in the completion of this study.
Special thanks are due Sheldon Stryker for supervision of sta-
tistical computation and numerous valuable suggestions.
Thanks are also due various colleagues who were kind enough
to read this manuscript.
C. Kirkpatrick
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments iii
Introduction 1
I. Attitude Scales Used in This Study 2
A. The Religiosity Scale 2
1. Nature of the Scale 2
2. Validity of the Scale 2
B. The Humanitarianism Scale 2
1. Nature of the Scale 2
2. Validity of the Scale 3
C. Group Comparison in Relation to the Validity of the R and H
Scales 4
1. Sex Differences 4
2. Religious and Social Action Group Scores 4
I I . The Relation of J? and / / in Student and Social Action Groups 7
A. Comparison of Mean Scores 7
B. Correlations between Religiosity and Humanitarianism 7
C. Interpretation by Item Analysis of H Scale 7
I I I . Religiosity and Humanitarianism in a Minneapolis Sample 11
A. Nature of the Minneapolis Sample 11
B.. Significant Variables in Relation to Test Scores 11
1. The Influence of Sex on Religiosity and Humanitarianism . . . . 12
2. The Influence of Years of Schooling on Religiosity and Human-
itarianism 13
3. The Influence of Occupational Level on Religiosity and Hu-
manitarianism 13
C. Comparison of Minneapolis Sample With Minneapolis Norms 13
D. Correlations between R and H Scores for Groups of Minneapolis
Residents Including Stratified Sample 15
E. Conclusions 15
IV. Summary 17
Appendix 18
Bibliography 23
v
 INTRODUCTION
T h i s is a study in the area of institu-
tional implications. It does not at-
tempt the desirable yet neglected four-
fold task of (a) establishing a convergence
of empirical evidence, (b) checking of
functioning institutions as means to al-
leged goals, (c) considering implications
with reference to varied and unconven-
tional values, and (d) applying empirical
analysis to reveal dilemmas involved in
the pursuit of antithetical institutional
values.
Only one social institution is con-
sidered out of the many that could be
analyzed as to implications, namely that
of religion. I n spite of the fact that there
are some 73,673,182 church members in
the United States, with church property
evaluated at $3,411,875,467, and an an-
nual expenditure of $518,953,576, there
has been little attempt to check precisely
on the returns from religious belief,
practice, and organization.1 Church prop-
erty is exempted from taxation, oaths
are sworn upon the Bible, ministers are
exempted from the draft, and communi-
ties pride themselves upon their churches.
The assumption is that religion is some-
how associated as an independent vari-
able with goodness. No assumption is
more difficult to investigate by the
methods of science. Much depends upon
the definition of terms, and the sociologi-
cal tracing of implications tends to yield
a pattern of pros and cons rather than a
simple, clearcut verdict, Scattered re-
1 World Almanac, 1948, p. 573, and Census of
Religious Bodies, 1936.
searches reveal no evidence of an associa-
tion of supernaturalistic religion with
intelligence, creativity, control of crime,
or liberalism, although there may be
some favorable influence of religion on
marital adjustment and personality in-
tegration.
It would require decades of concen-
trated research to trace the total implica-
tions of religion as a social institution.
The problem here chosen is segmental
and illustrative. It is commonly believed
that religion, particularly the Christian
religion, is a chief source of fellowship,
charity, tolerance, altruism, and brother-
hood. There is no denying that, in spite
of inquisitions, pogroms, witch-burnings,
religious wars, and bloody crusades,
humanitarianism is a component in
Christian ideology. Quaker and other
religious groups have unquestionably
practiced, as well as preached, the gospel
of human kindness (7, pp. 148-164). Yet
the question may be raised as to whether
the public support and approval given
to religious institutions is justified by
the flow of milk of human kindness. The
present study is concerned with the re-
lationship between conventionally reli-
gious attitudes and humanitarian atti-
tudes. Probable overt behavior may be
inferred only indirectly from attitudinal
data and with dependence on the valida-
tion of scales used. In brief, the question
with which this article is concerned is:
"Is there a correlation between religious
and humanitarian attitudes?"
 1. A T T I T U D E SCALES USED I N THIS STUDY
A. The Religiosity Scale
i. Nature of the Scale. For the pur-
poses of this investigation religiosity,
regarded as favorableness toward reli-
gious beliefs, may be operationally de-
fined as the attitude measured by a so-
called Belief Pattern Scale. This scale was
developed under the writer's direction
in connection with a master's thesis by
Sarah Stone (9). Some of the assumptions
underlying this method of scale construc-
tion have been described elsewhere (5,
pp. 564-582). The method of deriving a
score from the algebraic sum of items
checked on two antithetical patterns of
propositions was later refined and ap-
plied to a measurement of attitude
toward Feminism (4, pp. 325-340). In the
original scale religiosity was expressed
as the algebraic sum of the religious
items (plus) and the anti-religious items
(minus) which were checked. The items
were selected to fit a theoretical pattern of
issues on the basis of classification by
judges (9, p. 27). Religiosity was ex-
pressed as extensiveness of unqualified
acceptance of propositions favorable to
religion, reflecting indirectly intensity of
reaction. Scores could run from minus
thirty-five to plus thirty-five. The original
test-retest check of reliability gave a cor-
relation of plus .94.1 The mean differ-
ence between individual scores was 3.5
(5. P- 579)-
2. Validity of the Scale. A careful check
was made of validity by conventional
methods. Ratings were made by experts
as to the religiosity of various groups of
religious and intellectual leaders. Sched-
ules were filled out by such leaders to
1 One item was omitted from the scale as used 229-241. Also "Sociological Validity of Primary
in this study, thus giving a theoretical range of Social Attitude Scales: No. I Religionism," /.
minus 34 to plus 35.
yield a group-comparison type of valida-
tion. In the case of students there was
an association between scores and overt
behavior as reported by students (5, p.
580). Validation procedure with Univer-
sity of Minnesota students was repeated
in 1947 (3, p. 72). Denominational differ-
ences, later to be mentioned, likewise
suggest validity in terms of the method of
group comparisons.
B. The Humanitarianism Scale
I. Nature of the Scale. The Humani-
tarianism Scale was constructed by a
modification of the earlier Likert
method.2 During the war year of 1944,
humanitarian and non-humaritarian
propositions concerning the following
twenty-two issues were prepared. The
categories reflect the period but tend to
be diagnostic of general, rigid in-group
attitudes:
1. Treatment of criminals
2. Treatment of prisoners of war
3. Treatment of defeated enemy
4. Unrestricted bombing
5. Japanese-American citizens
6. Treatment of criminal prisoners
7. Leaders of enemy nations
8. Economic treatment of enemy nations
9. Psychiatric tolerance
10. Victims of foreign disasters
II. Negroes
12. Charity
13. Conscientious objectors
14. German spies
15. European refugees
16. Nazi youth
17. Unmarried mothers
18. Children in enemy nations
19. Prostitution
3 Likert demonstrates a pragmatic justification
for such methods. See R. Likert, "A Technique
for the Measurement of Attitudes," Archives of
Psychology, No. 140, 1932. Ferguson's work had
not appeared at the time this study was started.
See L. W. Ferguson, "A Revision of Primary
Social Attitude Scale," /. Psych., 1944, 17, pp.
Soc. Psych., 1946, 23, pp. 197-204.
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIAN1SM

TABLE i
Evidence Concerning Validity of Religiosity Scale

Validating Group N Mean R C.R.aiji.

Score
Groups Studied by Stone, 1933 (p):
a. Catholic-Lutheran Ministers 42 24.4
b. Congregational-Unitarian Ministers S2 12.3 (a-b) s S*
c. Psychologists 73 -6.8 (b-c) 7 8*
d. Students, church members 149 5-7
e. Students, non-church members 62 -7-4 (d-e) 6 6*
f. Students, zero church attendances per two-month period 77 -7.6
g. Students, 1-3 church attendances per two-month period 42 — 1.0
h. Students, 4-6 church attendances per two-month period 34 10.4
i. Students, 7-9 church attendances per two-month period S4 !3'9
Groups Studied by Johnson, 1947 (3):
j . Students, 0-2 church attendances per two-month period 33 2.2
k. Students, 6-8 church attendances per two-month period S9 14.1 (j-k) S 1
1. Students, 10-30 church attendances per two-month period 33 20.1 (k-1) 2 2
* Computed from data in (5, p. 580).
20. Negro sex crimes (white victim) Item scores on the five-point scale were
8i. Alcoholics and drug addicts compared for high and low quartiles
22. Juvenile delinquency
with respect to total H score. Critical
Intensity of acceptance was indicated ratios were then computed for differences
by a five-point propositional scale with of item score of groups in high and low
the scale reversed for non-humanitarian total score quartiles. These critical ratios
items so that higher scores in every case ranged from 1.55 to 12.3, the mean C.R.
imply greater humanitarianism. For 297 being 6.03 (8). The ten items having the
University of Minnesota students in un- lowest critical ratios were then omitted
dergraduate Sociology classes, the range in a rescoring of the schedules. The cor-
of humanitarian scores was 45 to 129. relation between the original scores and
An odd-even item coefficient of reli- the H scores modified by item analysis
ability was only .62, S.E. .04, as derived was .94, with an S.E. of .01.
from the schedules of 297 students. This A more direct attack on the validity
coefficient is not surprising, as no attempt problem involved a classification of the
was made to use similar wording for the 44 items by 107 Junior, Senior, and
pro and con humanitarian items. A pre- Graduate students in a class in Social
cise reversal of wording would doubtless Psychology (Fall, 1946). These judges clas-
have yielded a much higher correlation. sified each proposition as "Humanitar-
Splitting the scale reduced it to 22 items. ian," "Non-Humanitarian," or "Unde-
An application of the Spearman-Brown cided." There were 12 items which were
formula suggests that a scale of four classified without complete agreement.
times this number of items would in- The remaining items met the arbitrary
crease the coefficient of reliability to .86 criterion of agreement by 70 per cent or
(2, p. 269). The test-retest reliability was more of the judges. These 12 items were
.94 with an S.E. of .15. omitted in rescoring. The corrected
2. Validity of the Scale. By way of val- scores correlated with original scores to
idation, an item analysis was made of the degree of .95; therefore, the original
scores from a student group of 297 cases. 44 items were used in this study. The
 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK
items rejected by the two methods over-
lapped only to the extent of three com-
mon items. The rank order correlation
between the percentage of agreement by
judges and quartile discrimination as ex-
pressed by C.R.'s was only .18.
C. Group Comparison in Relation t o
the Validity of the R and H Scales
Further insight concerning the validity
and implications of both R and H scores
is obtainable from analysis of certain
variables as related to scores.
1. Sex Differences. The influence of
sex was checked by a comparison of male
TABLE 2
Comparison of Sex Group Scores Matched
by Religious Preference (5 Categories)
Males Females
(JV-Q7) (JV-97)
Mean R Score 9.8 10.0
Median R Score 10.0 12.0
Mean H Score 148.6 i53-i
Median H Score I47.3 151-3
S.D. of Distribution (R) 10.9 11.8
S.D. of Distribution {H) 20.7 19.6
and female student groups, matched in
the sense that equal numbers of males
and females were taken from each class
in which schedules were collected. The
data revealed higher religiosity scores
for males; this was somewhat puzzling in
view of the usual finding that women
are more religious than men. When the
writer's sex groups were matched for
religious preference rather than class in
which the data were collected, the results
were somewhat different, as shown by
Table 2. Some of the schedules were col-
lected during the war period, and there-
fore the men students in class rather
than in service may have been atypical
in regard to religiosity.
The Humanitarian scores of Table 2
are somewhat higher for women as com-
pared with men. The critical ratio of
difference of means with matching for
religion is 1.53. Ferguson, using a hu-
manitarianism scale concerned primarily
with capital punishment, treatment of
criminals and war, found a reliable sex
difference in favor of women. The criti-
cal ratio was 6.9 (1, p. 83). He was deal-
ing, however, with unmatched groups.
The age factor does not seem particu-
larly significant within the age range
characteristic of students. For the male
group of 97 cases matched with women
as to religious preference, the correlation
between age and R scores was only —.12
with an S.E. of .10. The corresponding
correlation for the group of 97 women
was .05, with an S.E. of .10.
2. Religious and Social Action Group
Scores. In some respects the most signifi-
cant validating evidence is to be found in
the comparison of religious and social
action groups. The following groups
were studied:
i. A group of Catholic students at-
tending a social function at the
Newman Club Building.
2. A group of Lutheran students at-
tending a similar function.
3. A group of Jewish students at the
Hillel foundation.
4. The complete membership of a
SPAN group prior to departure for
summer study abroad in 1948.3
5. Members attending a meeting of
CORE (Committee on Racial
Equality).
6. A group of Cooperators sufficiently
interested in a project for coopera-
tive living to submit to eligibility to
testing.
In Table 3 are presented the scores of
•SPAN means Student Program for Amity
Among Nations.
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIANISM

TABLE 3
Comparison of R and H Scores f o r Religious and Social Action Validating Groups

Total Mean R S.D. Mean H S.D.

Name Males Females Score Dist. R Score Dist. H
N
Newman 33 13 46 20.3 5-9 162.2 17.7
Lutheran 21 9 3° 16.3 7.0 166.3 16.9
Jewish 20 43 - 6.5 8-3 167.4 17.2
SPAN 23 31 12.9 175-7 20.1
Core 17 20 1.1 8.1
8 8.1 172.0 20.8
Cooperators 12 21 12.7 191.1 14-3
IO II -16.6
Student group not including
above groups 3i 266 297 8.1 11.4 148.8 22.1

groups designated as religious and social
action validating groups.4
I t is apparent from Table 3 that both
religious and social action groups are
notably high i n humanitarianism scores
as compared with the general student
group. There is further evidence for the
validity of the R scale i n the high mean
4 The small number of cases made it inappro- identification might be lacking i n certain
priate to match sex.
R scores for specially selected Catholic
and Lutheran groups. T h e low R scores
for the Jewish group might be explained
by the failure of the Religiosity Scale
to have f u l l application to a non-Chris-
tian group. I t could be argued, however,
that Jewishness implies identification
w i t h a culture and a people as well as a
religious identification. T h e religious
cases. One might expect, therefore, lower

TABLE 4
Critical Ratios* of Mean Score Differences f o r Religious and Social Action Groups1

Newman Lutheran Hillel CORE SPAN Cooperators

Newman 2.63 17-54 6.07 7.76 12.75
-1.03 -1.41 -1.84 -3-05 -7.11
Lutheran - 2.63 12.72 3-7° 5-74 10.78
1.03 - .26 — 1.02 -1.98 -5-64
Hillel -17.54 — 12.72 -6.61 — 2.90 3-3i
1.41 .26 - .86 -i.87 -5-Si
CORE — 6.07 - 3-7° 6.61 2-37 7-45
1.84 1.02 .86 - -63 — 1.62
SPAN ~ 5-74 2.90 -2.37 4.91
3-05 i.g8 1.87 •63 -3-30
Cooperators -12-75 -10.78 -3-3i -7-45 -4.91
7.11 5-64 S-Si 1.62 3-20
* Thefiguresin roman type indicate critical ratios of religiosity mean score differences. The figures
in italic type indicate critical ratios of humanitarianism mean score differences.
1 Some comparisons were made between the results obtained by the / formula and the results here
'y- v
reported based on the formula /,—\——5.
<ria <T22' The differences in result were insignificant.
V M N,
6 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

R Scores than in the case of a purely reli-
gious group.
Critical ratios of mean differences for
these validating groups are given in
Table 4. A minus sign means a row
score smaller than a column score. Vali-
dation by group comparison involves ex-
pectations of group differences. The re-
sults seem in accord with common sense
expectations, if it be assumed that social
functions under religious auspices might
have humanitarian as well as religious
appeal.
 I I . T H E RELATION OF R AND H I N STUDENT AND
SOCIAL ACTION GROUPS

A. Comparison of Mean Scores fic denominations. The categories used

T h e student group to be analyzed in were Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist,
greater detail cannot be regarded as Liberal, and Miscellaneous. The liberal
a sample of a universe consisting of the group included Congregationalists, Uni-
entire student body. The group consisted tarians, Universalists, and those with no
of ag7 students filling out schedules in religious preference. The small number
1944_45- It is to be distinguished from of students expressing preference for the
a pilot study group of 87 filling out •Jewish religion were placed in the mis-
schedules in 1944 which included some cellaneous group. The mean scores are
persons not University of Minnesota stu- presented in Table 5.
dents. It is also to be contrasted with a The significance of the differences
1947 Sociology class of 73 and a 1947 brought out in Table 5 is indicated in
Zoology class of 141. The latter group Table 6 which presents critical scores
was selected as a partial check on the and mean differences. A minus sign
effect of academic specialization. The means a row score smaller than a column
post-war 1947 Sociology group scored score.
10.6 on religiosity as compared with 8.1
for the general student group, and 154.9 B. Correlations between Religiosity
on humanitarianism as compared with and Humanitarianism
148.8. In the case of the Zoology group
Correlations between R and H scores
the mean R score was 10.7 and the mean
bear most directly upon the central prob-
H score was 148.9. Differences are not
lem with which this study in concerned.
great and the mean R scores are in line
A summary of the coefficients for the
with the previously mentioned scores
groups thus far mentioned is given in
obtained by Johnson.
Table 7.
The most significant breakdown for
the student group (N = 297) is by reli- C. Interpretation by Item Analysis of
gious preference. Unfortunately, there H Scale
could not be a matching by sex because There is little evidence in Table 7
of the limited number of cases. Likewise, to support the claim that humanitarian-
there could not be a breakdown by speci- ism is one of the implications of the

TABLE s
Mean Scores of Student Groups, by Religious Preference

N Mean R S.D. of Mean H S.D. of

Score Distribution Score Distribution
Catholic S7 15-3 9.8 143-3 17.9
Lutheran 72 8.3 148.2 iS-o
Methodist 46 12.6 8.8 IS2-3 15-4
Liberal 39 7.0 n.7 152-7 19.8
Miscellaneous 83 2.3 10.4 148.5 20.3
Total 297 5-o
8.1 11.4 148.8 22.1
 CLIFFORD K.IRKPATRICK

TABLE 6
Critical Ratios* of Mean Differences, by Religious Preference

Catholic Lutheran Methodist Liberal Miscellaneous

Catholic 1.66 4-37 7-S6 S.83
— i.6g —2.76 — 2.40 —1.60
Lutheran -1.66 3-27 6.86 4.89
-1.41 — 1.24 - .08
Methodist -4-37 -3-27 4.06 1.20
2.76 1.41 — .10 J.2J
Liberal — 7-S6 -6.86 — 4.06 -3.26
2.40 •1.24 .JO J.JO
Miscellaneous -5-83 -4.89 — 1.20 3-26
1.60 .08 — 1.21 — J.JO
* Thefiguresin roman type indicate critical ratios of religiosity mean score differences. The figures
in italic type indicate critical ratios of humanitarianism mean score differences.

social instituton of religion. Expectations and lower deciles w i t h reference to R

relate, however, to definitions of religios-
ity and humanitarianism. I t might be
argued that the operational definition of
the concepts i n terms of two scales in-
volves an implicit antithesis by virtue of
issues selected and the wording of propo-
sitions covering these issues. W i t h a view
to checking upon this possibility, upper
score were separated from the student
group of 297 cases. Deciles were approxi-
mated by 30 cases in each of these con-
trasting groups. There was the thought
that certain items of the H scale inher-
ently incompatible w i t h religious doc-
trine aside from their humanitarian con-
notation might discriminate more sharply

TABLE 7
Correlations between R Score and H Score f o r A l l Groups Previously Discussed

Group N r S.E.,1
Pilot Study 87 -.23 . 10
Sociology (1947) 72 — .12 . 12
Zoology 141 -.08 .08
Newman 46 -•13 •IS
Lutheran 30 — .02 .19
Jewish 43 -•ss •15
SPAN 31 — •49 .18
CORE 20 — .22 •23
Coo pera tors 21 -.23 .22
Catholic Student Group 57 -.19 •J3
Lutheran Student Group 72 -.04 .12
Methodist Student Group 46 -.08 •15
Liberal Student Group 39 -.46 •r3
Miscellaneous Student Groups 83 • iS . 11
Total last five groups 297 -•25 •°5
(See Table 5)

1 Standard errors were computed using the formula /~w~_ • instead of the formula i-*»
V N- See
H. M. Walker, Elementary Statistical Methods. (New York: Holt, 1943, p. 247.)
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIANISM

TABLE 8
humanitarianism items most discriminating between upper and l o w e r d e c i l e
Groups w i t h Reference t o Religiosity Score

Difference
Item Item Between
No. Meanff
Item Scores
12 Charity begins at home in the sense of upholding local, national and
religious loyalties. .80
20 No punishment is too severe for a Negro guilty of the sex killing of a
white child. •77
33 The old custom of giving a tenth of one's income to charity, if applied,
should disregard the religious beliefs of the beneficiaries. • 73
44 Criminals should be punished for their sins. • 73
13 Conscientious objectors should be regarded as sincere idealists. .66
Criminals should be regarded as victims of circumstance in the same
i sense as sick persons are so regarded. .60
9 The economic resources of the world should be shared evenly with the
people of defeated enemy countries. •54
18 The children in enemy countries should suffer as other children have
been made to suffer for the sins of their parents. • 5°
26 Prostitutes deserve contempt and punishment as enemies of decent
living. •5°
32 Conscientious objectors should be made to pay a heavy price for re-
fusal to accept the responsibility of citizenship. .44
29 European refugees should not be permitted to menace the economic
well-being of our own citizens. • 43
5 American citizens of Japanese descent should be guaranteed civil
rights in spite of risk to the war effort. • 43

between the high-low R score groups.
Such differential discrimination would
be measured by the difference between
the mean H item score on a scale of 5
for the upper, as compared w i t h the lower
decile. T h e most discriminating items of
the H scale are listed i n rank order in
Table 8.1 A positive sign indicates an H
item score-difference in favor of the non-
religious decile. By way of comparison the
twelve humanitarianism items least dis-
criminating between upper and lower de-
cile groups w i t h reference to religiosity
score are presented in Table 9. Minus
signs indicate that the more religious stu-
dents in the upper decile were more hu-
manitarian w i t h reference to a particular
item than the less religious students i n the
lower decile group. I t should be noted
that all items i n Table 8 yielded higher
humanitarianism scores for the lower
1 A copy of the complete schedule is presented
in the appendix.
decile, i.e., less religious student group.
I t is by no means clear that the less
humanitarian reaction of the more reli-
gious students to the items of Table 8 can
be explained by religious meanings im-
plied i n the item wording. T h e reaction
to item 18 might indicate religious ethno-
centrism and the same might be true of
item 33. Items 44 and 18 contain the
word "sins" which has theological im-
plications. There are no items of this
k i n d among the least discriminating
items of Table 9. I t is true that i n regard
to the items of Table 9 associated w i t h
a minus sign, the more religious students
were more humanitarian i n their re-
actions, possibly on grounds of aversion
to revenge and brutality. A l l things con-
sidered, i t is difficult to explain the nega-
tive correlations between religiosity and
humanitarianism by religious meanings
implied i n the wording of the items con-
tained in the humanitarian scale.
10 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

TABLE o
humanitarianism items least discriminating between upper and lower
Decile Groups with Reference to Religiosity Score

Difference
Item Item Between
No. Mean H
Item Scores

17 Unmarried mothers should be treated as misguided and unfortunate

persons in need of help. .00
41 Bombing should be restricted to protect innocent persons even at the
cost of some American lives. .00
35 Financial sacrifice should be made by American citizens to aid Hindu
victims of famine in India. •°3
10 Victims of disaster in distant foreign countries are to a considerable
extent responsible for their own plight. .04
43 Regardless of provocation we should indulge in no brutality against
enemy prisoners. -.07
3° Captured German spies, as servants of their country, should be made
harmless, but in a way that reveals the humanitarianism of the
United States. .10
25 A Negro guilty of the sex killing of a white child should be dealt with
under existing laws as a mentally abnormal person. —. 10
2 Enemy atrocities against American war prisoners should be revenged
by corresponding treatment of enemy prisoners. —. 10
14 Captured German spies should be electrocuted as an example to other
enemies of our countries. •13
38 Responsible officials in defeated enemy countries should be made to
suffer for their crimes as their innocent victims have suffered. -•13
7 Defeated leaders in enemy countries should be merely restrained from
doing further harm to the peace and happiness of the world. -.14
3 We should be willing to accept strict food rationing in this country af-
ter the war in order to provide for victims of starvation which may
develop in Germany. .16
 I I I . R AND H I N A MINNEAPOLIS SAMPLE

A. Nature of the Minneapolis Data applied to student groups, the distribu-

Countless empirical studies in tion by religious preference is presented
the realm of Social Psychology are in Table 10.
limited i n their implications because the The schedules were classified accord-
subjects of such studies were college stu- ing to a recent revision (1948) of the
dents. College students are convenient Minnesota Occupational Scale.1 There is
and docile "guinea pigs" but they are some doubt that a homogeneous con-
not typical of the general population. tinuum with equal units is described by
W i t h this fact in mind, an attempt was this scale, yet for the sake of brevity the
made to have schedules filled out by per- mean occupational level of the 169 non-
sons more representative of the Minneap- student employed males giving informa-
olis population. Assistants and students tion was 4.0. The corresponding occupa-
i n Sociology classes designated as coopera- tional level for 164 employed women was
tors undertook to get schedules filled out 3.7. For the males the mean number of
by Minneapolis residents between the years of schooling was 12.0 and for the
ages of 15 and 70. T h e i r instructions females 12.4. The mean age of males
were to concentrate on getting schedules was 34.6 and for females 34.6. A year of
from the lower educational and occupa- technical or business schooling other
tional levels in order to better approxi- than college was counted as a half year.
mate Minneapolis norms. T h e result was
B. Significant Variables in Relation
a return of 468 usable schedules. I t was
t o Test Scores
hoped that from these data certain
matched comparisons could be made and The most important breakdown of the
a stratified sample could be drawn much Minneapolis data seems to be with ref-
more representative of the Minneapolis erence to religious preference. The influ-
population than were the students con- ence of sex was controlled by matching
stituting the subjects for the earlier por- males and females within each religious
tion of this study. group. The religious groups were also
T h e 468 Minneapolis residents i n - matched for years of schooling by two-
cluded 201 males and 367 females. Using year intervals. There was no matching
the broad religious categories previously for age, but the mean ages for the reli-
gious groups did not differ greatly. In
TABLE 10 Table u , the means and medians of
Minneapolis Residents, by Religion and Sex religiosity and humanitarianism scores
are given.
Males Females The critical ratios of the mean score
N % N % differences are presented in Table 12.
A minus sign before a critical ratio indi-
Catholic 43 21.4 69 25-9
Lutheran S3 26.4 60 22.5 cates that the religious group of a row
Methodist 13 6-5 18 6.7
Liberal 24 11.9 26 9-7
Miscellaneous 68 33-8 94 3S-2 1 Institute of Child Welfare, University of Min-
nesota, revised by Katharine Nikolaisen, with
Total 201 100.0 267 100.0 the assistance of Dale B. Harris, Frank W. Han-
sen, and Elmer John.

11
12 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

TABLE i i
Score Comparison of Minneapolis Residents, by Religious
Preference and Matched for Sex and Schooling

N Mean Median Mean Median Mean

R Score R Score H Score H Score Age
Catholic 76 20.8 21.6 143-2 142.9 34-o
Lutheran 90 i5-i 17.1 142.2 142.3 35-2
Methodist 24 i5-i 16.0 146.9 147.0 30.6
Liberal 42 -•4 •4 149.6 154-2 34.o
Miscellaneous 116 i3-i 15.4 146.6 145.5 36.2
Total 348

had a lower mean score than a corre-
sponding group indicated in the columns
of the table.
It is apparent from Tables 11 and 12
that the variation in scores between reli-
gious preference groups is similar to that
found among students. Again there is
decline in religiosity scores from Catho-
lics to Liberals. The upward trend in
humanitarianism scores is somewhat less
consistent, however, and the critical
ratios are not high.
1. Influence of Sex on R and H. The
Minneapolis data were arranged to pro-
vide a sex comparison as to scores. Males
and females were matched for religious
preference and for years of schooling by
two-year class intervals. While not
matched for age, the difference between
males and females was insignificant. For
males the mean age was 34.2 and for
females 34.6. For males the mean religios-
ity score was 13.2 and the median 16.0.
The corresponding religiosity scores for
females were slightly higher. The mean
was 14.8 and the median 17.1. The mean
humanitarianism score for males was
143.4 and the median score was 144.6.
For females the mean humanitarianism
score was 146.9 and the median 144.1.
There was a slight tendency for females
to be higher on both religiosity and
humanitarianism scores. The critical
ratio, based on 174 matched cases for

TABLE 12
Critical Ratios* of Mean Score Difference, by Religious
Preference and Matched for Sex and Schooling

Catholic Lutheran Methodist Liberal Miscellaneous

Catholic 4-32 2.62 8.19 5.68
• 33 - .84 -1.4.9 — 1.29
Lutheran -4-32 .00 6.37 1.21
- -33 -1.05 — I.JO — 1.6-j
Methodist — 2.62 .00 4.78 .86
.84 1.05 - -SO •32
Liberals -8.ig -6.37 -4.78 -4.86
1.49 •50 .82
I .JO
Miscellaneous -5.68 — 1.21 - .86 4.86
1.29 1.63 - -3S - .82

* The figures in roman type indicate critical ratios of religiosity mean score differences. The figures
in italic type indicate critical ratios of humanitarianism mean score differences.
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIANISM 13

TABLE 13
Score Comparison of Years of Schooling Categories Matched
f o r Sex and Religious Preferences

Schooling
Category iV Mean R Median i? Mean H Median H Mean Age
(years)
0- 8.75 32 16. s 18.7 141.2 140.8 41-7
9-12-75 32 12.8 20.6 144.7 I4I-5 35-3
13-16.75 32 i3-7 16.s 144.1 . 148.5 36.2
17-over 32 10.4 i5-° 161.2 161.2 3S-9

each sex, for the difference between mean mean differences are given i n Table 14.
religiosity scores was 1.1 and for human- .R-score differences are less significant. A
itarianism scores 1.6. Obviously, for re- minus sign means a row score smaller
ligiosity scores sex is a less important than a column score.
determinant than religious preference. 3. Influence of Occupational Level on
2. Influence of Years of Schooling on R and H . T h e occupational variable is,
R and H . A n attempt was made to check of course, closely related to the years of
on the influence of years of schooling on schooling variable. I n view of the small
scale scores. T h e data were broken down number of cases i n certain occupational
into four schooling categories w i t h a categories, differential sex employment,
matching for sex and religious preference and the significance of religious prefer-
w i t h i n each category. T h e results are ence, the most significant comparison is
indicated i n Table 13. between levels I and I I as compared w i t h
I t is apparent from Table 13 that the V. This comparison was made separately
most educated as compared w i t h the by sex w i t h a matching for religious
least educated group tend to be low i n preference i n the four sex-occupational
religiosity score and high on humani- groups. T h e results are presented in
tarianism score. T h e critical ratios of Table 15. T h e mean ages, which do not
differ greatly, are also indicated.
TABLE 14 I t is apparent from the preceding
Critical Ratios* f o r Differences of Means, tables that higher social status as meas-
by Schooling Categories Matched f o r
Sex and Religious Preferences ured by schooling and occupational level
is more significantly related to high H
0-8.75 9-12.75 i3-i6-75 17-over score than to high R score.
0- 8.75 1.07 .98 1.83
- .76 - .08 -4.88 C. Comparison o f Minneapolis Sample
w i t h Minneapolis Norms
9-12.75 — 1.07 — .22 .58
.76 .01 -3.so T h e group comparisons here presented
i3-i6-75 - .98 .22 .87 provide clues to the selection of a sample
.08 — .01 -4-05 of the schedules from Minneapolis resi-
17-over -1.83 - -58 - .87 dents most adequately representative of
4.88 3- so 4-05 the Minneapolis population. Norms for
* The figures in roman type indicate critical the Minneapolis population were ob-
ratios of religiosity mean score differences. The tained from the census of 1940, the cen-
figures in italic type indicate critical ratios of
humanitarianism mean score differences. sus of religious bodies of 1936, and the
H CLIFFORD K.IRKPATRICK

TABLE is
Score Comparison, by Sex-Occupational Groups Matched
for Religious Preference
Males Females
Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean
N R H Age N R H Age
Group V 42 i3-9 140.5 36.7 41 14.8 143.8 30.9
Groups (I, II) 42 14.1 152.9 38.6 41 14.6 156.6 34-6
C.R.,V-(I, II) .1 3.0
•1 3-2

norms prepared by the Minnesota Insti- total Minneapolis sample.

tute of Child Welfare concerning occupa-
tion as of 1948. This Minneapolis sample
selected from the Minneapolis data to
approximate Minneapolis distributions
consisted of 101 males and 114 females.
The sex proportion in per cent was 47.0
males and 53.0 females, as compared with
the Minneapolis population over 15 con-
sisting of 46.9 per cent males and 53.1
per cent females.
The most significant occupational
comparison is between the 95 classifiable
males in the sample and the distribution
for Minneapolis males. Yet in Table 16,
the comparison includes females and the
A further comparison with norms in
the sense of population distributions
may be made for the Minneapolis sample
with reference to religious preference,
age, and years of schooling. The com-
parison is made by sex in Table 17.
It is apparent from the preceding table
that the Minneapolis sample is not per-
fectly matched against Minneapolis
norms. The most conspicuous bias is in
regard to schooling and occupational
level. It is probable, however, that the
scales would lack validity for many per-
sons of grade school education, if repre-
sented in fair proportion. At least it can

TABLE 16
Comparison of Minneapolis Sample with Minneapolis Occupational Distributions
Minneapolis
Total Minneapolis Females Males Norms for
Sample Males1
N % N % N % %
I 5 3-i 1 i-5 4 4.2 4-5
II 14 8.8 6 9.2 8 8.4 8.9
III 42 26.2 25 38.5 17 17.9 21.1
IV 2 1.2 0 2 2.1 .1
V 71 44.4 23 35.4 48 50.5 40.3
VI 19 11.g 10 15-4 9 9.5 18.5
VII 7 4.4 7 7.4 6.6
0
Subtotal 160 100.0 65 100.0 95 100.0 100.0
Students 8 3 5
Housewives 41 41
No data 6 5 1
Total 215 114 IOI
Institute of Child Welfare Revision of 1940. Norms for females not available.
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIANISM 15

TABLE 17
Comparison of Minneapolis Sample with Minneapolis Norms,
by Religion, Age, and Schooling1

Norm Males Males Females Females Both Sexes Both Sexes

Category N % % Norm N % % Norm N % % Norm

RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE
Catholic 31 3°-7 36 31.6 — 67 3i-i 3i-i
Lutheran 20 28.7 — 32 28.1 — 61 28.4 28.3
Methodist 11 10.9 — 12 10.5 — 23 10.7 10.8
Liberal S S-° — 6 5-2 — 11 5-i 5-o
Miscellaneous 25 24.7 — 28 24.6 — 53 24.7 24.8
Total IOI 100.0 114 100.0 21S 100.0 100.0

AGE
15-24 24 23.8 21.3 27 23-7 22.5 — — —
25-34 22 21.8 20.1 26 22.8 21.3 •— — —
35-44 20 19.8 18.9 22 19-3 19-3 — — —
45-54 20 19.8 18.7 20 17-5 16.9 — — —
55-64 10 9.9 11.7 13 11.4 10.5 — — —
65- 5 4-9 9-3 6 5-3 9-5 — — —
Total IOI 100.0 100.0 114 100.0 100.0

YEARS OF SCHOOLING

0- 8 27 26,7 SO.1 31 27.2 44-7

9—12 S5 55-5 33-5 67 58.7 41-3 — — —
13-over 19 18.8 14 13-7
Not reported 15-8 2 12.3
•4
.6 1.8
Total 101 100.0 100.0 114 100.0 100.1*
* Computed from census data.
1 Norms for religious breakdown computed from data in the Census of Religious Bodies, 1936,
Vol. I, pp. 585-587. The comparison is not quite specific in that the Minneapolis residents were 15-
over while the census computation includes persons 13-over. Norms for age and years of schooling
breakdowns computed from data in the Sixteenth Census of the United States, Population, Vol. I I ,
Part 4, p. 172 and p. 175.

be said that the figures derived from the
Minneapolis data have broader implica-
tions than those derived solely from stu-
dent groups. T h e R scores were mean
17.3, median 19.4, and the H scores were
mean 140.3 and median 140.3.
D. C o r r e l a t i o n between R and H
Scores f o r Groups o f Minneapolis
Residents
The main objective of this study has
been the investigation of religious and
humanitarian attitudes. T h e correlations
between R score and H score for the
various groupings of Minnesota residents
are presented i n Table 18.
E. Conclusions
T h e gist of the evidence concerning
the relationship between individual R
scores and H scores is to be found i n
Tables 7 and 18. T h e coefficients are
predominantly negative, especially for
female groups. T h e higher negative cor-
relations tend to be found for groups
which are heterogeneous as to religious
i6 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

T A B L E 18 accordance w i t h the implications of

Correlations Between R and H Scales Tables 7 and 18.
f o r Groupings of Minneapolis Residents
T h e total evidence from verbal be-
SE havior seems to indicate that the undis-
Grouping N Correlation o f f
criminating support of religious insti-
Religious grouping matched for sex and schooling tutions as humanitarian agencies is open
(See Tables n and 12) to question. Humanitarianism probably
Catholic 76 .03 .12
Lutheran 90 —.05 .11 can be expressed verbally and overtly
Methodist 24 .23 .21 without the sanction of orthodox reli-
Liberal 42 —.01 .16
Miscellaneous 116 —.34 .09 gion. T o some readers this assertion
Sex Comparison matched for religion and education would seem obvious; for others it would
Males 174 —.11 .08
Females 174 —.21 .08 seem heresy. Empiricism brings some con-
Education levels matched for sex and religion (See
Tables 13 and 14) vergence of evaluations. "Proving the
o- 8.7s 32 —.01 .18 obvious" is not the same as proving what
9-12.75 32 -.77 .18
is obvious to everybody.
I3-16-7S 32 "-29 -i8
17-over 32 —.26 .18 A complex problem is certainly not
Occupational levels matched for religion (See solved by this limited study, and conclu-
Table 16)
Males, I and I I 42 —.24 .15 sions are relative to the methods used.
Males, V 42 -.38 .15 Proponents of the view that religion is
Females, I and I I 41 — .50 .16
Females, V 41 — .61 .16 the chief source of humanitarianism are
Stratified Minneapolis Sample
215 -.24 .07 of course free to accept the burden of
proof and to provide their own opera-
preference. There is some variation be- tional definitions and indices, verbal and
tween Minneapolis residents and stu- overt. Attitudes concerning religion or
dents as to correlations for liberal and humanitarianism are parts of configura-
miscellaneous categories. Negative rela- tions that are somewhat selective. Evi-
tionships seem to be based partly on dence from mass data would hardly
group, rather than individual, associa- mean that certain corresponding effects
tions of religiosity and humanitarianism. could be produced on the individual by
T h e implications of the. preceding group adding or subtracting religious belief.
comparisons are for the most part i n
 IV. SUMMARY
T h i s study is a limited contribution
to the larger task of analyzing scien-
tifically the implications of social insti-
tutions, especially the institution of reli-
gion. More specifically, the purpose of
this monograph was to investigate in a
preliminary way the relationship be-
tween two attitudinal patterns desig-
nated, respectively, as religiosity and
humanitarianism. Does religiosity imply
humanitarianism? Religiosity was de-
fined operationally by a Belief Pattern
Scale having fairly satisfactory reliability
and validity as determined by conven-
tional methods including checks with
reported overt behavior and group com-
parisons. Humanitarianism was defined
by a scale of the Likert-Sletto type with
a fair reliability and validity determined
by item analysis, rating of items by
judges, and group comparisons.
Application of the tests to student
groups revealed a tendency for the mean
R scores to vary directly with the con-
servatism of the denominational group
and for mean H scores to vary inversely.
Correlations of scores for various groups
were small and for the most part nega-
tive.
An attempt was made to obtain a
»7
satisfactory stratified sample of the Min-
neapolis population, ages 15 to 70. An
investigation was made of factors requir-
ing closest control in stratified sampling
by comparing scores of groups of Min-
neapolis residents matched to control
certain variables. This analysis of 468
schedules revealed special influence of
religious preference, occupation, and
schooling. Mean R scores, as with stu-
dents, tended to vary directly with de-
nominational conservatism, while H
scores varied inversely. The selected
stratified sample of 215 cases approxi-
mated closely the Minneapolis norms as
to religious preference, age, and sex, but
lower occupational and schooling levels
were not available in proper proportion
from the schedules obtained. The correla-
tions between R score and H score for
various groupings of Minneapolis resi-
dents were low and predominantly nega-
tive. For the stratified Minneapolis
sample (N = 215) the coefficient was
— .24. The findings have implications
limited by area studied, religious groups
sampled, and methods used, but do not
support the common assumption of reli-
gion as the source of humanitarianism.
 APPENDIX

OPINION SURVEY
We are asking your cooperation in filling out this schedule. The answers are to be used solely
Cor scientific purposes and the results of any one individual's responses will not be revealed. Do
not sign your name. Kindly indicate some response on all items of Part I so that tabulations may
be complete.
PART I
1. Sex, masculine ( ) or feminine ( )? Please check your answer.
2. What is your age? Please check your answer. 15 ( ) 16 ( ) 17 ( ) 18 ( ) 19 ( ) 20 ( )
21 ( ) 22 ( ) 23 ( ) 24 ( ) 25-29 ( ) 30-34 ( ) 35-39 ( ) 40-44 ( )' 45-49 ( ) 5°"54 ( ) 55-59 ( )
60-64 ( ) 65-69 ( ) 70 and over ( ).
3. What is the usual occupation followed by yourself? Be spe-
cific. For example, say high school teacher, not teacher, and mechanical engineer, not engineer.
4. What is your religious preference?
5. Please underline the number of years of school which you have completed. Check one of each
of the six items listed below:
a) grade school 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b) high school 0 1 2 3 4
c) college 0 1 2 3 4
d) graduate work 0 1 2 3 4
e) business school o 6 months, one year, 18 months, two years
f) tech. school o one year, two years
6. State the approximate size of the town or city in which you spent the major part of your
life

PART 2
Please check in the parenthesis those propositions with which you agree. Indicate your acceptance
of a proposition only when you agree with it in its entirety.
The church has done as much as any existing social institution to combat modern evils.
Those people to whom "God has revealed Himself" have been subject to delusions.
The so-called spiritual experience of men cannot be distinguished from the mental and
emotional, and thus there can be no transference from this world to a so-called spiritual one.
Immortality is certain because of Christ's sacrifice for all mankind.
The gift of immortality has been revealed by prophets and religious teachers.
As our body of scientific knowledge has increased, organized religion has steadily lost ground.
Modern astronomy has revealed a world in which human wishes and aspirations can have
little significance.
The belief in a God is merely another way of "explaining" phenomena in terms of the
unknown.
The church has always had the tendency to establish antagonism toward those outside the
fold.
No critically-minded person of the twentieth century could accept the ancient and medieval
superstitions with which the modern church is largely concerned.
Acceptance of the God-concept furnishes us with an adequate explanation of the origin of
life.
No scientific law has yet given a satisfactory explanation of the origin of life.
Since there are laws of nature, there must be a Law Giver.
The soul is mere supposition, having no better standing than a myth.
The church can do little for the individual person, since it is too much concerned with
conflicting doctrine.
The solace one finds in the belief in some after-life aids one in obtaining an emotional
adjustment in this earthly life.
At all times and at all places men have believed in God; such universal belief could not be
based on illusion.
The church has claimed for itself the position of moral authority without knowledge of
modern conditions.
18
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIANISM ig

19. ( ) The belief that "since there are laws o£ nature, there must be a Law Giver" is due to con-
fused thinking.
ao. ( ) The fact that as knowledge becomes greater the figure of God becomes smaller, is an indi-
cation that the God concept is due to ignorance.
21. ( ) The religious leaders of the past who spoke of retribution in a future life were subject to
all the fallacious notions concerning life and death which prevailed at their time.
22. ( ) Belief in God makes life on earth worthwhile.
83. ( ) The findings of modern science leave many mysteries unsolved, but they are still incom-
patible with a personal God concept.
24. ( ) The orderliness of the universe is due to the working out of natural laws.
25. ( ) The notion of retribution in a future life is due to wishful thinking.
26. ( ) The church is the means by which moral leadership is still assured in the modern world.
27. ( ) It is inconceivable that what is most valuable in human life should perish at death.
28. ( ) There are many events which cannot be explained except on the basis of divine or super-
natural intervention.
29. ( ) The existence of God is proven because He revealed Himself directly to the prophets de-
scribed in the Old Testament.
30. ( ) All human beings need an adjustment of self to a supreme value outside of self, and faith
in God provides such an adjustment.
31. ( ) The b'eliever in a personal God is in danger of the shock of disillusionment.
32. ( ) Since science has left much unexplained concerning the origin of life, one must accept the
existence o£ an Almighty God.
33. ( ) Organized religion has acted as a powerful agency in the development of social justice.
34. ( ) It is by means of the church that peace and good-will may replace hatred and strife through-
out the world.
35. ( ) It is inconceivable that misery and suffering should exist in this world if ultimate com-
pensation were not part of the divine plan,
36. ( ) In this world of scientific fact-finding, one who believes in a personal God eventually must
suffer much emotional conflict.
37. ( ) The church is a powerful support of good citizenship and political stability.
38. ( ) The great majority of men of science do not believe in God.
39. ( ) The church, in spreading the doctrine of the brotherhood of man, has been a powerful
agency in making for world peace.
40. ( ) It is inconceivable for a rational mind to believe that all the people who have lived since
the beginning of time are still existing somewhere.
41. ( ) There must be life after death because the spirits of dead persons have appeared to those
still alive.
42. ( ) Since Christ brought the dead to life, He can give eternal life to all who have faith.
43. ( ) There is reason to think that there is less mental disorder among people who have faith
in a God who aids them in meeting the crises of life.
44. ( ) The church cannot be considered a progressive social institution since it has not renounced
modern warfare.
45. ( ) Since neurology, psychology and comparative anatomy have demonstrated the interdepend-
ence of the "mind" and the nervous system, therefore one cannot believe that the soul or
mental self survives the disintegration of its physical basis.
46. ( ) Since the findings of modern science have left many things unexplained one must accept
the concept of a God.
47. ( ) The doctrine of immortality is a fiction of the human mind.
48. ( ) The existence of God is proven by the fact that He has repeatedly revealed Himself to men
on earth.
49. ( ) The church is an effective agency for organizing social life of a community.
50. ( ) In the long run, one who believes in God leads a more satisfying life than does the skeptic.
51. ( ) The fact that a man is a church member can tell us absolutely nothing about his moral
character.
52. ( ) The orderliness of the universe is the result of a divine plan.
53. ( ) The existence of God is shown by the fortunate results through approaching Him in prayer.
54. ( ) Without the church there would be a collapse of morality.
55. ( ) The fact that the church is extending its functions to include the social as well as the
spiritual is an indication of its weakening control over the spiritual life of the people.
56. ( ) The church is too bound up with dogma and medieval superstition to enable It to cope
with present day problems.
20 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

57. ( ) Man is a creature of faith and to live without faith in some Supreme Power is to suffer
a homesickness of the soul.
58. ( ) There is no evidence in modern science that the natural universe of human destiny is
affected by faith or prayer.
59. ( ) The church has acted as an obstruction to the development of social justice.
60. ( ) The belief in immortality follows from the fact that the human soul partakes of the divine.
61. ( ) Specialists in religion tend to accept the doctrine of immortality and we should rely upon
their authority.
6a. ( ) Human values cannot perish with the death of our physical existence.
63. ( ) Religious beliefs may furnish solace to some people vexed by troubles, but these beliefs do
not furnish truthful answers to individual problems.
64. ( ) There must be life after death since otherwise man would be no more than an animal.
65. ( ) Religion with its fear-inspiring supernaturalism is responsible for a large amount of mental
suffering.
66. ( ) The modern rejection of the God concept is an intellectual one.
67. ( ) The notion of immortality is unintelligible and creates more mysteries than it solves.
68. ( ) The affirmation of the belief in an after life is no proof of its existence.
6g. ( ) The idea of creation out of nothing is incomprehensible.

PART 3
Read each item carefully and underline the phrase that most nearly represents your own personal
belief.

1. Criminals should be regarded as victims of circumstances in the same sense as sick persons are
so regarded.
Strongly agree8 Agree' Undecided8 Disagree* Strongly disagree1
2. Enemy atrocities against American war prisoners should be revenged by corresponding treatment
of enemy prisoners.
Strongly agree1 Agree5 Undecided8 Disagree* Strongly disagree8
3. We should be willing to accept strict food rationing in this country after the war in order to
provide for victims of starvation which may develop in Germany.
Strongly agree" Agree* Undecided3 Disagree8 Strongly disagree"
4. Unrestricted bombing of the enemy is justified as it gives them a taste of their own medicine.
Strongly agree1 Agree8 Undecided8 Disagree' Strongly disagree5
5. American citizens of Japanese descent should be guaranteed civil rights in spite of risk to the
war effort.
Strongly agree" Agree4 Undecided8 Disagree8 Strongly disagree1
6. There are many criminals in United States prisons who could be best controlled by physical
punishment.
Strongly agree1 Agree8 Undecided3 Disagree* Strongly disagree"
7. Defeated leaders in enemy countries should be merely restiained from doing further harm to
the peace and happiness of the world.
Strongly agree" Agree' Undecided3 Disagree* Strongly disagree1
8. An American soldier who risks the lives of his comrades by failing to do his duty under fire
should be shot as a cowardly deserter.
Strongly agree1 Agree8 Undecided8 Disagree* Strongly disagree"
g. The economic resources of the world should be shared evenly with the people of defeated enemy
countries.
Strongly agree" Agree' Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
10. Victims of disaster in distant foreign countries are to a considerable extent responsible for their
own plight.
Strongly agree1 Agree8 Undecided8 Disagree' Strongly disagree"
n . Negroes in the United States should be given especially kindly consideration as members of an
underprivileged group.
Strongly agree" Agree' Undecided8 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
18. Charity begins at home in the sense of upholding local, national, and religious loyalties.
Strongly agree1 Agree8 Undecided8 Disagree' Strongly disagree"
13. Conscientious objectors should be regarded as sincere idealists.
Strongly agree" Agree* Undecided3 Disagree8 Strongly disagree1
 RELIGION AND HUMANITARIANISM 21

14. Captured German spies should be electrocuted as an example to other enemies of our country.
Strongly agree1 Agree* Undecided3 Disagree' Strongly disagree'
15. European refugees should be welcomed to this land of liberty even at the risk of economic com-
petition.
Strongly agree" Agree4 Undecided* Disagree' Strongly disagree1
16. Nazi children taught by Hitler to worship force can be dealt with only by force.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree' Strongly disagree"
17. Unmarried mothers should be treated as misguided and unfortunate persons in need of help.
Strongly agree" Agree* Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
18. The children in enemy countries should suffer as other children have been made to suffer for
the sins of their parents.
Strongly agree1 Agree3 Undecided3 Disagree' Strongly disagree"
19. Prostitutes should be treated as socially maladjusted persons.
Strongly agree" Agree' Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
20. No punishment is too severe for a Negro guilty of the sex killing of a white child.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
si. Alcoholics and drug addicts should be regarded like the tubercular as victims of a disease.
Strongly agree" Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
22. A child who steals money from his parents should be shown by punishment the sinful nature of
his act.
Strongly agree1 Agree3 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
23. A child who steals money from his parents should be given understanding help and forgiveness.
Strongly agree" Agree' Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
24. Alcoholics and drug addicts should be condemned for their moral weakness.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree*
25. A Negro guilty of sex killing of a white child should be dealt with under existing laws as a
mentally abnormal person.
Strongly agree1 Agree3 Undecided" Disagree1 Strongly disagree'
26. Prostitutes deserve contempt and punishment as enemies of decent living.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
27. After the war the children in enemy countries should be treated in exactly the same way as war
victims in other countries.
Strongly agree' Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
28. Unmarried mothers should be treated as violators of the established moral code and be made
to suffer the consequences of their actions.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree'
29.' European refugees should not be permitted to menace the economic well being of our own
citizens.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree'
30. Captured German spies as servants of their country should be made harmless, but in a way that
reveals the humanitarianism of the United States.
Strongly agree' Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
31. After the war Nazi youth should be regarded as a problem in re-education.
Strongly agree5 Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
32. Conscientious objectors should be made to pay a heavy price for refusal to accept the responsi-
bility of citizenship.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree' Strongly disagree'
33. The old custom of giving a tenth of one's income to charity, if applied should disregard the
religious beliefs of the beneficiaries.
Strongly agree' Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
34. Negroes in the United States should be regarded as responsible for their difficulties in adjusting
to American life.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
35. Financial sacrifices should be made by American citizens to aid Hindu victims of famine in India.
Strongly agree" Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
36. Punitive economic sanctions should be applied against axis powers for a long period of time
after the war.
Strongly agree1 Agree3 Undecided8 Disagree' Strongly disagree"
37. An American soldier who risks the lives of his comrades by going to pieces under fire should
be treated as a victim of nervous instability.
Strongly agree' Agree4 Undecided3 Disagree2 Strongly disagree1
22 CLIFFORD KIRKPATRICK

38. Responsible officials in defeated enemy countries should be made to suffer for their crimes as
their innocent victims have suffered.
Strongly agree1 Agree' Undecided" Disagree4 Strongly disagree5
39. Bodily punishment should not be applied to prison inmates regardless of their behavior.
Strongly agree" Agree1 Undecided8 Disagree* Strongly disagree1
40. American citizens of Japanese descent should be treated with all the severity necessary to further
our national interests.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree* Strongly disagree"
41. Bombing should be restricted to protect innocent persons even at the cost of some American lives.
Strongly agree" Agree4 Undecided8 Disagree2 Strongly disagree'
42. Sooner or later the German people should receive a heavy dose of the suffering they have in-
flicted on the helpless people of Europe.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
43. Rgardless of provocation we should indulge in no brutality against enemy prisoners.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
44. Criminals should be punished for their sins.
Strongly agree1 Agree2 Undecided3 Disagree4 Strongly disagree"
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ferguson, L. W. Socio-psychological correlates
of primary attitudes scales: I. Religionism
I I . Humanitarianism. /. Soc. Psychol., 1944,
19. 81-98.
2. Garrett, H. E. Statistics in psychology and
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1926.
3. Johnson, R. L. E. The relation of religious
attitudes and selected personality character-
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1948-
4. Kirkpatrick, C. A methodological analysis of
feminism in relation to marital adjustment.
. American sociol. Rev. 1939, 4, 385-340.
23
5. Kirkpatrick, C, & Stone, S. Attitude meas-
urement and the comparison of generations.
/. Applied Psychol., 1935, 19, 564-582.
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