Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of silica fume, metakaolin & SBR latex on strength

and durability performance of pervious concrete
Hassan Bilal a, Tiefeng Chen a, Miao Ren a, Xiaojian Gao a,b,⇑, Anshuang Su c
a
School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
c
Heilongjiang Provincial Hydraulic Research Institute, Harbin 150080, China

h i g h l i g h t s

 Sand 5% and proper compaction significantly improved durability performance.

 SCMs have a positive influence on the mechanical and durability of pervious concrete.
 The optimum content of SCMs was 10% based on mechanical and durability performance.
 Latex improved the mechanical property, but did not noticeably improve the durability.
 The combined attack induced more severe surface deterioration and damages.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study evaluates the performance of pervious concrete subjected to rapid freeze–thaw (F-T) cycling,
Received 14 April 2020 calcium leaching and the combined attack of calcium leaching and F-T cycling. Silica fume, metakaolin
Received in revised form 14 December 2020 and SBR polymer emulsion were incorporated at different levels into pervious concrete mixes to improve
Accepted 20 December 2020
strength and durability performances. The results indicated that the addition of 5% fine sand and proper
Available online 6 January 2021
compaction had a positive influence on improving the resistance of pervious concrete to F-T cycling. The
increase of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) from 5% to 10% significantly improved the
Keywords:
resistance to rapid F-T cycling and to the combined attack of calcium leaching and F-T cycling. The opti-
Pervious concrete
Mechanical strength
mum content of SCMs was 10% based on the mechanical and durability performance of pervious concrete
Durability with acceptable permeability. Calcium leaching in 6 M NH4NO3 solution combined with F-T cycling
Freeze-thaw cycling induced severe surface deterioration and internal damage compared to individual attacks of F-T cycling
Calcium leaching or leaching. Compared with control and polymer-modified mixes, pervious concrete incorporated SCMs
possessed better resistance of calcium leaching and frost. The morphological changes caused by calcium
leaching exhibits the decreased volume fraction of solid phases in a cement matrix and consequently
increased the porosity, which ultimately degraded strength and durability performance of pervious
concrete.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction be strengthened by several kinds of supplementary cementitious

Pervious concrete is a kind of environmentally friendly porous
material developed based on ordinary concrete technology [1-4].
Pervious concrete typically contains gap-graded coarse aggregate,
Portland cement, water and a limited amount of fine aggregate
[5-7]. Similar to conventional concrete, pervious concrete could
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of
Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
E-mail addresses: hassanbilal@hit.edu.cn (H. Bilal), 16s033075@stu.hit.edu.cn
(M. Ren), gaoxj@hit.edu.cn (X. Gao).
materials (SCMs) like fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, latex poly-
mers and polypropylene fibers [6-17]. The cement paste in pervi-
ous concrete is uniformly distributed to bind the coarse
aggregates and facilitate the cellular network of interconnected
porosity. In general, pervious concrete has void contents from
15% to 35% [18-20]. The void contents provide minimal strength
while facilitating higher water permeability [21,22]. Pervious con-
crete is broadly acknowledged as sustainable material because it
offers several environmental benefits such as a reduction in
stormwater runoff, improvement of stormwater quality, recharg-
ing groundwater aquifer, reducing road-noise, improving skid

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122124
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
resistance and relieving the heat-island effect [23]. Considering all
these advantages, pervious concrete is recognized as one of the
best materials for urban pavement and drainage system [24]. Gen-
erally, 28 days compressive and tensile strength of pervious con-
crete vary from 3.4 to 27.5 MPa and 1.0 to 3.4 MPa on average,
respectively. The primary factors which influence the desired void
content and strength include the densification energy, aggregate
gradation and the dosage of fine sand in the mix design [25-28].
In addition to the aggregate size, the increase of water-to-cement
ratio can also reduce the strength considering the cement matrix
is usually the weakest part in pervious concrete. However, an
increase in cement content can potentially enhance the mechanical
and durability resistance of pervious concrete due to better bond-
ing among aggregate particles [27,29-32]. The compressive
strength and void content of pervious concrete can also be influ-
enced by placement techniques, compaction effort, use of various
cementitious materials, the addition of sands and different admix-
tures in pervious concrete [7,33-35]. The strength and freeze–thaw
durability of pervious concrete can be improved by the addition of
smaller size coarse aggregate along with a certain amount of fine
sand in the mix design. Optimal content of 5% or 10% fine sand is
considered to maintain adequate strength and permeability
[25,29,36,37].
Moreover, the interconnected network of voids has a negative
impact on the mechanical behavior of porous concrete, thus hinder
its broad application in cold and wet weather regions where cyclic
freezing-thawing is the deepest concern [30]. Due to high porosity
and permeability, pervious concrete is used for drainage purposes
where strength requirements are not stringent. However, its appli-
cations in high traffic highway can put a great demand on the
strength properties [38]. The open-pore cellular structure and thin
paste of cement pose severe concerns for the capability of pervious
concrete to endure the freeze–thaw cycles [38,39]. Kevern, Wang
and Schaefer [29] reported that the water absorption capacity of
coarse aggregate has a considerable impact on freeze–thaw dura-
bility of pervious concrete. For high durability mixtures, the pro-
posed water absorption of less than 2.5% is recommended
[25,33,40]. An increase of water to cement ratio has shown
improvement in freeze–thaw durability of water cured pervious
concrete under slow freeze–thaw testing [41]. The use of air-
entraining admixtures can improve freeze–thaw durability in rapid
cycles [33,42]. However, air-entraining has no positive influence in
slow cycles [41]. The inclusion of fibers in porous concrete also
improved the freeze–thaw durability and workability without sac-
rificing infiltration potential [33,43]. In practical application, the
voids in pervious concrete are almost never water-filled and could
always release the pressure caused by freeze water, the rapid
freeze–thaw cycling in full saturation is not suitable for pervious
concrete. Therefore, testing under the drained condition and one
freeze–thaw cycle per day has been endorsed by some studies
[41,44]. The critical saturation level is needed to induce damages
in pervious concrete from freezing and thawing [42]. As a contrast,
critical saturation in conventional concrete is expected to be about
77% to 82% for the freeze–thaw damage to occur. Additionally, fro-
zen water in the large pores of pervious concrete acts to create
negative vapor pressure, drowning the water through the cement
paste, causing scaling damage [42].
The existing research on pervious concrete has made significant
progress on optimizing the strength and permeability properties;
however, limited work has been carried out to improve the
Table 1
Properties of SBR latex polymer.
Product technical quality index Solid content Melting/ freezing point
SBR Latex 48–60% 5–0 °C
2
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
strength and durability performance of pervious concrete to
broaden its application in high traffic highways. Since lower
strength is typically associated with high porosity, pervious con-
crete is prone to freeze–thaw damage; therefore, the applications
of pervious concrete are limited to sidewalks, low-volume traffic
and parking lots. There is a need to fabricate pervious concrete
with high strength and adequate durability without sacrificing per-
meability property. Besides, water percolation through the open
void channels can also leach out the cement hydrates from the thin
layer of cement paste in pervious concrete pavements. This leach-
ing phenomenon would decrease the mechanical and long term
durability in service life [45]; therefore, the combined attack of cal-
cium leaching and freeze–thaw cycling was considered in this
study to evaluate the durability performance of pervious concrete
in a cold climate. This research aims at enhancing the mechanical
properties and long-term durability of pervious concrete. The influ-
ence of freeze–thaw cycling, calcium leaching and the combined
attack of freeze–thaw cycling and calcium leaching on the mechan-
ical and durability performance of pervious concrete are
investigated.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with PO 42.5 in accordance
with the Chinese standard was used in this study. The silica fume
(SF) used had spherical particles size less than 1 mm and a specific
surface area of 17.30 m2/g complying with Chinese Standard GB/
T21236-2007. Metakaolin (MK) was an anhydrous aluminum sili-
cate (Al2O3.2SiO2) formed by kaolin (Al2O3
2SiO2
2H2O) dehy-
drated at a suitable temperature (600–900 °C). Styrene-butadiene
rubber (SBR) latex was a polymer emulsion having excellent stabil-
ity and bonding with cement paste. The physical characteristics of
styrene-butadiene latex are presented in Table 1. Polycarboxylate
superplasticizer was adopted to adjust concrete workability, pur-
chased from Environmental Water Treatment Plant, Harbin, China.
The chemical composition of cement, metakaolin (MK) and silica
fume (SF) are listed in Table 2.
The size distribution of fine sand was in the range of 4.75–
0.15 mm sieve interval with the Fineness Modulus of 2.67, accord-
ing to GB/T14685-2011. The fine sand was substituted from 5% to
15% by weight of coarse aggregate in specified trial batch mixes to
optimize the permeability and early age compressive strength. The
loose bulk density and dry rodded bulk density of coarse aggregate
were 1522 kg/m3 and 1638 kg/m3 respectively. The specific gravity
of the coarse aggregate was 2.60, following the method outlined in
GB/T14685-2011. The superplasticizer dosage was adjusted
through a series of trial and error methods to prepare workable
mixes with no accumulation of cement paste at the bottom layer
of pervious concrete.
2.2. Mix design and specimen preparation
The mix design for different pervious concretes is presented in
Table 3. The control mixture included only 5% fine sand by weight
of coarse aggregate and no SCMs. Silica fume (SF), metakaolin (MK)
and styrene-butadiene latex (SBR) were used to partially replace
OPC by 5% and 10% in modified pervious concrete. The water to
Boiling point Density (g/m3) Viscosity (cps) Appearance
100 °C 0.95 800–1000 Milky white emulsion
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

Table 2 same specimen after permeability measurement. The test device

Chemical composition of raw materials (wt %). can automatically measure permeability flow rate and permeabil-
Chemical composition Index Cement Silica fume Metakaolin ity flow time, then the water permeability coefficient would be cal-
(%) (SF) (MK) culated. The mechanical design of the instrument is reasonable and
SiO2 20.38 87.67 62–70 the measurement method lays the foundation for the formulation
CaO 63.25 0.64 0.29 of the permeability coefficient standard. First of all, concrete sam-
Al2O3 4.26 0.28 17–23 ples were wrapped up with high viscosity adhesive waterproof
SO3 4.10 0.82 0.19
MgO 3.08 1.80 0.12
duct tape to prevent side leakage during the test. The waterproof
Fe2O3 3.58 0.60 4.0 adhesive tape could prevent side leakage of water from samples
Loss on ignition 2.97 1.57 2.01 so water could percolate through the specimen only in a vertical
direction. Three pervious concrete samples were tested for each
mixture and the permeability test was performed three times on
cement ratio of 0.28 was kept constant in this study. Throughout each sample for a consistent and reliable result (Fig. 1).
all the laboratory concrete tamping rodding, one person has pre-
pared all the specimens to avoid uncertainty in the compaction. 2.3.3. Rapid freeze–thaw testing
Fresh concrete was poured in three layers, while each layer was The freeze–thaw test was conducted according to Chinese spec-
tamping rodded 25 times. After this initial preparation, specimens ification GB/T50082-2009. The temperature was controlled at
were placed on plain hard ground and each mold contained three 18 ± 2 °C and 5 ± 22 °C in an automatic freeze–thaw chamber.
specimens was vibrated for 30 s using a surface vibrator to simu- Mass loss of specimens was monitored after every 15 or 25 cycles
late field condition. After compaction, all specimens were covered
with polythene plastic film and kept under room temperature for
24 h. Prism specimens of 100 mm  100 mm  400 mm were
poured in two layers and each layer was tamping rodded 75 times.
The last layer was overfilled with the fresh mix and extra materials
were struck off with a square trowel. Then compaction was con-
ducted for 30 s by the surface vibrator. All the prism specimens
were demolded after 24 h and water was sprayed on the specimens
to keep them moist and stored in the standard curing room for
28 days. Then these specimens would be water cured until the
testing day.

2.3. Laboratory testing

2.3.1. Mechanical tests

The compressive strength test was performed according to GB/
T50081-2002. The compressive strength after 3, 7, 14, 28, 90 and
120 days curing were measured to evaluate the long term materi-
als behavior of pervious concrete. The splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength and modulus of rupture tests were outlined in
the GB/T50081-2002 standard. The average value of the triplicate
specimen was presented as the strength value at 28 days of curing.
Three prism specimens (100 mm  100 mm  400 mm) were
tested for each mix and the average of three results was taken as
the rupture modulus of the mixture.

2.3.2. Permeability coefficient test

The permeability coefficient of pervious concrete was deter-
mined by the NELD-PC370 permeability coefficient tester made
by Beijing Nilde Intelligent Technology Company. This permeabil-
ity tester is suitable for a 100 mm  100 mm  100 mm cubic size
specimen, which is convenient for measuring the strength of the Fig. 1. Sample setup and NELD-PC370 concrete permeability coefficient tester.

Table 3
Mix design for Pervious Concrete.

Mix Types Cement (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Sand (5%) SBR SF MK W/C SP (1.25%)
A-350-S-5% 350 1504 75.2 – – – 0.28 4.375
B-L-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 17.5 – – 0.28 4.375
C-SF-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 – 17.5 – 0.28 4.375
D-MK-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 – – 17.5 0.28 4.375
E-MK-SF-S-5% 332 1504 75.2 – 8.75 8.75 0.28 4.375
B-L-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 35 – – 0.28 4.375
C-SF-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 – 35 – 0.28 4.375
D-MK-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 – – 35 0.28 4.375
E-MK-SF-S-10% 315 1504 75.2 – 17.5 17.5 0.28 4.375

Note: SF = Silica fume, SBR = Styrene butadiene latex, MK = Metakaolin, SP = Superplasticizer.

3
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
during the test. Freeze-thaw cycles would either be stopped when
300 cycles were completed, or mass loss of specimen reached 15%
of the initial saturated mass of concrete [43].
2.3.4. Leaching test
Ammonium nitrate solution of 6 M concentration was used to
accelerate the leaching processes because naturally leaching of cal-
cium ion from cement-based materials is a prolonged process and
takes years to degrade concrete [46]. In this study, 6 M NH4NO3
solution was prepared in a polyethylene vessel. A total of fifteen
specimens were tested for each mix. The solid to liquid volume
ratio (Vs/Vl) was 1:6 and the solution was not renewed during
the leaching test. An advanced Shanghai Sanxin PHS-2C PH Meter
was used for monitoring the pH of ammonium nitrate solution.
Chinese standard buffer solutions of 4.0, 6.86 and 9.18 pH were
used for calibration of pH Meter. Three-point calibration was per-
formed on a standard buffer solution before testing the pH of the
measured solution. The percentage of electrode slope would be
automatically displayed after calibration was completed. The solu-
tion was collected at different intervals for the determination of
calcium ion concentration. The compressive strength, mass loss,
pH and calcium ion concentration were measured at 7, 14, 21, 28
and 90 days’ exposure in 6 M NH4NO3 solution. The experimental
setup for the leaching test is shown in Fig. 2.
2.3.5. Combined attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling
Pervious concrete was first exposed to 6 M NH4NO3 solution for
one week, then followed by 25 cycles of rapid freeze–thaw cyclings
according to GB/T50082-2009. This repeated pattern of leaching
followed by freeze–thaw cycling was continued until the speci-
men’s deterioration. After a week’s leaching, specimens were
washed with water to clean up the chemical solution inside the
pore structure of pervious concrete because it could severely affect
the specimen’s deterioration in freeze–thaw cycling. These speci-
mens were assessed and monitored during the test. The combined
Fig. 2. Experimental Protocol and setup of leaching test operation.
4
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
attack test was stopped when the average mass remaining of spec-
imen was less than 85 percent of the initial saturated mass of
concrete.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Compressive strength development of pervious concrete
The compressive strength of pervious concrete with 5% partially
replaced SBR latex, silica fume and metakaolin is shown in Fig. 3.
The modified pervious concrete achieved greater strength than
the control mix (A-350-S-5%) at later curing. Mix E-MK-SF-S-5%
exhibited higher compressive strength compared to other mixtures
due to the filler effect and pozzolanic activities of silica fume and
metakaolin [22,47,48]. With proper compaction effort, the smaller
size coarse aggregate and 5% sand inclusion in pervious concrete
significantly enhanced the compressive strength [10]. Mix D-MK-
S-5% achieved the lowest compressive strength at 7 days compared
to other mixes; however, the same mix attained greater strength at
28 days except for E-MK-SF-S-5%. On the other hand, the later age
curing marginally contributes to the strength development due to
less contribution of small cementitious paste and limited ability of
hydration products [28]. However, a significant gain in strength
was observed for pervious concrete made with both metakaolin
and silica fume due to the filler effect and pozzolanic reaction of
cementitious materials.
The strength of latex modified mixes (B-L-10%) quite lagged
behind the strength development of mixtures produced with sup-
plementary cementitious materials (SCMs) at early curing age. It is
time-consuming for cement hydration products and polymer films
to intertwine and interpenetrate; therefore, polymer-modified por-
ous concrete (B-L-10%) achieved rapid strength at later curing age
[28,48]. It should be noted that there is an inconsistency between
cement hydration and SBR latex polymerization. Thus, it is favor-
able for polymer-modified pervious concrete to be saturated cured
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
Fig. 3. Compressive strength development of 5% mixtures with curing age.
for three days to expedite the hydration of cement. Then these
specimens should be stored in an environment with relative
humidity less than 70% for improving the formation of polymer
films [28]. On the other hand, higher early strength of SCMs mod-
ified pervious concretes is attributed to pozzolanic reactivity of
SCMs together with superplasticizer. The aggregate particles are
wrapped and cemented together by stiff paste to form the
skeleton-pore structure, attaining strong resistance to loading at
an early age. However, due to the small amount of cementitious
paste in pervious concrete compared to conventional concrete, it
is reasonable that there is no remarkable increase in strength at
the later curing age [8,28]. When SBR latex partial substitution
increased from 5% to 10%, 28 d compressive strength increases
by 24%. On the contrary, an increased from 5% to 10% of silica fume
partial replacement produced only a 9% rise in strength, while the
increase in metakaolin content from 5% to 10% improved the
strength by 8%. Generally, the increase in the dosage rate of SBR
latex and SCMs in pervious concrete progressively improved the
strength of pervious concrete, as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Compressive strength development of 10% mixtures with curing age.
5
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
3.2. Splitting tensile strength
The split tensile strength of SBR latex mix (B-L-S-5%) and mix E-
MK-SF-S-5% is greater than silica fume (C-SF-S-5%) and metakaolin
mixes (D-MK-S-5%) as shown in Fig. 5. Due to the nice film-forming
effect of polymers and commingling of cement hydration products
embedded in cement matrix, the SBR latex mixture had a strong
resistance to cracking [7,50]. The split tensile strength of C-SF-S-
5% and D-MK-S-5% was also improved by increasing the dosage
rate from 5% to 10%, but the increment of tensile resistance was
not as high as that of SBR latex mixture. When both metakaolin
(MK) and silica fume (SF) were added into the mixture, the split
tensile strength was almost the same as the SBR latex polymer
mix. The split tensile strength is highly susceptible to porosity or
voids in the structural skeleton of pervious concrete because a
slight variation in porosity considerably influences the split tensile
strength [28].
3.3. Flexural strength
The flexural strength of modified pervious concrete included
SBR latex and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) was
higher than the control mix (A-350-S-5%). The highest flexural
strength was achieved by mix B-L-S-5%, followed by C-SF-S-5%
and E-MK-SF-5%, while the flexural strength of mixture D-MKS-
5% increased marginally. The addition of SBR latex exerted positive
effects on the mid-span deflection of specimens, as illustrated in
Fig. 6. The SBR polymers interpenetrated in cement hydrates pro-
duced a commingling network of films, which enhanced the ductil-
ity and flexibility of pervious concrete [49]. The flexural strength of
reference mix A-350-S-5% was lower than mixtures produced with
metakaolin (D-MK-10%) and both silica fume and metakaolin (E-
MK-SF-10%) except silica fume mixture (C-SF-10%), which had
almost identical flexural strength to reference mixture. The SCMs
modified pervious concrete also showed an increase in flexural
strength due to cement matrix densification caused by filler effect
of fine particles and strong bonding between aggregate particles.
The flexural strength is more sensitive to porosity variation in per-
vious concrete than the compressive loading resistance [28]. The
results showed that pervious concrete achieved both higher
strength and good permeability by incorporating smaller size
coarse aggregate and SCMs or SBR polymers along with
superplasticizer.
Fig. 5. Splitting tensile strength results of pervious concrete.
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
Fig. 6. Flexural strength results.
3.4. Permeability coefficient
The permeability of pervious concrete is shown in Fig. 7. The
SBR latex produced a thick cement paste coating around aggregate
particles, which assisted pervious concrete in achieving higher
strength. However, porosity and permeability decreased due to
the filling of the voids among aggregates [6,7]. Pervious concrete
produced with 5% silica fume had lowered permeability character-
istics; however, the reduction was less than mix B-L-S-5%. The
inclusion of metakaolin in mixtures significantly reduced voids
and porosity, thereby reducing the permeability of pervious con-
crete [11]. The increase in partial replacement of cement from 5%
to 10% with SBR latex, metakaolin, or both silica fume and meta-
kaolin reduced permeability by about 50% compared to the control
mix. The permeability rate of B-L-10% is considerable low com-
pared to other mixtures and increased dosage of SBR latex from
5% to 10% causes a 39% reduction in permeability. The permeability
of mixes D-MK-10%, E-MK-SF-10% and C-SF-10% reduced by 28%,
Fig. 7. Permeability of modified pervious concrete mixtures.
6
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
24% and 8% when the replacement dosage increases from 5% to
10%. The permeability of all mixes produced in this study is in
the range of 3–7 mm/sec.
3.5. Influence of leaching on compressive strength of pervious concrete
The strength and permeability of pervious concrete determined
at 28 days standard curing are presented in Table 4. The polymer-
modified pervious concrete (B-L-S-5%) exhibited the lowest
strength with greater permeability than other mixtures. The incor-
poration of fine sand 5% by weight of coarse aggregate in all mix-
tures significantly increased the compressive strength with
adequate permeability.
The compressive strength of pervious concretes leached for 7,
14, 21, 28 and 90 days in 6 M NH4NO3 aggressive solution is shown
in Fig. 8. The decreasing rate of compressive strength is gradual at
the early leaching because the dissolution and diffusion of calcium
hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate increased with the leaching
duration. As the leaching proceeded, the cement matrix of pervious
concrete becomes more porous, which caused a reduction in
strength. The binary blend (E-MK-SF-S-5%) showed good resistance
to strength loss throughout the leaching test compared to other
mixtures because of lower permeability associated with lower
porosity. The fine particles of metakaolin and silica fume con-
sumed the calcium hydroxide to a certain extent and reduced the
calcium hydroxide diffusion and transport from the cement paste
matrix [51]. However, the strength loss significantly increases with
the leaching duration due to the increase in calcium leaching from
the calcium hydroxide and progressive decalcification of calcium
silicate hydrate of cement paste. The permeability associated with
the high porosity of pervious concrete facilitated the aggressive
solution to be in contact with a large surface area of cement paste
that also favored the leaching processes and caused a significant
reduction in strength [48,52]. On the other hand, the compressive
strength loss of pervious concretes exposed to 90 days of leaching
caused a significant reduction in strength compared to 28 days of
leaching exposure. The 90 days leaching had more influence on
changing the micro-pores of cement matrix to more macro-pores
therefore negatively affecting the strength. The result indicates
that the addition of silica fume, metakaolin and SBR latex polymers
into pervious concrete did not have a positive effect on retaining
the compressive strength in 90 days leaching. The plausible reason
could be meager amount of cementitious materials and SBR latex
partial replacement content, though the addition of cementitious
materials could consume the calcium hydroxide to some extent
and reduce the leaching of cement hydrates out of solid phase of
cement matrix. The addition of cementitious materials did not
show positive contribution in retaining the strength loss of pervi-
ous concrete due to highly porous structure of pervious concrete
and large contact area exposed to aggressive solution.
3.6. Mass loss of pervious concrete with leaching duration
Fig. 9 indicates that the control mix (A-350-S-5%) exhibited
excellent mass retention against the aggressive solution. The
polymer-modified mix (B-L-S-5%) showed a greater mass loss
Table 4
Compression strength and permeability before leaching test.
Mix ID Compressive strength (MPa) Permeability, K, (mm/sec)
A-350-S-5% 34.66 3.98
B-L-S-5% 34.26 5.88
C-SF-S-5% 38.73 2.68
D-MK-S-5% 35.28 3.88
E-MK-SF-S-5% 36.96 2.91
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
a) Strength loss in short term leaching (28 days)
Fig. 8. Compressive strength loss with leaching duration in 6 M NH4NO3 aggressive solution.
a) Mass loss in short term leaching (28 days)
Fig. 9. Mass loss of pervious concrete with leaching duration in 6 M NH4NO3 aggressive solution.
because of greater permeability and porosity, which assisted the
increase in mass loss during leaching. The mass loss of binary mod-
ified mix (E-MK-SF-S-5%) was slightly greater than the control mix
(A-350-S-5%) throughout leaching even though the permeability
and associated porosity of mix E-MK-SF-S-5% were considerably
lower than control mix. The silica fume (C-SF-S-5%) and metakao-
lin modified (D-MK-S-5%) mixes had almost the same mass loss up
to 21 days of leaching even though the permeability and porosity
of the metakaolin modified mixes were greater than the silica fume
modified mix. The visual examination of all mixes during the
leaching revealed no physical deterioration and damage; however,
a change in colour on the sample’s surface was observed. This dark
grayish colour could be attributed to the leaching of calcium
hydroxide present in the cement paste matrix. The mass loss of
control mix (A-350-S-5%), SBR latex polymer-modified mix (B-L-
S-5%), silica fume modified mix (C-SF-S-5%), metakaolin modified
mix (D-MK-S-5%) and binary modified mix (E-MK-SF-S-5%) are in
the following order of 1.92%, 3.09%, 1.32%, 1.96% and 1.35% at
90 days of leaching.
7
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
b) Strength loss in extended leaching (90 days)
b) Mass loss in extended leaching (90 days)
3.7. pH evolution with leaching duration
The increase in pH values was observed just after one day of
sample immersion in 6 M ammonium nitrate solution, where the
pH values reached above 8. This increase in pH values is attributed
to the large quantities of calcium hydroxide phase in pervious con-
crete that could release hydroxide ions to the solution, therefore
increasing the pH of the aggressive solution. The pH values
remained stable for few days in short-term leaching and the sys-
tem tends toward equilibrium condition with constant pH; how-
ever, the change in the pH value indicates that the dissolution of
calcium hydroxide continuously released hydroxide ion and the
leaching was continued with high rate. The reason to drops in pH
value during leaching process was hypothesized to be the reaction
between OH ions and carbon dioxide from the air. In the process
of leaching, the containers were opened at specified days for mea-
surement of mass and strength. For the mean time, CO2 might
enter into the containers and dissolved in solution. So this fluctua-
tion of pH could be possibly caused by opening times of the
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
a) pH evolution in short leaching (28 days)
Fig. 10. pH evolution of pervious concrete in 6 M ammonium nitrate solution.
container for measurement during the test. The pH profile of
aggressive solution of polymer-modified pervious concrete shows
a high increase in pH value with leaching duration. This shows that
the lixiviation process was steadily increasing with the leaching
duration. The pH values are in the range from 7.5 to 8.5 for all per-
vious concretes immersed in the aggressive solution except silica
fume modified pervious concrete. On the other hand, the fluctua-
tion of the pH could also be influenced by temperature variation.
The solubility of calcium hydroxide increases at lower tempera-
tures and decreases at higher temperature [51]. The pH value of
the extended leaching test is more stable and follows the same
trend compared to 28 days leaching test, as shown in Fig. 10.
3.8. Calcium ion concentration monitoring during leaching
The pH value of the initial 6 M ammonium nitrate solution was
approximately equal to 6. The pH of the solution below 9.5 is
essential for maintaining leaching acceleration [48]. Hence, the
renewal of aggressive solution was avoided because the pH values
kept less than 9.1 and the volume of solution was enough to accel-
erate the leaching process. The pH of the solution was measured
Fig. 11. Change in calcium ion concentration with leaching duration.
8
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
b) pH evolution in extended leaching (90 days)
periodically and solution was collected for element concentration
analysis. The collected solutions were acidified with 1% nitric acid,
then analyses were conducted on inductively coupled plasma
atomic emission spectrometry technique (Agilent 730.ICP-OES).
The results are expressed in mg/l.
The quantity of leached cumulative calcium (Ca+2) with leach-
ing duration is illustrated in Fig. 11. The calcium hydroxide Ca
(OH)2, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and other ions in pore solu-
tion are in chemical equilibrium. When the concentration of Ca+2 in
the pore solution decreases, the dissolution of Ca(OH)2 supplies
more calcium ions from the cement hydrates to sustain the chem-
ical equivalence. It is obvious that the complete dissolution of port-
landite (Ca(OH)2) occurred first, followed by progressive
decalcification of C-S-H alteration to silica-rich C-S-H [46]. The
cumulative quantity of calcium ion leached out from mixes C-5%
(Cement paste and pervious concrete contained 5% silica fume)
and E-5% (the binary combination of metakaolin and silica fume
in cement paste and pervious concrete) are relatively small com-
pared to mixes A-5%, B-5% and D-5%. The addition of silica fume
and metakaolin into the cement paste could consume calcium
hydroxide to a certain extent; thus, less calcium hydroxide was
available to leach out from the solid hydrates. The quantity of lea-
ched Ca+2 is significantly greater for polymer modified mixes (B-
5%) due to the increase of Ca(OH)2 with the incorporation of SBR
latex polymers into the mixes as well as the open pores structure
of pervious concrete could also accelerate leaching of calcium ions
from the cement hydrates [52]. The highest quantity of calcium
ions leached out from the SBR latex cement paste and pervious
concrete samples, followed by metakaolin modified mixes (D-5%)
and control mixes (A-5%) as shown in Fig. 11.
4. Durability performance of pervious concrete in saturated
condition
4.1. Freeze-thaw cycling
The relative average mass remaining as a function of freeze–
thaw cycles for pervious concrete is shown in Fig. 12. No serious
damage, edge break or crack development can be observed in the
control mix (A-350-S-5%); however, raveling of aggregates and
de-bonding lead to further loss in mass at the end of freeze–thaw
cycling. The frost damage of the control mix (A-350-S-5%) suggests
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
Fig. 12. Freeze-Thaw durability performance based on mass loss criteria.
that proper compaction and addition of 5% fine sand by weight of
coarse aggregate can significantly improve the freeze–thaw resis-
tance of pervious concrete [10]. At the early stage of freeze–thaw
cycling, the degree of saturation was low and insignificant deteri-
oration occurred; however, once the critical degree of saturation
is reached, rapid damage would develop with the progression of
freeze–thaw cycling [41]. Mixes B-L-S-5% and B-L-S-10% failed at
125 and 200F-T cycles with 26% and 22% mass loss, respectively.
The mass loss of mixes B-L-S-5% and B-L-S-10% grows much faster
and accelerated by substantial uptake of water during consecutive
F-T cycles. The increase in dosage of SBR latex from 5% to 10% in
mixes improved the resistance to F-T cycling. Although SBR latex
significantly improved the strength of pervious concrete with good
workability and ease of compaction, freeze–thaw resistance of SBR
latex mixes is inferior compare to mixes produced with supple-
mentary cementitious materials (SCMs) [40]. Pervious concrete
produced with 10% silica fume and 5% fine sand, i.e. (C-SF-S-10%)
showed excellent freeze–thaw performance compare to the control
mix (A-350-S-5%) made with only 5% fine sand. Silica fume fine
particles created dense microstructure increasing the resistance
to frost damage [34,53]. The metakaolin modified pervious con-
crete (D-MK-S-5%) survived more F-T cycles compare to
polymer-modified (B-L-S-5%) and silica fume modified concrete
(C-SF-S-5%). Mix D-MK-S-5% underwent 225 frost cycles with
24% mass loss at the end of the test. Severe surface scaling and
deterioration of coarse aggregate caused an increase in mass loss
after 125 cycles; however, the increase of mass loss of mix D-
MK-S-5% is less and more gradual than C-SF-S-5% and B-L-S-5%,
respectively. The denser microstructure due to the filler effect of
metakaolin improved the resistance of metakaolin modified mix
(D-MK-S-10%) to fatigue loading of freezing and thawing [57].
The inclusion of metakaolin (MK) and silica fume (SF) in the mixes
also improved the resistance to F-T cycling. The crack developed in
the samples passed partially through cement paste, and the aggre-
gate interface further aggravated the de-bonding of aggregate with
the increase in F-T cycling.
4.2. Combined attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling
Water infiltration through highly porous voids in pervious con-
crete may create a scenario for leaching of cement hydrates, which
could pose a detrimental effect on the strength development and
durability of pervious concrete. The calcium hydroxide leaching
could coarsen the porosity of cement paste matrix and progressive
decalcification of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) increases the
9
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
capillary gel porosity. Moreover, the progressive freezing and
thawing would further coarsen the voids and developed more seri-
ous damage and surface deterioration in pervious concrete [54].
The results of mass loss with leaching and progressive freeze–thaw
cycling are shown in Fig. 13. The mass loss due to one-week leach-
ing is small; however, the influence of leaching significantly inten-
sifies the damage produced by progressive freeze–thaw cycling.
Leaching itself does not cause any dislodging of aggregate particles
from the surface of pervious concrete; nevertheless, the combined
attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling amplify the deteriora-
tion leading to more severe damage than individual mechanism
[55]. The initial porosity of pervious concrete plays a crucial role
in the damage development during the combined attack. The
increase of SBR latex from 5% to 10% in the mixture did not consid-
erably enhance the resistance to combined attack compare to
cementitious modified pervious concrete. The increase of supple-
mentary cementitious materials (silica fume, metakaolin and both
in the same mix) from 5% to 10% significantly enhance the resis-
tance of pervious concrete to combined attack. The results indicate
that the combine attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling cause
severe surface deterioration and internal damage compare to indi-
vidual contribution of freeze–thaw cycling. Pervious concrete
modified with silica fume (C-SF-S-5%), metakaolin (D-MK-S-5%)
and binary mix (E-MK-SF-S-5%) showed greater resistance to com-
bined attack of leaching and freeze–thaw cycling compare to con-
trol mixture (A-350-S-5%) and polymer modified mixture (B-L-S-
5%).
4.3. SEM investigation of pervious concrete before and after exposure
in 6 M NH4NO3 solution
Fig. 14 (a & b) and 15 (d, e & f) display the films of polymer and
cement hydrates comingle working together contributes to the
strength development and ductility of polymer-modified pervious
concrete. The foil like films interleave in the cement hydration
products, enhancing the flexibility and contact interfacial bonding
among aggregate particles. The portlandite crystals embedded in
the C-S-H gel at the 28 days of normal curing; however, with the
polymerization of polymers and cement hydrate products inter-
mingle together produced dense matrix; therefore, polymer-
modified pervious concrete gained greater strength at later curing
age [8,56]. The fine particles of silica fume (C-SF-S-5%) and poz-
zolanic reaction generated compact and dense microstructure,
facilitating the strength development and resistance to freeze–
thaw fatigue loading. The partial replacement of cement with
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

a) Pervious concrete produced with 5% SCMs b) Pervious concrete produced with 10% SCMs
Fig. 13. Accumulative mass loss of pervious concrete exposed to the combined attack of leaching and F-T Cycling.

Polymer latex crystal

Microcrack

Polymers covered cement hydrates C-S-H

Ca(OH)2 embedded in polymer latex

a) Polymer modified mix B-L-10% (28 days) b) Polymer modified mix -B-L-10% (90 days) c) Silica fume modified mix (C-SF-10%)

AFt

Tightly packed hydrated matrix

Cracks in matrix

d) Metakaolin modified mix (D-MK-10%) e) Binary mix (E-MK-SF-10%) f) Binary mix (E-MK-SF-10%)

Fig. 14. SEM investigation of pervious concrete mixes after 90 days of normal curing.

pozzolanic materials remarkably improved the densification of
microstructure; however, minor cracks were observed in the
matrix structure. The microstructure of SCMs modified mixes indi-
cates that the inclusion of silica fume and metakaolin exerted a
positive influence on the densification of the matrix with the assis-
tance of polycarboxylate superplasticizer. The fine particles of sil-
ica fume and metakaolin are uniformly distributed in the matrix
with no accumulation of fine particles on the surface of cement
hydrates; therefore, the cementitious matrix remained more
uniform, compact and intact with the decreased in plate like cal-
cium hydrate crystals and flocculent of C-S-H gel [57]. The binary
10
mix (E-SF-MK) at both 5% and 10% substitution significantly
improved the mechanical interface bonding among aggregate
particles, which ultimately improve the strength development of
pervious concrete. The optimization of polycarboxylate superplas-
ticizer at various trials adjusts the dosage of superplasticizer
for pervious concrete with no accumulation of silica fume-
metakaolin fine particles in cement hydration products and no dif-
ficulty was observed in the rheology of cement paste. The partial
replacement of cement with silica fume and metakaolin helped
in the mechanical interlocking and dense microstructure mainte-
nance by the means of pozzolanic reaction. Therefore, the physical
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al. Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124

actions of mineral admixtures provided a denser, more homoge- is attributed to the dissolution of Ca(OH)2 crystals, which are dis-
nous and uniform cement paste matrix suggesting better syner- solved first during the calcium leaching followed by progressive
getic performance between silica fume and metakaolin [58-59]. decalcification of calcium–silicate–hydrates (C-S-H) from
The cauliflower and porous structure after 28 and 90 days leaching calcium-rich type C-S-H progressively turned into the silicon-rich

Porous structure

Porous
C-S-H
Cracks in Ca(OH)2 on surface of
matrix i l

a) A-350-S-5% (28-days curing) b) A-350-S-5% (28-days leached) c) A-350-S-5% (90-days leached)

Polymer films bridges cement hydrates C-S-H gel in fine foil

Polymer films
CH covered cement
hydrates Porous
structure
Porous
structure

d) B-L-S-5% (28-days curing) e) B-L-S-5% (28-days leached) f) B-L-S-5% (90-days leached)

C-H crystals embedded in C-S-H

Tightly packed
hydrated C-S-H gels C-S-H
Pore
Ca(OH)2 on surface of
C-S-H gels i l

g) C-SF-S-5% (28-days curing) h) C-SF-S-5% (28-days leached) i) C-SF-S-5% (90-days leached)

Porous amorphous Ca(OH)2 on surface of

structure materials

C-S-
Crack passes H
through cement C-S-H
paste

j) D-MK-S-5% (28-days curing) k) D-MK-S-5% (28-days leached) l) D-MK-S-5% (90-days leached)

Fig. 15. SEM investigation of pervious concrete mixes at normal curing, 28 and 90 days leached in 6 M NH4NO3 solution.

11
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
Porous
Compacted cement paste
m) E-MK-SF-S-5% (28-days curing) n) E-MK-SF-S-5% (28-days leached)
Fig. 15 (continued)
C-S-H as shown in Fig. 15. The dissolution and rapid decalcification
of Ca(OH)2 lead to increased macro porosity, while the progressive
decalcification of calcium–silicate–hydrates (C-S-H) forms micro
gel pores [60]. After 90 days of leaching, the microstructure of all
previous concrete samples changes significantly and the calcium-
rich C-S-H altered to silicon-rich C-S-H with a more porous and
non-uniform matrix. The morphology of the cement paste matrix
changes during long exposure to the aggressive solution. The
needle-shaped crystals of gypsum formed on the surface of
cement-based materials when the Ca2+ ions on the surface of C-
S-H dissolved and combined with SO24 , therefore the Ca/Si ratio
of C-S-H decreased [61]. The comparison of mass change calcula-
tion with leaching confirmed that leaching of Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H
contributes to the mass and strength loss of the samples.
5. Conclusion
This research aimed at evaluating the use of silica fume, meta-
kaolin and SBR latex polymers on the mechanical and durability
degradation of pervious concrete exposed to freeze–thaw cycling,
calcium leaching and the combined attack of calcium leaching
and freeze–thaw cycling. Results indicated how supplementary
cementitious materials were beneficial to improve the durability
of the pervious concrete. The following conclusions can be derived:
1) Proper compaction and 5% fine sand inclusion in pervious
concrete mixes were demonstrated to be efficient in enhanc-
ing the strength and durability performance with adequate
permeability and being better than the SBR latex modified
pervious concrete.
2) The replacement of silica fume, metakaolin and binary com-
bination of silica fume and metakaolin from 5 to 10% in per-
vious concrete could help to achieve better mechanical and
durability performance with acceptable permeability and
porosity. The optimum content of supplementary cementi-
tious materials (SCMs) was found to be 10% based on
improvement in mechanical and freeze–thaw durability per-
formance of pervious concrete with acceptable functional
properties.
3) The leaching of calcium ions from the cement hydrates with
the leaching duration had a significantly negative effect on
the mass and strength loss of pervious concrete. The addi-
tion of silica fume and binary combination of silica fume
and metakaolin in cement paste matrix showed the best
resistance to calcium leaching. The compressive strength
significantly decreased due to the dissolution of calcium
hydroxide (C–H) and progressive decalcification of calcium
silicate hydrates (C-S-H). These morphological changes
12
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
Ca(OH)2 on surface of
i l
o) E-MK-SF-S-5% (90-days leached)
caused a decrease in the volume fraction of solid phases in
the cement matrix and consequently increased the porosity,
which ultimately reduced the strength and durability perfor-
mance of pervious concrete.
4) The damage and mass loss caused by combined attack of cal-
cium leaching and freeze–thaw cycling are greater than the
individual mechanism of freeze–thaw cycling or calcium
leaching. The combined attack significantly increased the
deterioration and destruction of pervious concrete com-
pared to samples exposed to only individual action of leach-
ing or freeze–thaw mechanism. Leaching itself does not
cause any dislodging of aggregate particles from the surface
of pervious concrete; however, the combined attack of cal-
cium leaching and freeze–thaw cycling amplifies the deteri-
oration and damage, leading to more severe damage than
the individual mechanism.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hassan Bilal: Investigation, Software, Validation, Formal analy-
sis, Data curation, Writing - original draft. Tiefeng Chen: Investiga-
tion, Software, Writing - review & editing. Miao Ren: Formal
analysis, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Xiaojian Gao:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review &
editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Anshuang Su: Data curation, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This research study was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 51778188) and the Practical
Technology Research and Development Program of Heilongjiang
Province-China [GA20C010].
References
[1] ACI Committee 522 (2010). Report on Pervious Concrete 522R-10, American
Concrete Institute, Report of ACI Committee 522, ACI 522R-10, (2010).
[2] P.D. Tennis, M.L. Leming, D.J. Akers, Pervious concrete pavements, Portland
Cement Association Skokie, IL, 2004.
[3] K. Wang, V. Schaefer, J. Kevern, M. Suleiman, Development of mix proportion
for functional and durable pervious concrete, NRMCA Concrete Technology
Forum: Focus on Pervious Concrete, 2006, pp. 24-25.
[4] T. Chen, X. Gao, Use of carbonation curing to improve mechanical strength and
durability of pervious concrete, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 8 (9) (2020) 3872–
3884, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b07348.
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
[5] T. Kevern John, R. Schaefer Vernon, Mixture proportioning considerations for
improved freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete, ISCORD (2013), https://
doi.org/10.1061/9780784412978.046.
[6] X. Shu, B. Huang, H. Wu, Q. Dong, E.G. Burdette, Performance comparison of
laboratory and field produced pervious concrete mixtures, Constr. Build.
Mater. 25 (8) (2011) 3187–3192, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2011.03.002.
[7] B. Huang, H. Wu, X. Shu, E.G. Burdette, Laboratory evaluation of
permeability and strength of polymer-modified pervious concrete, Constr.
Build. Mater. 24 (5) (2010) 818–823, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2009.10.025.
[8] H. Wu, Z. Liu, B. Sun, J. Yin, Experimental investigation on freeze–thaw
durability of Portland cement pervious concrete (PCPC), Constr. Build. Mater.
117 (2016) 63–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.130.
[9] C. Lian, Y. Zhuge, Optimum mix design of enhanced permeable concrete – an
experimental investigation, Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (12) (2010) 2664–2671,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.04.057.
[10] A. Bonicelli, F. Giustozzi, M. Crispino, Experimental study on the effects of fine
sand addition on differentially compacted pervious concrete, Constr. Build.
Mater. 91 (2015) 102–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2015.05.012.
[11] N. Saboo, S. Shivhare, K.K. Kori, A.K. Chandrappa, Effect of fly ash and
metakaolin on pervious concrete properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 223 (2019)
322–328, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.185.
[12] J.T. Kevern, V.R. Schaefer, K. Wang, Mixture proportion development and
performance evaluation of pervious concrete for overlay applications, ACI
Mater. J. 108 (4) (2011) 439–448.
[13] X. Yang, J. Liu, H. Li, Q. Ren, Performance and ITZ of pervious concrete modified
by vinyl acetate and ethylene copolymer dispersible powder, Constr. Build.
Mater. 235 (2020) 117532, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2019.117532.
[14] L. Qin, X. Gao, A. Su, Q. Li, Effect of carbonation curing on sulfate resistance of
cement-coal gangue paste, J. Cleaner Prod. 278 (2021) 123897, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123897.
[15] X. Liu, B. Ma, H. Tan, S. Jian, Z. Lv, P. Chen, T. Zhang, H. Qi, P. Wang, W. Lu,
Utilization of turmeric residue for the preparation of ceramic foam, J. Cleaner
Prod. 278 (2021) 123825, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123825.
[16] H. Li, Z. Xue, G. Liang, K. Wu, B. Dong, W. Wang, Effect of C-S-Hs-PCE and
sodium sulfate on the hydration kinetics and mechanical properties of cement
paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 266 (2021) 121096, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2020.121096.
[17] H. Li, C. Xu, B. Dong, Q. Chen, L. Gu, X. Yang, Enhanced performances of cement
and powder silane based waterproof mortar modified by nucleation C-S-H
seed, Constr. Build. Mater. 246 (2020) 118511, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2020.118511.
[18] X. Xie, T. Zhang, Y. Yang, Z. Lin, J. Wei, Q. Yu, Maximum paste coating thickness
without voids clogging of pervious concrete and its relationship to the
rheological properties of cement paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 168 (2018) 732–
746, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.128.
[19] B.E. Jimma, P.R. Rangaraju, Film-forming ability of flowable cement pastes and
its application in mixture proportioning of pervious concrete, Constr. Build.
Mater. 71 (2014) 273–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2014.08.018.
[20] A. Torres, J. Hu, A. Ramos, The effect of the cementitious paste thickness on the
performance of pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 95 (2015) 850–859,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.187.
[21] P. Chindaprasirt, S. Hatanaka, N. Mishima, Y. Yuasa, T. Chareerat, Effects of
binder strength and aggregate size on the compressive strength and void ratio
of porous concrete, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. 16 (6) (2009) 714–719, https://
doi.org/10.1016/S1674-4799(10)60018-0.
[22] G. Xu, W. Shen, X. Huo, Z. Yang, J. Wang, W. Zhang, X. Ji, Investigation on the
properties of porous concrete as road base material, Constr. Build. Mater. 158
(2018) 141–148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.151.
[23] L. Haselbach, M. Boyer, J.T. Kevern, V.R. Schaefer, Cyclic heat island impacts on
traditional versus pervious concrete pavement systems, Transp. Res. Rec. 2240
(1) (2011) 107–115, https://doi.org/10.3141/2240-14.
[24] Environmental Protection Agency, Storm Water Technology Fact Sheet—
Porous Pavement, Office of Water, Washington, DC, EPA 832-F-99-023, Sept.
1999.
[25] V.R. Schaefer, K. Wang, M.T. Suleiman, J.T. Kevern, Mix design development for
pervious concrete in cold weather climates, 2006.
[26] A. Ibrahim, E. Mahmoud, M. Yamin, V.C. Patibandla, Experimental study on
Portland cement pervious concrete mechanical and hydrological properties,
Constr. Build. Mater. 50 (2014) 524–529, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2013.09.022.
[27] K. Ćosić, L. Korat, V. Ducman, I. Netinger, Influence of aggregate type and size
on properties of pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 78 (2015) 69–76,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.073.
[28] Y.u. Chen, K. Wang, X. Wang, W. Zhou, Strength, fracture and fatigue of
pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 42 (2013) 97–104, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.01.006.
[29] J.T. Kevern, K. Wang, V.R. Schaefer, Effect of coarse aggregate on the freeze-
thaw durability of pervious concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22 (5) (2010) 469–475,
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000049.
13
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
[30] NRMCA, Freeze-Thaw Resistance of Pervious Concrete, National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Maryland, 2004.
[31] V. Henderson, S. Tighe, Evaluation of pervious concrete pavement performance
in cold weather climates, Int. J. Pavement Eng. 13 (3) (2012) 197–208, https://
doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2011.572970.
[32] X. Cui, J. Zhang, D. Huang, X. Gong, Z. Liu, F. Hou, S. Cui, Measurement of
permeability and the correlation between permeability and strength of
pervious concrete, DEStech Trans. Eng. Tech. Res. (ICTIM) (2017), https://doi.
org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002058.
[33] S.W. Dean, J.T. Kevern, V.R. Schaefer, K. Wang, M.T. Suleiman, Pervious
concrete mixture proportions for improved freeze-thaw durability, J. ASTM Int.
5 (2) (2008) 101320, https://doi.org/10.1520/JAI101320.
[34] J. Yang, G. Jiang, Experimental study on properties of pervious concrete
pavement materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (3) (2003) 381–386, https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00966-3.
[35] M. Suleiman, J. Kevern, V. Schaefer, K. Wang, Effect of compaction energy on
pervious concrete properties, Submitted to Concrete Technology Forum-Focus
on Pervious Concrete, National Ready Mix Concrete Association, Nashville, TN,
May, 2006, pp. 23-25.
[36] F. Giustozzi, Polymer-modified pervious concrete for durable and sustainable
transportation infrastructures, Constr. Build. Mater. 111 (2016) 502–512,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.136.
[37] J.T. Kevern, K. Wang, V.R. Schaefer, pervious concrete in severe exposures,
Concr. Int. 30 (07) (2008) 43–49.
[38] I. Anderson, D. Walsh, L. Oka, M.M. Dewoolkar, S. Limberg, A. Sevi, E.
Schmeckpeper, Laboratory Performance of Pervious Concrete Subjected to
Deicing Salts and Freeze-Thaw, 2015.
[39] C. Tsang, M.H. Shehata, A. Lotfy, Optimizing a test method to evaluate
resistance of pervious concrete to cycles of freezing and thawing in the
presence of different deicing salts, Materials, 9 (11) (2016), https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma9110878.
[40] K. Wang, V.R. Schaefer, J.T. Kevern, M.T. Suleiman, Development
of mix proportion for functional and durable pervious concrete, 2006,
pp. 24-25.
[41] Z. Yang, Freezing-and-thawing durability of pervious concrete under
simulated field conditions, MJ 108 (2) (2011) 187–195.
[42] Z. Yang, H. Brown, A. Cheney, Influence of moisture conditions on freeze
and thaw durability of Portland cement pervious concrete, Citeseer (2006)
24–25.
[43] J.T. Kevern, D. Biddle, Q. Cao, Effects of macrosynthetic fibers on pervious
concrete properties, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 27 (9) (2015) 06014031, https://doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001213.
[44] W.S. Guthrie, C.B. DeMille, D.L. Eggett, Effects of soil clogging and water
saturation on freeze–thaw durability of pervious concrete, Transp. Res. Rec.
2164 (1) (2010) 89–97, https://doi.org/10.3141/2164-12.
[45] T. Chen, X. Gao, How carbonation curing influences calcium leaching of
Portland cement paste: mechanism and mathematical modeling, J. Am. Ceram.
Soc. 102 (2019) 7755–7767, https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.16684.
[46] K. Wan, L. Li, W. Sun, Solid–liquid equilibrium curve of calcium in 6mol/L
ammonium nitrate solution, Cem. Concr. Res. 53 (2013) 44–50, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.003.
[47] Z. Mo, X. Gao, A. Su, Mechanical performances and microstructures of
metakaolin contained UHPC matrix under steam curing conditions, Constr.
Build. Mater. 268 (2021) 121112, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2020.121112.
[48] F.H. Heukamp, F.-J. Ulm, J.T. Germaine, Mechanical properties of calcium-
leached cement pastes, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (5) (2001) 767–774, https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00472-0.
[49] A.S. Agar-Ozbek, J. Weerheijm, E. Schlangen, K. van Breugel, Investigating
porous concrete with improved strength: testing at different scales, Constr.
Build. Mater. 41 (2013) 480–490, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2012.12.040.
[50] F. Xu, M. Zhou, J. Chen, S. Ruan, Mechanical performance evaluation of
polyester fiber and SBR latex compound-modified cement concrete road
overlay material, Constr. Build. Mater. 63 (2014) 142–149, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.054.
[51] S. Kamali, M. Moranville, S. Leclercq, Material and environmental parameter
effects on the leaching of cement pastes: experiments and modelling, Cem.
Concr. Res. 38 (4) (2008) 575–585, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconres.2007.10.009.
[52] D.H. Nguyen, M. Boutouil, N. Sebaibi, F. Baraud, L. Leleyter, Durability of
pervious concrete using crushed seashells, Constr. Build. Mater. 135 (2017)
137–150, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.219.
[53] R. Zhong, K. Wille, Material design and characterization of high performance
pervious concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 98 (2015) 51–60, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.027.
[54] L. Liu, X. Wang, J. Zhou, H. Chu, D. Shen, H. Chen, S. Qin, Investigation of pore
structure and mechanical property of cement paste subjected to the coupled
action of freezing/thawing and calcium leaching, Cem. Concr. Res. 109 (2018)
133–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.015.
[55] M. Rosenqvist, L.-W. Pham, A. Terzic, K. Fridh, M. Hassanzadeh, Effects of
interactions between leaching, frost action and abrasion on the surface
deterioration of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 149 (2017) 849–860, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.137.
H. Bilal, T. Chen, M. Ren et al.
[56] W. Shen, L. Shan, T. Zhang, H. Ma, Z. Cai, H. Shi, Investigation on polymer–
rubber aggregate modified porous concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 38 (2013)
667–674, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.006.
[57] P. Duan, Z. Shui, W. Chen, C. Shen, Effects of metakaolin, silica fume and slag on
pore structure, interfacial transition zone and compressive strength of
concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 44 (2013) 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2013.02.075.
[58] J. Zhang, H. Tan, M. Bao, X. Liu, Z. Luo, P. Wang, Low carbon cementitious
materials: sodium sulfate activated ultra-fine slag/fly ash blends at ambient
temperature, J. Cleaner Prod. 280 (2021) 124363, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2020.124363.
14
Construction and Building Materials 275 (2021) 122124
[59] T. Zhang, B. Ma, H. Tan, X. Liu, P. Chen, Z. Luo, Effect of TIPA on mechanical
properties and hydration properties of cement-lithium slag system, J. Environ.
Manage. 276 (2020) 111274, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111274.
[60] Q.T. Phung, N. Maes, D. Jacques, G. De Schutter, G. Ye, Investigation of the
changes in microstructure and transport properties of leached cement pastes
accounting for mix composition, Cem. Concr. Res. 79 (2016) 217–234, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.09.017.
[61] X. Wang, K. Xu, Y. Li, S. Guo, Dissolution and leaching mechanisms of calcium
ions in cement based materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 180 (2018) 103–108,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.225.