Parent Stock Management Guide

Parent Stock
Management
Guide
Introduction
For many years Hendrix Genetics Layers has been breeding white parent stock, brown parent stock and commercial
stock for the world market. As the result of a balanced breeding program Hendrix Genetics breeds demonstrate
an ever increasing genetic potential, both in technical and economic performance. Over the years new breeding
technology has been introduced to further increase genetic development.
The full genetic potential of these breeds will only be achieved through good management and the know- how of
experienced poultry farmers and hatchery managers. The phenotype is the combined result of the genotype and the
environment.
This manual is a guide to general and specific rules as well as advice on reproduction and hatching egg production. The
objective is to help poultry farmers and hatcheries to achieve optimum results.
Local conditions may require specific adaptations of management practices to achieve optimal results.
We trust that this management guide will make a positive contribution to the continuous improvement in performance
of layer parent stock and hatchery results. For more detailed and customized advice, please contact your area
representative.
Villa ‘de Körver’

P.O. Box 114
5830 AC Boxmeer
The Netherlands, EU
T +31 485 319111
E layers@hendrix-genetics.com
hendrix-genetics.com
Version L7121-2
2 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Contents Parent Stock Management Guide
Introduction 2
Hygiene and sanitation

Basic hygiene rules 6
Housing types 6
Personnel and visitors 7
Clean up and disinfection 7
Flock management 7
Management
General management during the brooding period 8
Equipment and environment 9
Cage brooding 11
Temperature and humidity 11
Lighting program 13
Feeding program 14
General management during the growing period 15
Housing and equipment 15
Feeding program 16
Feeding techniques 17
Monitoring development 18
Male management 20
Beak treatment 20
Male percentages 20
Sexual behavior 21
Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 3

Removal of sexing errors 21
Lighting programs 22
Lighting program in dark houses 23
Lighting program in semi-dark (brown-out) or open-sided houses 24
Lighting program for hot climates 25
Light intensity 26
Mid night lighting 26
General management during the production period 27
Transfer 27
Housing and equipment 28
Mating ratios 31
Controlling behavior 32
Beak treatment 32
Pecking and prolapse 34
Smothering 36
Broodiness 37
Preventing ﬂoor eggs 38

Parent Stock Management Guide
Nutrition
Basic feeding principles for chicks 40
Feeding during the rearing period 40
Feed speciﬁcations during rearing period 42
Feeding program during the production period 46
Amino acids requirements for layer parent stock 48
Feed formulation 49
Amino acids recommendations for layer parent stock 50
Calcium nutrition and particle size 52
Mineral and oil level recommendations 55
Fiber for breeders 58
The care for hatching eggs

Quality requirements for hatching eggs 61
Collection of hatching eggs 62
Floor eggs 62
Egg sanitation 63
Storage of hatching eggs 65
Reference list Parent Stock Management Guide 66

Hygiene and sanitation
Basic hygiene rules

A good biosecurity system is crucial to prevent production problems (drops in egg production or hatchability) or issues
with day old chick quality, which may occur if breeders are affected by diseases that can bevertically transmitted.
Any national and local legislation, regulations and environmental restrictions must be followed. Prevention is always
better than cure. Breeder farms should ideally be located well away from other poultry houses, and be managed under
“all-in-all-out” principles, in order to prevent contamination between flocks of different ages.
Housing types
Whatever the building style, houses should be constructed in such a way that they can be easily and thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected, inbetween flocks. The walls and roofs should contain insulation with a moisture barrier and
rodent proof materials. Ceiling height should be adequate for proper ventilation. Equipment used in the house should
be designed for easy access and removal for clean-out, maintenance and biosecurity considerations.
With electrically powered equipment, it is essential to use a reliable source of electrical power. In houses with a
controlled environment, standby generators and power failure alarms are necessary.
Storage rooms, where material to be used in the breeder farm is stocked, must also be bird- and rodent-proof.
Houses should be bird-proof to prevent disease transmission from wild birds. Every air inlet should be equipped
with nets to prevent this risk. Bait stations should be placed inside and outside the houses in order to control rodent
activity. They should be checked regularly (once a month) in order to refill them, and the frequency of inspection
should be increased during outbreaks of rodent activity. Wild animals should not have access to feed and water to
prevent vermin.
Insects can also be a source of contamination. Insect activity should be monitored in order to apply appropriate
treatments at the right time. Only insecticides permitted for use in close proximity to animals should be used during
the rearing and production periods. We strongly recommend the use of an insecticide in the house, just after depletion
and a second treatment, just before the arrival of the replacement flock.
Ideally, equipment should be dedicated exclusively to one house and if the introduction of equipment or tools from
another house is necessary, they should be carefully disinfected. The risk from vehicles entering the farms has to be
managed also.

Personnel and visitors

Visits should be strictly controlled and visitors should confirm that they have had no recent contact with other birds.
Entry should be through a cloakroom with a full change of clothes, and if possible, after taking a shower. Special care
should be taken with boots, which should be disinfected before entering the poultry houses. Cloakroom design should
clearly show different areas with a dirty zone to remove “civilian” clothes, and a clean one, in which to put the farm
clothes on.
In order to prevent cross contamination farm employees should not have poultry or pet birds at home. Dedicated
personnel for each flock is a must to reduce the risk of contamination from house to house. If this is not possible, visits
should always be done from younger to older houses, finishing with sick flocks if there are any. Dogs and cats should
be kept out of the farm.
Clean up and disinfection

Bacteria and viruses can survive in environments for a long time. After flock depletion, houses have to be cleaned and
disinfected carefully, to prevent contamination with pathogens from the previous flock.
These protocols should be followed:

• Do not use this feed for other flocks.
• Remove remaining feed from the house.
• Take out non-permanent equipment.
• Remove manure. Do not store it on the farm site.
• Clean the house using a detergent and if possible hot water. Special care should be provided to ventilation system
(air inlets, fans).
• Rinse with clear water.
• Disinfect the house by spraying with a disinfectant.
• The resting period starts when the above operations have been completed and lasts for at least 10 days. The
cloakroom should be operational again (change of clothes + shower if available) in order to prevent introduction of
pathogens in the house after its disinfection.
• Let the house dry.
• Monitor the effectiveness of clean up by visual examination and bacteriological analysis.
• A few days before delivery of the next flock fumigate the house. After the building is fumigated, close up for 24
hours and then air out for another 24 hours.
Flock management
Dead birds can be a source of bacteria multiplication, so they have to be removed from the house every day and be
disposed of in a hygienic way.
Normal production parameters should be registered and monitored in order to detect any abnormalities (reduction of
lay, feed consumption or bodyweight). This is the best way to implement early corrective actions in order to solve any
problem that might occur.

Management
General Management during the brooding period
The rearing period is of major importance for the performance of the breeders. The productivity of a flock depends to
a large extent on the successful attainment of bodyweight targets from an early age.
The objectives during the brooding period are:

• rapid growth to reach body weight target at 5 weeks of age
• good uniformity from the beginning
• excellent livability
From one day old to 5 weeks of age is a key period. The immune system and vital organs develop and the body frame
(muscles and skeleton) is built. Any delay in growth during this stage will have a detrimental impact on pullet quality
and body composition and then in later live on performance. The breeder chick’s ability to resist disease and to
respond to vaccines may also be negatively affected.
Figure 1: Bodyweight development
Skeletal
BW Growth
Growth g / day
Organs
Calcium
increase
Muscle at prelay Reproductive tract
Fat
Medullary bone
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Weeks in age

Equipment and environment

Table 1: Equipment requirements for the brooding period
Floor Cages
Age (weeks) 0–2 2–5 0–3 3–5

Ventilation Minimum per hour / kg 0.7 m 3
0.7 m 3
0.7 m 3
0.7 m3
Birds / m2 20 12 80 45
Stocking density
cm / bird
2
125 220
Chicks / chick drinker 75 80
Water supply Birds / drinker 75 75
Birds / nipple 10 10 10 10
Birds / starting pan 50
Feed supply (*) cm of chain feeders 4 5 2 4
Birds / round feeder 38 - 63 38 - 63
(*) To calculate feeder space availability when chain feeders are used, both sides of the trough should be taken into
account.
When round feeders are used, calculate pan circumference based on diameter to get at least 50% (2.5 cm) of the
recommended feeder space for the chain feeder.
Table 2: Pan diameter per number of birds
Pan diameter Number of birds / feeder (max.)
30 38
40 50
50 63

Key points:
• Flush water lines prior to arrival of the chicks, and make sure that no disinfectant is left in the water lines when the
chicks arrive.
• Make sure that the nipples and round drinkers are at the correct height - nipples at eye level of the chicks and round
drinkers on the floor.
• Whatever drinking system is in use check whether the water supply is sufficient. When nipples are used, adjust the
water pressure so that the chicks can see the water drop on the nipple and the water flows easily, at the lightest
touch.
• If the chicks have been infrared beak treated in the hatchery, it is very important to use sideways activated nipples
(360°) or nipple drinkers with cups and to use supplementary starting mini drinkers.
• Put paper under the nipples to attract the chicks and also put extra feed on the paper or in cardboard trays.
• Check that all the birds, even the smaller ones, have access to feed and water.
• After a long transport duration, it is useful to wait for 3 to 4 hours before distributing feed, to make sure chicks first
drink enough water to restore their body fluid.
• During the first 2 days use tepid water at 25°C to 30°C.
• In hot conditions, be careful not to let water temperature increase too much, as this may reduce the feed intake of
the chicks. Regularly flush the water lines to maintain the temperature.
• The removal of the supplementary starter drinkers should be done gradually, making sure that the chicks have
acquired the habit of using the other drinkers.
• It is useful to monitor water consumption.
• To maintain litter quality, it is necessary to avoid water spillage, by carefully regulating the drinkers or the nipples.
• The drinkers should be always kept clean. For the first 2 weeks, they should be cleaned at least on a daily basis.
Figure 2: Recommended layout for 500 chicks Figure 3: Radiant heater position and ground temperature
C
E
B 32°C to 35°C
C
A: radiant heater of 1450 Kcal capacity

B: drinkers (5) but (7) for hot climate
C: feed trays (10)
D: 75 watt bulb at 1.5M above floor level
E: surround : 4m diameter - 0.6m high

Cage brooding
Key points:
• Provide one additional drinker per cage for the first week.
• Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples.
• Spread sheets of paper over the cage bottom to last for 7 days, remove one sheet every day.
• Place feed under the nipples and close to the automatic feeder to attract the chicks.
• Start placing the chicks in the warmest and brightest area.
• Make sure environmental conditions (temperature, ventilation, light) are uniform throughout the house. In cage
systems, chicks cannot move around freely in search for their area of comfort. Uneven starting conditions lead to
lack of flock uniformity.
• Cage height should be at least 60cm to allow optimal development of males.
Temperature and humidity

In order to ensure that the equipment and the litter are warm for chick arrival, we advise starting to raise the house
temperature at least 36 hours before chick arrival so that it reaches 28 to 31°C. The concrete floor must be at 28°C
and litter at 30°C.
Air temperature at the arrival of the chicks should be 33-35°C. The best way to check if the house temperature is
correct during the first days after arrival is to measure the cloacal temperature of the chicks (40°C). We recommend
taking the temperature of at least 20 chicks throughout the house to get a good indication of the situation. Day old
chicks cannot regulate their own body temperature, so they depend on ambient conditions. Be aware that chick body
temperature reacts quickly after ambient conditions have been changed.
Find the correct set point for house air temperature by managing the body temperature of the chicks. Start checking
the body temperature of the chicks every hour after placement. Keep checking body temperatures until the correct
temperatures have been achieved and the situation is stabilized.
At day 5 the chicks will normally be able to keep up their own body temperature (within limits) and a rise in body
temperature will automatically follow to about 41°C. From there on, set point for house air temperature can be
gradually reduced (e.g. 0.5°C per day).
Measuring litter temperature Measuring chick body temperature

Table 3: Standards for temperature and humidity
Age Brooding temperature Room temperature Relative humidity
(days) At the edge of At 2-3m from Optimum-

the brooders the brooders maximum in %
0–3 35°C 29 – 28°C 35 – 33°C 55 – 60
4–7 34°C 28 – 27°C 32 – 31°C 55 – 60
8 – 14 32°C 27 – 26°C 30 – 28°C 55 – 60
15 – 21 29°C 26 – 25°C 28 – 26°C 55 – 60
22 – 24 25 – 23°C 25 – 23°C 55 – 65
25 – 28 23 – 21°C 23 – 21°C 55 – 65
29 – 35 21 – 19°C 21 – 19°C 60 – 70
After 35 19 – 17°C 19 – 17°C 60 – 70
This table should be used as a guide but temperatures can be adjusted according to the behavior and distribution of
chicks:
• If the chicks crowd together under the brooder temperature is too low.
• If the chicks are close to the surround the temperature is too high.
Figure 4: Distribution behavior according to temperature
Too cold Too warm Draught Ideal
Key points:
• Chicks should be unloaded immediately after arriving. Avoid dehydration due to exposure to high temperatures.
• For the first week confine chicks to floor brooder areas and prevent air drafts.
• Temperature and relative humidity should be uniform throughout the building.
• Changes in temperature should be carried out gradually.
• Some ventilation is necessary during the first weeks to provide enough oxygen and to eliminate carbon dioxide,
water vapour, ammonia as well as carbon monoxide from combustion. Maximum levels not to be exceeded are:
• CO2: maximum 2500 ppm

• CO: < 10 ppm
• NH3: maximum 20 ppm

Lighting program
Table 4: Lighting program in brooding according to age and rearing house system
Rearing in dark or semi-dark house Rearing in hot climate (open houses)

Light duration Light intensity Light duration Light intensity
1 – 3 days 22 hours 20 – 40 lux 24 - 23 hours 40 lux
4 – 7 days 20 hours 15 – 30 lux 22 hours 40 lux
During the first few days, it is important to keep the chicks under a maximum light regime (22 to 23 hours) with a high
intensity (30-40 lux) in order to encourage the intake of water and feed. After the first few days the light intensity
should be gradually reduced to reach a level of about 10 lux at 15 days of age in dark houses. Light intensity will also
depend on bird behavior.
Note: A cyclical program could be applied for the first 2 weeks (4 hours of light / 2 hours of dark, repeated 4 times,
to equal 24 hours) followed by the recommended lighting program, which is 18 hours of light on the third week. This
program can only be implemented if it is compatible with local regulations.
Figure 5: Cyclical program for the first 2 weeks of age
00:00 - 02:00
20:00 - 24:00
02:00 - 06:00
18:00 - 20:00
06:00 - 08:00
14:00 - 18:00
08:00 - 12:00
12:00 - 14:00

Feeding program
During the period from one day old to five weeks old, the chick is not able to adapt its feed consumption to its
energy level. To encourage good growth, we recommend using a diet presented in crumb form, with an adequate
concentration of protein (20.5%) and energy (2950 Kcal/kg) - from 0 to 28 days in temperate climates and from
0 to 35 days in hot climates- until the bodyweight target is reached.
Micro-pellets specially produced to feed young chicks until 7 to 10 days of age, are also a good alternative if available.
They provide a homogeneous and suitable feed form for young chicks that will be helpful for a good start.
Key points:
• Check feed intake after arrival. Take a sample of 30 - 40 chicks from 3 or 4 different places in
the house and check for filled crops. Target is at least 80% of crops filled after 10 hours and 95% after 24 hours.
• Check the quality of the crumbs. They should not be too hard and be of suitable size (1.5 to 2mm).
• Young chicks should be fed “ad libitum”, but avoid the build-up of fine particles in the feeders in the first weeks,
making sure they are emptied at least once each week. We recommend distributing smaller quantities of feed several
times per day during the first 4 weeks.
• Start using the automatic feeding system from the very beginning, so that chicks get accustomed to it.
• An even distribution of feeders over the brooding area will make it easier for the chicks to locate the feed.
• Monitor growth by taking the body weight of a sample of birds:
• Before 28 days, weigh a group of a minimum of 100 birds each week.

• From 4 weeks of age, start weekly individual weighing (at least 100 chicks) to determine flock uniformity.
• If the flock is divided into separate pens, it is important to take a sample of 50 birds from each pen and then to
calculate the overall mean.

General Management during the growing period
After a good start during the growing period, the objective is to ensure the full development of the breeders so that
they reach their highest potential for producing eggs and commercial chicks.
The objectives during the growing period are:

• to achieve the recommended weight at 5% production
• to establish a good feeding behavior pattern
• to develop the digestive tract (crop and gizzard)
• to obtain a good uniformity of at least 80%
These objectives can be achieved by:

• a correct stocking density and housing conditions
• a lighting program adapted to the rearing conditions
• a good standard of beak treatment (when local legislation allows the application of beak treatment)
• a good management of the feeding program and feeding techniques
Housing and equipment

Table 5: Equipment requirements for the rearing period
Floor Cages
Age (in weeks) 6 – 17 6 – 17

Required capacity of the
4m3 4m3
Ventilation system per hour / kg
Minimum per hour / kg 0.7m3 0.7m3
Depending on the
Perches 5-10cm/bird -
stocking density
Birds / m2 10 28
Stocking densities * Birds / m (hot climate)
2
8 -
cm / bird
2
350
Cage height - - 60cm
Birds / drinker 100
Water supply Birds/drinker (hot climate) 75
Birds / nipple 9 9 **
cm of trough feeders / bird 8 6
Feed supply ***
Birds / round feeder 24 - 39
* If males are reared separated, increase floor/cage space by 25%.

** Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples.
*** To calculate feeder space availability when chain feeders are used, both sides of the trough should be taken into
account. When round feeders are used, calculate pan circumference based on diameter to get at least 50% (4cm) of
the recommended feeder space for the chain feeder (see table 2).

Drinking nipples should assure a water flow of 30 to 90 ml of water per minute. The required water flow rate depends
on the presence of cups (60-90 ml/minute) or without cups (30-50 ml/minute).
Note: the water flow rate in nipple systems depends on the type of drinking nipple system and therefore the supplier
should provide the system specific values.
We recommend using a feeding system which distributes feed rapidly throughout the house and enables the
birds to finish all the feed distributed each day. This encourages the birds’ intake capacity and avoids fine particle
accumulation. Feed troughs with rapid chains are the best option, with the easiest feed intake control. If pan or tube
feeders are used, they should be adapted specifically for this technique.
Feeding program
The diet for the rearing period must be adapted to the actual evolution of the frame and bodyweight development.
Starter diet is recommended from one-day old to 4 weeks old and can be extended up to 5 or 6 weeks to secure
frame development. Frame development occurs for the large part during the first 8 weeksof the rearing period.
Grower diet is recommended from 4 weeks old to 10 weeks old and can be extended up to 11 or 12 weeks old, in
order to secure growth. As the rearing period objective is also to develop the digestive tract, this grower diet is high in
energy content and should not be given after 12 weeks old. The risk being to reduce the development of the digestive
tract and feed intake at the start of lay as a result of using feed with too high energy content.
The distribution of a developer diet up to 16 weeks will help the development of the crop capacity thanks to a lower
energy level than grower feed, and slightly lower than the pre-lay or layer feed.
In order to secure the development of the medullar bone which acts as a reservoir of calcium used for shell formation,
we advise the use of a pre-lay feed for the two weeks before 2% production.
The detailed specifications for each of these diets are explained in a separate chapter.

Feeding techniques
The feeding techniques used between 5 and 16 weeks are designed to:
• avoid the build-up of fine particles
• encourage crop development through rapid feed intake
Birds are grain eaters by nature, with a strong preference for coarse particles. Fine particles are more difficult for birds
to eat, therefore they spend more energy for the same quantity consumed. The accumulation of fine particles in the
feeding system leads to under-consumption. Therefore, it is essential that the feeders are emptied every day. This rule
applies equally to pullets and layers.
Feed management in rearing has an impact on feed consumption later in production. The idea is to develop the
digestive tract during the rearing phase to prepare the birds to eat enough during the laying phase, especially
immediately after transfer, when feed intake should increase sharply in just a few weeks. The crop is the bird’s feed
storage organ. It allows the bird to eat enough feed in the evening to satisfy its energy needs throughout the night.
Rapid feed consumption during rearing leads to crop development. Therefore, feed consumption during the rearing
period needs to be fast enough, and eating speed will depend mainly on feeding times and feed texture. Since birds
naturally eat more early in the morning and in the evening, it is important to take advantage of this natural behavior
and get empty feeders in the middle of the day.
Figure 6: Feed distribution management in rearing
60% of the feed in the afternoon
2 to 3h00
Night time Night time

Empty feeders every day 2 to 3h00
12h00 of light at plateau
To encourage rapid consumption, we recommend that the complete daily ration should be given about 2 to 3 hours
before “lights off”. At “lights on”, because the digestive system is empty, the birds will eat finer particles. If the feeding
system does not allow the entire daily ration to be given in one distribution, distribute 60% of the daily ration in
the early afternoon and the 40% in the morning at “lights on”. This feeding routine can be started between 4 and 8
weeks according to the feeding equipment in use. The length of time, during which the feeders are empty, should be
gradually increased, so that by around 10-12 weeks of age the feeders are empty for a minimum of 2 to 3 hours per
day. It is however possible, to give two distributions in the afternoon, provided that the feeding periods are kept short.
Pullet feed presented in coarse particles helps gizzard development.
Supplying insoluble grit is a good alternative for gizzard development:

• From 3 to 10 weeks of age: 3g per bird per week (particle size 2 to 3mm)
• After 10 weeks: 4 to 5g per bird per week (particle size 3 to 5mm).
It is also possible, from 10 weeks onwards, to use 50% of the calcium in the diet supplied in coarse particle form
(particle size between 2 and 4mm) to encourage gizzard development.

Monitoring development
Weekly measurement of growth is a must to check the actual development of the flock. Early detection of abnormal
weight gain is of extreme importance to determine what corrective actions must be taken.
Late attempts to correct low bodyweight are not efficient at improving body composition and frame size. In addition to
this, monitoring of body weight is essential to calculate the appropriate quantity of feed to be issued, as requirements
vary according to the energy level of the diet as well as the house temperature and the health status of the flock.
Besides the average body weight of the flock it is also important to calculate its uniformity. The objective is to have a
high uniformity to ensure an even response across the flock to management techniques, treatments and especially to
light stimulation. If all the birds have a uniform development, they will react more or less as one.
Method of weighing control:

• Weighing time should be fixed, preferably in the afternoon.
• We advise carrying out individual weighing and using histogram type weighing sheets (as per the chart below) which
shows at a glance the weight distribution within the population.
Figure 7: Example of a weighing sheet
Body weight recoding chart
Grams No. Birds 10 15 20 25 30 35 Rearer

600
20 Rearing
40 Actual
60 Mean WL
80 792
700 x x x x x Target
20 x x x x x x x x Weight
40 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 790
60 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Grams
80 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Over/(under)
800 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 2
20 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x % eveness
40 x x x x x x x x x . + or - 10 %
60 x x x x x 86,21
80 x x x x . + or - 10 %
900 x x x
20 x x x x
40 St. Dev
60 53,65
80 cv %
1000 6,8
Time of Weighing a.m. / p.m. Weighed by :-
Comments

• A sample of a minimum of 100 birds should be taken to obtain a good estimate of mean bodyweight and uniformity.
However, if the flock is divided into separate pens, it is necessary to take a sample of 60 birds from each pen and
then to calculate the overall mean.
• When rearing in cages, weigh all the birds from 5 or 6 cages, chosen at random, in different parts of the poultry
house, to make up a sample.
The most important factor in judging the quality of a flock is its uniformity. A batch is uniform when at least 80% of
the weights lie within a range of ± 10% of the mean. Using modern weighing devices, it is also possible to obtain the
coefficient of variation (CV), which is the ratio of standard deviation to the mean of the population expressed in %.
A CV below 8% is considered to be good.
If uniformity/CV % is outside the target range, it is necessary to identify the causes and to check:
• Feeder space and position
• Speed of the feed chain
• Quality of beak treatment
• Vaccination status
• Disease and parasitism
• Housing density
Depending on the conclusions, management should be adapted to improve uniformity.

Male Management
It is preferable to rear males and females together from one day old. This has given satisfactory results in terms of
liveability and production, whilst preventing stress due to social interactions that can occur when males are placed into
the female flock, at a later stage. In some circumstances, especially for white breeders or when males are underweight,
males may be kept separated during the first few weeks, and then spread evenly among the females before 4 weeks
of age. If males are reared separately until the end of the rearing period, they should be mingled gradually with the
females to minimize any possible problems derived from aggressiveness (see “Sexual Behavior”).
We recommend that males are also weighed regularly.
Beak treatment
A slight trimming of the beak can avoid pecking and injury to females. The age at which beak treatment is carried out
must be in line with local regulations.
Male percentages
From one day old we recommend between 10% and a maximum 12% of males, so there is some safety margin to cover
eventual selection.
At the start of lay, the percentage of males should be reduced to between 8% and 10% of first quality males. These
males should have the following characteristics:
• Uniform bodyweight • Good muscle tone and body condition

• Free of physical abnormalities (alert and active) • Bright and red combs
• Strong, straight legs and toes • Comb, wattles and vent showing evidence of
• Well feathered mating activity (only during the production period)
• Good upright posture
Extra males should be kept in a separate pen to be introduced as replacements in case of male mortality or culls.
The mating ratio during the production period should be reviewed weekly. Based on assessments of physical condition
and bodyweight, any males considered to be non-working should be removed from the flock in line with these
recommendations:
• Select all lame males with footpad problems,

bumble foot, curled toes etc.
• Select males with dull combs.
• Non working males will often hide in the nests.
• Active males have a large, wet and red cloaca and
wet vent area.
• Productive males are always alert, well spread
between the females and have red combs.
Males with feet problems should be selected
Surplus males must be removed quickly or a considerable loss in persistency of fertility will result
(see “Sexual Behavior”).

Sexual behavior
In some circumstances, by the end of rearing, early-mature males may encircle the females, which will prevent
normal feeding and lead to reduced female growth and unevenness. If this happens, we recommend putting at least
30% of the males in a separate pen. If the females are still being encircled, take out more males. These males should
be progressively returned back to the flock, as production increases, based on observed behavior. Introduce a few
each day, distributing them evenly over the poultry house, preferably during the dark hours, to minimize the risk of
aggressiveness.
During rearing we recommend a separate pen for males displaying aggressive behavior as they approach sexual
maturity.
A surplus of males leads to over-mating, interrupted mating, and abnormal behavior. Over-mated flocks will exhibit
reductions in fertility, hatchability and egg numbers. In the early stages, after mating-up, it is quite normal to observe
some displacement and wear of the feathers at the back of female’s head and of the feathers on the back at the base of
the tail. When this condition progresses to the removal of feathers, this is a sign of over-mating. If the mating ratio is
not reduced, the condition will worsen with de-feathering of areas of the back and skin scratches occurring. This may
lead to low welfare, deterioration in the condition of females and reduced egg production. Over-mated females may
be seen “hiding” from the males beneath equipment, in nest boxes, or refuse to come down from the slatted area.
Excessive injuries and feather damage to the males as a result of fighting may also occur.
Removal of sexing errors

To assure the correct genetic combination of parent stock and the corresponding commercial day old bird, it is vital to
only keep the birds from the correct genetic lines in production. This means that all the sexing errors:
• For the grand parent stock flocks namely sisters of the males of lines A and C, as well as brothers of the females of
lines B and D must be culled,
• For the parent stock flocks all the sexing errors, namely sisters of the males (AxB) as well as the brothers of the
females (CxD) must be eliminated.
These sexing errors are easily recognized during the hatching process because a special identification has been made
for each sex, especially when grand parent stock day old chicks are delivered. Hendrix Genetics does not dub the
parent stock males from the lines “Rhode Island Red” as they are easy to recognize in a parent stock flock. Depending
on which local regulations apply, the males from the white feathered (grand) parent lines can be dubbed to ensure
recognition of possible sexing errors.
If these sexing errors are kept in production it may result in erratic offspring as a result of incorrect mating. The
offspring could be difficult to sex, resulting in sexing errors, low hatchability of females and /or strange sex ratios (as a
result of mis-sexed day old chicks). In addition, the commercial hens resulting from incorrect mating can have a genetic
profile which differs from the expected one, mostly resulting in a lack of performance, different phenotype, different
egg colour or size etc).

Lighting Programs
Chickens are sensitive to changes in the lighting period, and this will influence the age of sexual maturity. In addition,
feed consumption is greatly influenced by the duration of day length.
Lighting programs have, therefore, different objectives:
In rearing:
• To promote early development and encourage feed intake and growth
• To control the birds’ sexual maturity
During production:
• To encourage growth at start of lay
• To counteract the harmful effects of decreases in natural day length
• To control liveability through light intensity management
In addition to this, in layer breeders it is important to obtain:

• Rapid increase in egg size in order to get a high percentage of hatching eggs of more than 52g of weight, as soon as
possible, which will produce chicks of good quality and liveability
• Good quality shells to obtain the maximum rate of hatching eggs
To attain these goals, we advise avoiding a very early onset of lay. We therefore recommend a lighting program with a
slow decrease in day-length and which avoids any light stimulation before 5% of lay.

Lighting program in dark houses

We consider a dark house to be a building in which all the light penetrating from outside sources produces an intensity
of less than 0.5 lux. The advantage of these buildings is that it allows total control of light intensity and day-length.
The following program should be used as a guide and should be adapted to the specific circumstances of the farm and
according to the performance results previously obtained.
Table 6: Lighting program for dark houses
Age Light duration (hours) Intensity (lux)
1 – 3 days 23h 1 20-40

4 - 7 days 20h 20-30
8 – 14 days 19h 20
15 - 28 days 18h 10
29 - 35 days 17h 5-10
36 - 42 days 16h 5-10
43 - 49 days 15h 5-10
50 –56 days 14h30 5-10
57 - 63 days 14h 5-10
64 - 70 days 13h30 5-10
71 - 77 days 13h 5-10
78 - 84 days 12h30 5-10
85 to 5% of lay 12h 5-10
From 5 to 20% lay 13h (*) 5-10
From 20 to 35% lay 14h (*) 5-10
From 35 to 50% lay 15h (*) 2
5-10
From 50 to 65% lay 16h (*) 5-10
After 65% lay 16h (*) 3
5-10
1 For the first 2 weeks a cyclical light program could be applied: (4h light / 2h dark) x 4 times (see page 13) if local
regulations permit it.
2 For white-egg layer breeders a day-length longer than 15h is not necessary.
3 For brown-egg layer breeders a minimum day-length of 16h is recommended to reduce floor eggs.
(*) From 5% lay, 1h30 min of night flash may be added if necessary and if local regulations permit it.

Lighting program in semi-dark (brown-out) or open-sided houses
Complete control of sexual maturity is difficult to achieve in this type of building because the seasonal fluctuations of
day length interfere with sexual development. Sexual maturity previously observed in flocks coming from this type of
rearing house, in the same season, should be taken into account.
Houses where the light intensity entering the building from outside exceeds 0.5 lux should be considered as semi-dark,
and the lighting program should be designed for natural light exposure and follow the schedule for open-sided houses.
In order to get effective photo stimulation and to avoid birds reaching maturity too early, the lighting schedule used
should take into account the natural day length when the flock reaches 140 days of age. To avoid any unwanted
increase in light duration before light stimulation, the minimum hours of light during the rearing period, should never
be less than the longest natural day in the period between 8 and 20 weeks old.
Table 7: Lighting program for open houses according to day length at 20 weeks of age
Natural length of light at 20 weeks

Age Intensity (lux)
≤12h 13h 14h ≥15h
1 – 3 days 22h 22h 22h 22h 20 - 40
4 - 7 days 20h 20h 20h 20h 20 - 30
8 – 14 days 19h 19h 19h 19h 20
15 – 28 days 18h 18h 18h 18h 10
29 – 35 days 17h 17h 17h 17h 10
36 – 42 days 16h30 16h30 16h30 16h30 10
43 – 49 days 16h 16h30 16h30 16h30 10
50 –56 days 15h30 16h 16h 16h 10
57 – 63 days 15h 15h30 16h 16h 10
64 – 70 days 14h30 15h 15h30 15h30 10
71 – 77 days 14h 14h30 15h 15h30 10
78 – 84 days 13h 14h 14h30 15h 10
85 – 91 days 12h30 13h30 14h 14h30 10
92 to 5% of lay 12h30 13h 13h30 14h 10
5 to 20% lay 13h30 (*) 14h (*) 14h30 (*) 15h (*) 10
20 to 35% lay 14h30 (*) 15h (*) 15h30 (*) 15h30 (*) 10
35 to 50% lay 15h30 (*) 15h30 (*) 16h (*) 16h (*) 10
50 to 65% lay 16h (*) 16h (*) 16h30 (*) 16h30 (*) 10
After 65% lay 16h (*) 16h30 (*)
(*): from 5% lay, 1h or 1h30 min night flash may be added if necessary and if local regulations permit it.
It is very important to keep the following points in mind:

• Effective stimulation is always difficult when the natural day-length is near its longest.
• Light stimulation is more effective when light is added in the morning, rather than in the evening.

Transferring birds from a semi-dark rearing house to a windowed house can bring about advanced sexual maturity.
Under these conditions, there is an increased risk of having underweight birds at the point of light stimulation. To
reduce this risk, we recommend working with a light intensity of 40 lux, as a minimum in rearing.
Transferring the birds from an open or semi-dark house to a dark laying house slows down the sexual development
of the chicken and causes a delay in the onset of lay. Under these conditions, it is necessary to keep a light duration
and intensity equivalent to the day-length at the time of transfer, and to gradually adjust the light intensity after the
transfer.
In production the lighting program should be a continuation of the lighting program used during the rearing period.
After transfer, it is important to keep to the same or very close to the “lights-on” and” lights-off” times used in
rearing. This will help an easier adaptation to the new environment and will minimize risks of behavioral problems (i.e.
smothering).
Lighting program for hot climates (between 20° North and 20° South latitudes)
In hot countries, heat will reduce appetite. Therefore, we advise using a longer step-down program in rearing which
will help to:
• Increase the feed intake and consequently the birds’ growth
• Overcome the negative effects of the heat, allowing the birds to eat during the cooler hours, by giving light in the
early morning.
Table 8: Example of a lighting program for hot climate (20° N – 20° S latitude)
Age Daily light duration Intensity (lux) Semi-dark houses

1 – 3 days 24h 30-40
4 - 7 days 22h 30-40
8 - 14 days 20h 30-40
15 - 21 days 19h 30-40
22 - 35 days 18h 30-40
36 - 49 days 17h 30-40
50 - 63 days 16h 30-40
64 - 77 days 15h 30-40
78 - 91 days 14h 30-40
92 to 5% of lay Natural light or 12h 30 min 30-40
5% of lay 14h + 1h30 (*) 30-40
30% of lay 15h + 1h 30 (*) 30-40
60% of lay 16h +1h 30 (*) 30-40
After 60% of lay 16h + 1h 30 (*) 30-40
(*): from 5% of lay, 1h or 1h30 min night flash may be added if necessary and local regulations permit it.

Light intensity
Light intensity is an important factor during the first days of the rearing period, encouraging the chicks to explore their
environment and quickly locate water and the feed. Next, light intensity can gradually be reduced to a level that in
practice will depend on the:
• Light required to inspect the birds
• Degree of darkness of the building (light leaking in)
• Intensity to be used during the laying period
There is a strong relationship between light intensity, physical activity, pecking behavior and feather loss. High
intensity tends to increase the nervousness of the birds and it can result in increased mortality by vent pecking. This
risk is higher when breeders are kept at a high stocking density. Using dim light during the production period will help
to obtain better liveability. Nowadays it is common to keep light intensity up, while this helps the development and
dimming is not applied when not needed. This way the opportunity is kept for later to use dimming to counteract the
onset of pecking.
The light intensity required in production is relatively low, from 5 to 10 lux, and it is not necessary to increase it for
effective light stimulation. However, a slightly higher intensity at the start of production can help to stimulate feed
intake, if needed. Achieving a good uniformity of light spread is also very important.
For correct light stimulation, light should be added in the morning rather than in the evening. Under low light intensity
conditions, light increases in the evening are not very efficient. Adding light in the morning, during the cooler period of
the day, also has a positive effect on encouraging feed intake at the onset of lay.
In semi-dark houses, to minimize the effect of light leakage on sexual maturity, artificial light intensity should be
around 10 times brighter than light intensity coming from outside, otherwise even very dim leaking light may have a
stimulatory effect.
Mid night lighting

Where local regulations permit it, mid night lighting (1hr 30min to 2hr in the middle of the dark period with the
feeders running) is often used to encourage feed intake and growth at the beginning of production. If necessary, it can
be introduced after transfer and then be gradually withdrawn, when breeders reach their adult body weight.
Mid night lighting is also useful during the hot season, to reduce the negative impact of high temperatures, by allowing
the birds to eat during the cooler hours of the night. It can be used during the rearing phase to promote growth but
caution should be taken when introduced between 10 to 16 weeks of age, as it could interfere with sexual maturity.
However, this is a very efficient management tool especially at the onset of lay.
In addition to this, mid night lighting helps to maintain a better egg shell quality by allowing the birds to ingest calcium
at the end of shell formation. This has a beneficial impact on shell quality and hence on hatchability.
The regular lighting program (time of “lights-on” and “lights-off”) should not be changed when the mid night light is
added. Mid night lighting may be used throughout the flock’s life if necessary, but it can be also removed if not needed
(body weight target achieved, hot period is over etc.). When mid night light is withdrawn, the reduction should be
gradual, in short steps, at a maximum rate of 30min per week, to avoid a negative impact on daily feed intake.

General Management during the Production Period

Transfer
Transfer is accompanied by changes in environment, temperature, humidity, and equipment. It is therefore a major
source of stress and it should be carried out as rapidly as possible. The following points should reduce the severity of
stress caused by transfer.
Because of the stress to which pullets are subjected during and immediately after transfer, it is extremely important
that transfer is completed before the appearance of the first eggs. Most development of the reproductive organs
(ovaries and oviduct) occurs during the 10 days prior to the first egg being laid.
We recommend scheduling the transfer at 16 weeks of age and ensuring that all hens are housed in the production
facilities by 119 days of age. Vaccinations should be given at least one week before transfer, to obtain a good vaccine
reaction. A late or long transfer often leads to delayed start of lay, higher mortality and increased risk of floor egg
laying.
Lighting
The duration of lighting during lay should take into account the program used during rearing.
Giving 22 hours of light on the first day and increasing light intensity for the first 4 days can help the birds to adapt to
a new environment, especially when the drinking and feeding equipment used in rearing is different to the production
environment, or when birds are transferred into cages. However, in the case of floor production and in dark houses,
this might not be necessary.
Encouraging water consumption

Birds can become dehydrated during transfer. The water loss is between 0.3% and 0.5% per hour according to
atmospheric conditions (4g/hr at 20°C, more than 8g above 30°C).
The drinking water devices must have been triggered and purged before pullets arrive to ensure they are working
properly.
The newly arrived pullets should drink before feeding. The absence of feed at transfer helps them find the drinkers
more easily. Wait for 3 to 4 hours before feed distribution and check that all the pullets drink properly. A daily check
on water consumption is of paramount importance. If nipple drinkers are used in the laying house but the pullets have
not been reared with nipples, increase the pressure and allow some loss of water during the first few days.

Housing and equipment
Table 9: Equipment requirements for the production period
Floor Cages
Required capacity of the
4m3 4m3
Ventilation system per hour / kg
Minimum per hour / kg 0.7m3 0.7m3
Birds / m2 (*) 6–8 12
Stocking densities Birds / m (hot climate)
2
6
cm / bird
2
830
Cage height - 68cm
Birds / drinker 100
Water supply Birds/drinker (hot climate) 70
Birds / nipple 9 9 (**)
cm of trough feeders 10 12
Feed supply (***)
Birds / round feeder 19 - 31
Hens / nest (individual) 5
Nest space
Hens / m2 nest (collective) 120
(*) Stocking density can go up to 8 birds/m2 if the house is equipped with slats.
(**) Make sure that all the birds have at least an access to 2 nipples.
(***) To calculate feeder space availability when chain feeders are used, both sides of the trough should be taken into
account. When round feeders are used, calculate pan circumference based on diameter to get at least 50% (5cm) of
the recommended feeder space for the chain feeder.
Pan diameter (cm) Birds / feeder (max.)
30 19
40 25
50 31
Darkening
Control of day-length and light intensity during the laying period helps to achieve good production performance and
to control abnormal behavior, therefore light-controlled houses are also recommended for the production period.
Naturally light houses should be built with an east-west orientation to avoid direct exposure to sunlight at dawn and in
the evening.
In open-sided houses, to reduce light intensity and minimize

the risk of pecking behavior, shading can be achieved:
• by painting the windows
• by avoiding reflective ceilings
• by using netting wind-barriers to prevent
penetration of sunlight at sunrise and sunset
• by using sliding shutters which allow control
of the brightness inside the building during some seasons
Darkening an open-sided house

Partitioning
We recommend partitioning the house in order to assemble pens of several thousand hens. Partitioning helps to create
a better distribution of birds and contributes to easier flock management. Partitions should be opaque and up to 60cm
to avoid smothering along the panels.
Lighting
Lighting should preferably be provided by incandescent bulbs, which allow a good spread of light intensity. The bulbs
should be covered with lampshades. Where lighting is provided by fluorescent tubes, they will need to be evenly
distributed and of a warm color (yellow or orange light spectrum) and of high frequency. In all cases, it is advisable to
install dimmers that allow the light intensity to be adjusted.
LED lights are increasingly used in poultry houses due to their high light efficiency, low running costs, very long life
span and wide wavelength range. Some key points to be considered when using LED lights are:
• LED lights used for the laying period should have the appropriate color spectrum, with sufficient red spectrum.
• They are easily dimmed. Dimmers must not cause flickering.
• Select the right beam angle, which determines the size of the area to be covered by the light. LED light is directional
and it tends to create shadows. Combine beam angles, placement and spacing to avoid uneven light distribution and
dark areas.
If the building is dark and the pullets have been reared in dark houses, a light intensity of about 5 lux is adequate. The
nests should not be too bright. For buildings with part floor / part slats, the litter area should be correctly lit to prevent
floor eggs. To prevent the nests being too bright, it is possible to improve the distribution of light by using blue or red
colored sticky tape on the lateral part of the fluorescent tubes.
Floor eggs before “lights on” can be reduced by using night lights switched on an hour before general lights are on.
This requires an additional row of lights, inside or above the nest, able to give 0.5 lux lighting to the birds.
In partly slatted houses, lights must be switched off gradually to encourage the birds to move on the slats. Start
switching off the lights above the litter area first, then the lights closer to the nests, and the slatted area last of all.
Slats
The height between the litter area and the slats should not exceed 60cm. A greater height will result in floor-laying on
the litter. Access to the slats will be made easier by providing ladders or ramps. It is advisable to place perches in the
rearing house so as to train birds to jump on slats after they have been transferred into the production house.
At transfer, scatter a small amount of straw on the slats to encourage the birds to climb up. Depending to the house
design, and whether the hens have a run available, it can be useful to restrict the birds to the slats for a few days (3 to
5 days) after transfer, so they can become familiar with feeders, drinkers and nests.
During the first week after transfer, we recommend moving the remaining birds from the litter to the slats immediately
after turning off the lights, until birds get accustomed to moving onto the slats by themselves.

Feeding/drinking
Layer breeders must have fresh, clean, potable water, readily available all time. The drinkers should be placed evenly
over the whole house area, and the bottom of the round drinkers should be hanging to the height of the birds’ back.
It may be convenient to have a water meter and a medication counter installed in the water supply system.
The height above the ground of drinkers and chain feeders should be arranged so that they do not restrict the
movement of the birds and do not encourage floor-laying.
A flat-chain floor feeder is the system best suited to layer breeders, because they can be emptied easily and the build-
up of fine feed particles is avoided. They should be able to deliver feed very quickly (18m/min).
Tube and pan feeders are more difficult to empty and the feed depth must be regulated correctly.
It is not advisable to use any system in which the feeders cannot be emptied, or which does not give an even
distribution of feed throughout the whole building.
Different models of perches
Perches are useful in reducing aggression, especially at high stocking densities. In partly slatted floor systems, the
perches should be positioned on the slats to maintain good litter conditions. The distance between perches should be
40cm and with a slope of 45°.
To improve the use of perches, install them during the rearing period, before 4 weeks of age. Recommended perch
space per bird is 5 to 10cm, depending on stocking density.
Table 10: Stocking density in relation to perch space
Stocking density (birds/m²) Perch space (cm/bird)
6 5
7 6
8 8
9 10

Nests
Nests should be distributed evenly in the laying house, preferably in the shade and easily accessible (one or two
levels). They must be attractive and comfortable, draft proof, not too brightly lit, equipped with a perching area at the
entrance, and a closing system for the night. Nests must always be clean and well maintained.
When individual nests are used at the start of lay they can be mulched to encourage the birds to use them, and to
minimize floor eggs.
Installing a dim light inside the nests will help to reduce floor eggs by allowing the birds which lay too early, before
“lights on”, to find the nest. This light should be turned on 1 hour before the general “lights on”, for a standard 8 hours
of night program.
Immediately after transfer, it is essential to start training the birds to explore and use the nests. Walk slowly through
the house to move them towards nests, collecting birds from the scratching area and the litter area, placing them on
the slats, just before dusk.
Electric fence
To discourage floor eggs and the risk of smothering, an electric fence (where allowed) around the outside of the litter
area and along the partitions may be useful. It should be fixed at 5cm from the wall and 12cm above the litter.
Broody pens
It is recommended that the poultry house includes 2 broody pens which can be used for keeping males at the
beginning of production and later for keeping and treating broody hens. For a 1,000m2 building, the dimensions
of each pen should be at least 25m2.
Mating ratios
In floor system production houses, keeping 8% up to a maximum 10% of males is sufficient to achieve proper
performance. In colony cage systems, with natural mating, the number of males can be increased up to 13%
(depending on the size of the colony cage) and when artificial insemination is used, about 6% of males is
recommended.
At transfer, to minimize the risk of aggressiveness, depending on behavior, and especially if males have been reared
separately, we recommend that the percentage of males does not exceed 6%. The rest of the males should be kept on
standby, in a separate pen, and progressively reintroduced, starting from 10%, as the rate of lay increases (see “Sexual
Behavior” in “Male management” section).

Controlling Behavior
Beak treatment
In addition to our technical recommendations, any local regulations concerning animal welfare should be observed.
This treatment is normally carried out to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism. It is a delicate operation, which
should only be performed by specially trained personnel. Poor beak treatment often leads to unevenness and, in some
birds, causes difficulties with feeding and drinking. Well treated birds hardly suffer and future suffering due to pecking
behavior can be prevented.
Beak treatment age

The decision about the age at which beak treatment takes place depends mostly on the housing system and local
regulations:
• In dark houses, when the intensity of the light is low, beaks should be treated at one day old or at 7-10 days.
• For production in open-sided houses, where there is exposure to high natural light intensity, one single beak
treatment at one day old or a light tipping at 10 days may not prevent pecking completely. If done too severely at
that age, it will lead to a reduction in growth rate and uniformity. Under these conditions, beak treatment should
be carried out twice - a light tipping at 10 days and then a second operation between 8 and 10 weeks of age, where
local regulations allow it.
Beak treatment at one day old

The main method used for beak treatment at one-day old is the infrared beak treatment system (IRBT) in the hatchery.
It is a convenient system with low costs and, depending on housing conditions, it may not be necessary to carry out a
second beak treatment.
As the beak of a chick treated at one-day old is still sensitive, it is very important to use sideways activated nipples
(360°) or nipple drinkers with cups and supplementary starting mini drinkers for the first few days, to ensure an easy
access to drinking water in the rearing farm. Lowering the pressure in the nipples will also make it easier for the chicks
to drink.
Infrared beak treated day-old chick Infrared beak treated chick at 3 weeks of age

Beak treatment at approximately 10 days

Early precision beak treatment at 7 – 10 days, when carried out properly, will have a minor effect on bodyweight
development. Depending on housing conditions, in most circumstances, a second treatment will not be necessary.
In open-sided houses, where a second beak treatment at later age is scheduled, early beak treatment should be
performed less severely.
Method:
• Carefully choose the correct diameter hole on the beak treatment machine, so as to cut the beak at least 2mm from
the nostrils.
• Hold the chick in one hand, with the thumb behind the head, holding the head firmly in position resting the beak on
the forefinger.
• Tilt the chick’s beak upwards at an angle of 15° above horizontal and cauterize the reinforced side edges of the beak,
to avoid unequal re-growth of the 2 mandibles.
• Cauterization contact time should be between 2 and 2.5 seconds.
• Check the temperature of the blade (600 - 650°C) for each operator and machine, every hour.
Beak treatment at 8-10 weeks

If local regulations allow it, a late beak treatment is recommended under certain conditions, especially when the light
intensity cannot be controlled (open-sided houses). The advantage of this method is that a very precise beak treatment
can be carried out. The main disadvantage is that when it is improperly done, it can take too long for the birds to
regain standard body weight.
• Both mandibles should be cut separately. The preferred and most common technique is inserting a finger between
them, although some experienced staff may be more familiar with other techniques.
• Cut the beak perpendicularly at a right angle to its long axis, so that after cauterization about half of the length of
the beak between the tip and the nostrils is left. The upper and lower beak should have the same length after
being cut.
• Cauterize each mandible with care, particularly at the sides of the beak, so as to round off the sides of the beak and
avoid lateral re-growth.
• Regularly check the temperature of the blade (650-750°C) for each operator and machine, every hour.
• Analgesics could be administrated through drinking water during the operation.
Beak treatment at transfer

Later treatment is not recommended as the pullets will be very close to sexual maturity and will only have a short time
to restore normal feed intake and body weight. However, during transfer it is advisable to re-check the beaks and,
if necessary, to touch up the beaks to correct any eventual irregularities, but only if this is allowed by local welfare
regulations.
Before beak treatment - attention points:

• Do not beak treat birds if the flock is not in good health or if it is suffering from vaccine reactions.
• Add vitamin K to the drinking water 48 hours prior to treatment and afterwards to prevent haemorrhages.
• Check the equipment and make sure that the trimming blade is at the right temperature to cauterize but not too high
to form a blister on the beak later. If the temperature is too low, bleeding can occur.

Attention points during beak treatment
• The operator should be seated comfortably so that each beak is cut in the same manner.
• Do not rush the process. Going too quickly (number of birds/minute) could lead to a higher chance of errors and
poor uniformity.
• Change blades when required. The maximum recommended usage for a blade is 5.000 birds.
• Make sure the birds’ tongues do not get burned.
Post beak treatment attention points

• Increase the water level in the drinkers and decrease the water pressure in the pipes to make it easy for the birds
to drink.
• Make sure that the depth of the feed is adequate, do not empty the feeders for a week following beak treatment.
Pecking and prolapse

Prolapse and/or pecking of the cloaca is one important cause of mortality early in lay or later in the laying period.
Good management will reduce the amount of pecking and prolapse.
Pecking the oviduct or vent pecking

There are different kinds of pecking. Gentle pecking is considered to be normal behavior and severe pecking to be
abnormal behavior.
Gentle pecking is defined as careful pecks, not resulting in feathers being pulled out and usually without reaction from
the recipient bird. This is a social and explorative behavior.
Severe/injurious pecking is defined as forceful pecks, sometimes with feathers being pulled out and with the recipient
bird moving away. This is clearly an aggressive behavior.
There are stressful circumstances, which may result in an aggressive behavior. If some of the birds start pecking
aggressively it is usual to hear squawks of pain from the pecked birds. This must be identified early, as it is abnormal.
It is an indication that there is a serious stress affecting the flock, and prompt remedial action is essential.
Loss of feather cover leads to increased heat loss and consequently to higher feed consumption.
Possible causes are as follows:

• Parasitic infection
• Red mite
• Worms, ascaridia, capillaria infestation
• Enteritis and diarrhea
• Ventilation
• Inadequate ventilation, leading to higher levels of humidity and smell (ammonia)
• Drafts
• Non respect of density and equipment specifications
• Insufficient floor space
• Stress due to overcrowding
• Limited access to drinkers and feeders (insufficient number/ poor distribution)
• Inability to access nests, resulting in floor eggs, leading to pecking of exposed vents

• Shortage of water or feed

• Drinkers / feeders empty
• Water or feed unpalatable
• Too low pressure / leakage
• Feeder and water equipment not earthed properly
• Poor beak treatment
• Feed not suitable
• Sodium deficiency
• Amino acids deficiency
• Lack of insoluble fiber
• Sudden change of grist presentation
• Excessive energy level, due to a reduction in consumption duration
• Faulty manufacture – for instance, incorrect salt inclusion
• Light intensity too bright
• Light source generally too powerful
• Direct light from fluorescent bulbs (especially) or tubes, depending on the type.
• Entry of direct sunlight into the poultry house
• Flickering bulbs
• Sudden increases in light duration
• Nests brightly illuminated – birds’ vents targeted during egg laying
As pecking is difficult to control once it has started, the objective is to be ahead of the problem in order to prevent an
outbreak. If it does occur (bearing in mind that it is indicative of abnormal behavior) the objective should be to identify
the problem promptly, and remedy the cause as quickly as possible.
If a pecking outbreak occurs, you need to react quickly to:

• Decrease light intensity*
• Paint bulbs or light covers in red
• Add salt into the water (0.5-1Kg/1000l)
• Add extra vitamins / minerals / amino-acids in water
• Add a fiber source within the house (see the “Fiber for breeders” section)
• Add enrichment within the house (pecking blocks, fiber, plastic bottles, plastic toys, Compact Discs, beet etc.).
* Caution: floor eggs could appear and feed intake could be decreased
Prolapse
Prolapse refers to a condition seen in laying hens characterized by part of the oviduct remaining outside of the vent
after the hen has laid an egg. Prolapse is very often combined with pecking of the vent and cloacal area, or at the
everted oviduct, leading to a rapid death.
The main causes of prolapse are:

• Improper body weight and frame development. Underweight pullets at point of lay can lead to the reproductive
tract not being completely mature and the oviduct muscles having insufficient elasticity and strength. Pullets with
excess fat are also more prone to prolapse since fat excess contributes to lower elasticity and tone of the tissues
involved in egg laying.

• Lighting program - early light stimulation before complete development, or giving excessively large light increments,
leading to an increased incidence of double yolks.
• Any condition encouraging pecking behavior. High light intensity, unbalanced feed, poor quality beak treatment and
enteritis can increase the chances of physical damage to oviduct tissues.
To control prolapse, we advise:

• Making sure the flock is uniform during rearing.
• Ensuring body weight is on target by getting a steady growth from an early age
• Avoiding excess weight (i.e. fattening) during rearing.
• Avoiding any sudden increase in light period.
• Applying a proper lighting program to compensate for natural light and avoiding unwanted early light simulation.
Smothering
Floor-reared birds sometimes have a tendency to crowd together. This natural behavior can be triggered by different
situations:
• Panic reaction - when birds are frightened, they try to avoid danger.
• Attraction - when they are attracted by something, birds are curious and naturally want to find feed and discover
their environment.
• Sleeping behavior - enables them to reduce the loss of body heat during the night, maintain social links and protect
against dangers.
Smothering may occur during lay in different parts of the poultry house and often the reason is not clear. However,
in production flocks, it is most commonly observed around the peak of production, as it seems to be related to stress
situations.
Although unpredictable, smothering is more frequently observed in these situations:

• In the evening at “lights off”.
• At rest, after egg laying (noon).
• Along partitions, due to curiosity (e.g. presence of the stockperson in the house).
• Following a change in feeding times, in feed composition or due to lack of feeding or drinking equipment.
• When flocks are restricted or feed intake is low.
• When direct sunlight is getting in the poultry house.
• Inadequate ventilation, uneven in-house temperature and drafts.
To control the risk of smothering:

• Minimize the number of corners (e.g. with feeders). It is sometimes better to sacrifice a little floor space, keeping a
few less birds, in order to maintain straight line partitions.
• Ensure an even light distribution within the house. Install a light trap/deflector.
• Construct partitions with wire mesh, birds crowding against a mesh partition are still able to breathe
• Use wire mesh covered triangles in order to eliminate corners.
• Install electric wires along the walls, corners and partitions.

• If crowding occurs during the evening, for example close to sunset, check that sunlight does not enter the house
through the pop holes. This is almost certain to attract too many birds into a small area. Deflector installation in
front of the pop holes may solve this issue.
• Visit the birds at the end of the day or when lights go off to check behavior, especially in the first few days after
delivery.
• Install music in the houses so the birds react less to noises.
• Carry out a feed distribution one hour before lights go off. It will evenly distribute birds throughout the building. The
extra heat produced during digestion will avoid crowding before night.
• The lighting program must be adapted to natural day length. Try to avoid switching off the lights before sunset,
especially during long days. This should be considered at the time of flock placement.
• Ensure that available perch space is adequate.
• Adapt the ventilation to obtain a uniform environment in the house and to avoid drafts.
• Avoid any feed restriction at the critical periods.
• Give scratching material (e.g. grain/grit) in the afternoon to keep birds occupied.
Broodiness
Broodiness can appear in certain flocks in cases of stress or when they are generally underweight. Nutrient deficiency,
heat stress and any factors related to poor growth can lead to broodiness. Floor laying leads to broodiness. Preventing
floor eggs and frequent egg collections will limit the amount of broodiness.
Broodiness can be identified by behavior patterns such as staying in the nest, fluffed feathers, clucking and aggression.
Therefore, we advise closing nests at the end of the afternoon. Nests should not be closed until 4 hours before “lights
off” to avoid the loss of late laid eggs. To minimise the interruption to laying, rapid action will be needed to correct the
problem.
Table 11: Broodiness and lay link duration
Time broody (days) Pause in lay (days)
1 7
2 9
3 12
4 18
According to B. Sauveur (I.N.R.A)
We advise isolating broody birds from the moment they appear (in the evening). Place them in a spacious pen, on a
concrete or slatted floor without a nest. This treatment is made more effective by dipping the broody birds in cold
water for 20 to 30 seconds and administering aspirin (a 125 mg tablet) before transfer to the broody pen. The density
in the pen must not be greater than 6 per m2. The birds must have feed and water permanently. At the end of 4 days,
those which respond (widening of pelvic bones) can be placed back with the flock.
The best system is to have 2 broody pens. The birds picked up on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday are put in the first
pen where they stay until the following Monday. The other pen is used for the other days and follows a similar time
pattern. To reduce the spread of the behavior avoid leaving broody birds to brood on the floor.

Preventing floor eggs
Prevention of floor eggs is a key factor for flock success. Avoiding this behavior requires a lot of attention at the
beginning of the lay. In this section, we define floor eggs as all eggs laid out of the nest such as floor, slats,
and system eggs.
The two main points are:

• The nest must be more attractive and comfortable than other parts of the hen house.
• Access to the nest has to be easy for birds.
Light
Light management is one of the key factors in the prevention of floor eggs.
• Light must be well spread in the laying house and shadow areas need to be avoided. Birds naturally lay in darkened
areas. This can be prevented by a simple action such as replacing broken bulbs.
• When possible, a progressive “lights off” process should be done. Lateral light should be turned off first, this will
encourage birds to go close to the nest and to sleep on slats, then finally, the central light should be switched off.
• According to breed and lighting program, a variable percentage of birds will lay before “lights on” and the propensity
to lay on the floor is higher for these birds. Night lights in the nest encourage these early birds to go into the nests
for laying, before the general lights come on.
• Where legislation allows it, a night flash during the dark period (for example 1h 30 of light, 3 hours after “lights off”),
will delay the lay of one part of the flock and reduce the competition in the nest. This will be more efficient if the
number of birds per nest is high, allowing all hens easy access to the nest.
• In some situations, adding one extra hour of light in the morning could solve a floor egg problem.
General management advice

• Any corners caused by equipment or building design are potential areas for eggs to be laid. Therefore, limiting access
to corners prevents floor eggs.
• It has been observed that keeping the birds on the slats for too long may increase the incidence of floor eggs. The
floor scratching area should be accessible when the flock has discovered the upper area (nest, feeder, drinker).
• At the beginning of the lay, frequent floor egg collection should be done several times per day. A floor egg will
encourage other birds to lay in the same place.
• Ensure all the birds are sleeping on the slatted area or in the system.
• Observing where floor eggs are laid can help to explain the reason for the behavior. This information can be very
useful to help understand the problem and to develop a solution.
• Grit distribution on the floor discourages floor eggs by eliminating the building of potential nests in the litter.
• Installation of a deflection barrier between the nest boxes enables the birds to be evenly distributed, diluting the
pressure in the nest boxes. This also helps to prevent the overcrowding of nests located near to partitions.

Behavior
Just before laying (approximately 30 minutes), birds express a specific behavior called “pre-laying behavior” which
consists of 3 phases:
• Active nest searching
• Choice of nest
• Nest creation
Birds should not be disturbed while they are searching for a nest or they will stop searching. Disturbances cause them
to lay where they are at the time, increasing floor egg numbers. For instance, feed distribution or an egg belt running
can also disturb the process of searching for a nest. Therefore, if floor eggs are a problem it is best to avoid disturbing
the birds with feed distribution, or egg collection, during the lay.
Ventilation
Nests must be comfortable, to encourage birds to lay there. During winter, prevention of direct cold drafts around the
nest is recommended, while during summer, nests should be well ventilated. Specific ventilation adjustments should be
done to increase airflow on the floor or lateral areas. The purpose of ventilation is to create a comfortable area close
to the nest, more comfortable than the other part of the laying house. Ventilation should be adjusted according to
the season.
Rearing
The rearing system should be as close as possible to the laying system to avoid the risk of increased floor eggs.
Installation of perches in the rearing house before 4 weeks of age is recommended. Light intensity should not to be
too high, because high intensity increases the sensitivity to dark areas in the laying house. Early transfer is strongly
recommended in order to avoid the onset of lay in the rearing house, which can encourage the birds to lay on the floor
in the laying house.
Equipment
Equipment position and stocking density can affect floor eggs.
• Feeder / drinker
• Not too close to the nest (no bird accumulation in front of the nest)
• Take care of feeder and drinker height (no creation of physical barrier between bird and nest)
• Enough feeders and drinkers to avoid competition and stagnation near to them
• Nest
• Clean and attractive (without broken eggs, manure, etc.)
• Adequate number (120 birds / m2 communal nest or 5-6 hens/single nest)
• Nest access management: close the nest before “lights off”, open the nest before “lights on”.
• Slats
• Not too high, installation of ramp / ladder: easy access from scratching area to slats
• Slat slope not too steep: comfortable area, facilitate nest access
• Electric fence
• Installed next to the walls and corners

Nutrition
Basic feeding principles for chicks

• Do not change the feed if birds do not reach the standard body weight.
• Promote early growth, skeleton and organ development by providing feed in crumble form for starter diet for at
least 3 weeks, and preferably up to 5 weeks of age.
• Use a uniform and coarse mash feed for grower, developer and pre-lay feed.
• Promote development of digestive tract and feed intake capacity by feeding management (fiber, coarse calcium
and grit).
Feeding during the rearing period

During the first few weeks of life, broiler chickens just like young pullets, are incapable of regulating their energy intake
according to the energy concentration of the diet. It takes weeks to develop the digestive tract. During the first 8-10
weeks, any increase in the energy level is accompanied by an increase in growth. When given the feed in a crumb
form, young pullets can increase their feed intake.
The table below shows the influence of energy level and presentation method on the bodyweight of pullets at 5 weeks
of age.
Table 12: Energy level and feed presentation on bodyweight of pullets
Presentation Mash Crumbs

Dietary Energy Level Bodyweight at 5 weeks Bodyweight at 5 Weeks
3100 kcal 375 g 412 g
2790 kcal 345 g 405 g
(Newcombe, 1985)
After 10 weeks of age, pullets correctly regulate their energy intake according to the energy level of the diet, in both
hot and temperate climates. Under-consumption during that period is often the result of a poor grit size. The objective
is to develop the pullet’s ability to eat feed, so that it can increase its consumption by approximately 40% in the first
few weeks of lay.
During the period 10 - 17 weeks, it is important to develop the digestive system by using diets with an energy
concentration lower than or equal to that of the first layer phase diet.
Protein requirements
The amino acid requirements are to a large extent dependent on the feed conversion ratio and, therefore on age. That
is why, when young, the requirements expressed in mg of amino-acids per gram of growth are the same as a broiler.

The table below shows the influence of amino acid content on the weight of pullets at 4 weeks
Table 13: Effect of amino acid content on bodyweight of pullets
Ration
100% 90%
(in % of the recommendations)
Protein (%) 20 18
Digestible Lysine (%) 1.01 0.91
Digestible Methionine+Cystine (%) 0.76 0.69
Weight at 4 weeks (g) 335 302
Source: Bourgon, 1997
Any delay in growth during the first few weeks will be reflected in a reduced bodyweight at 17 weeks and in later
performance. It is, therefore, extremely important to use a starter diet for the first 4 or 5 weeks, which has an amino
acid/protein ratio similar to that of a broiler.
Any amino acid deficiency will result in a reduction in growth rate and an increase in the FCR.
Table 14; Effect of amino acid deficiency on bodyweight, feed consumption, feed conversion of pullets
Amino acid content of diets

100% 90%
(in % of the recommendations)
Bodyweight at 28 days (g) 335 302
Bodyweight at 118 days (g) 1685 1630
Feed consumption (g) 6951 6904
Feed conversion ratio 4.12 4.24
Source: Bourgon, 1997
In hot climates, the amino acids and minerals concentrations should be slightly higher than in temperate climates.
This results in a reduction in the maintenance requirement, and, therefore in the feed conversion ratio.
Feed presentation
Feed consumption is determined to a large extent by the form of feed presentation and the stage to which the
digestive tract has developed. Presenting feed in crumb form makes it easier for the chicken to eat it, reduces the
time taken in eating, and encourages growth. The energy cost of eating, thus saved, gives an improvement in feed
conversion ratio.
Table 15: Feed presentation on bodyweight of pullets
Form of Dietary Presentation Mash Crumbs Difference
Weight at 70 days (g) 984 1016 + 32 g

Weight at 99 days (g) 1344 1405 + 61 g
Weight at 123 days (g) 1589 1664 + 75 g
Source: Internal research

This benefit of feeding crumbs will only be obtained when the birds have access to good quality crumbs in the feeders.
A poor quality crumb can lead to a build-up of fine particles in the feeders and, therefore have the opposite effect to
that sought.
From 0 to 4/5 weeks, we recommend using a crumbed diet, after which mash, with a good particle size, should
be used.
It is, however, possible to use a granular feed later, where the grinding is coarser, or even as crumbs, if needed.
However, we recommend using a mash diet from 12 weeks, to avoid the risk of under-consumption at the beginning of
the sexual maturity, if the change is made later.
The bird’s appetite for feed depends on its particle size. After 4 weeks, we recommend the following particle sizes:
• Particles below 0.5 mm: 15 % maximum
• Particles above 3.2 mm: 10 % maximum
At least 75 to 80% of the particles should be between 0.5 and 3.2 mm. If this standard cannot be achieved, it is
preferable to use a diet of good quality crumbs.
Development of the digestive system

The achievement of good growth and a rapid increase in feed consumption at the start of lay depends on the bird
having a well-developed digestive system, especially a good strong gizzard.
Gastrointestinal development can be stimulated in the second part of the rearing period by providing coarse particles
in the feed. This can be done by including coarse fibers, larger particles of slowly soluble limestone, and/or providing
insoluble grit.
Fibers stimulate the development of the gastrointestinal tract by stimulating the increase in size of the gizzard. A larger
gizzard will increase the feed intake capacity of the bird. This is beneficial at the start of lay when feed intake is still
limited but production peaks. Fibers in rearing also contribute to better digestion by increasing the functioning of
both the upper and the lower gastrointestinal tract. Intestinal health is improved and therefore nutrient absorption
optimized. The type of fiber provided to birds in rearing is insoluble fiber of a coarse structure. If the combination of
high energy and high fiber diet is difficult to achieve in the feed formula or if body weight development is delayed,
lignocellulose can be used. This provides the correct form of fiber in powder form.
Limestone granules can be provided from 10 weeks of age onwards. From this age 50% of the calcium can be supplied
as coarse, slow soluble, calcium carbonate with a particle size of 2 to 4mm.
Grit can be provided from 3 weeks of age onwards. Between 3 and 10 weeks of age, we recommend 3g per pullet per
week with particle size 2 to 3mm. After 10 weeks this can be increased to 4 to 5g per pullet per week with particle size
3 to 5mm.
Feed specifications during rearing period

These requirements are based on the “European Amino Acids Table” (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and
expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the “Tables de composition et
de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux animaux d’élevage” (INRA editions 2002). Please see table on
the next page.

Table 16: Amino acid and nutrient requirements for layers at all ages
Diet Starter Grower Pullet Pre - lay

Between 18 & 24°C Units 0 - 4 weeks 4 - 10 weeks 10 - 16 weeks 112 days to
1 - 28 days 28 - 70 days 70 - 112 days 2% lay
Metabolisable energy Kcal/kg 2950-2975 2850-2875 2750 2750
MJ/kg 12.3-12.4 11.9-12.0 11.5 11.5
Crude protein % 20.5 19 16 16.8
Methionine % 0.52 0.45 0.33 0.40
Methionine + Cystine % 0.86 0.76 0.60 0.67
Lysine % 1.16 0.98 0.74 0.80
Threonine % 0.78 0.66 0.50 0.56
Tryptophan % 0.217 0.194 0.168 0.181
Digestible amino acids
Dig. Methionine % 0.48 0.41 0.30 0.38
Dig. Meth. + Cystine % 0.78 0.66 0.53 0.60
Dig. Lysine % 1.00 0.85 0.64 0.71
Dig. Threonine. % 0.67 0.57 0.43 0.48
Dig. Tryptophan % 0.186 0.166 0.145 0.155
Major minerals
Calcium % 1.05 - 1.10 0.90 - 1.10 0.90 - 1.00 1
2 - 2.10 1
Available Phosphorus % 0.48 0.42 0.36 0.42
Chlorine minimum % 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14
Sodium minimum % 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15
Diet Starter Grower Pullet Pre - lay

Above 24°C Units 0 - 5 weeks 5 - 10 weeks 10 - 16 weeks 112 days to
1 - 35 days 35 - 70 days 70 - 112 days 2% lay
Metabolisable energy Kcal/kg 2950-2975 2850-2875 2750 2750
MJ/kg 12.3-12.4 11.9-12.0 11.5 11.5
Crude protein % 20.5 20.0 16.8 17.5
Methionine % 0.52 0.47 0.35 0.42
Methionine + Cystine % 0.86 0.80 0.63 0.70
Lysine % 1.16 1.03 0.78 0.84
Threonine % 0.78 0.69 0.53 0.59
Tryptophan % 0.217 0.207 0.175 0.190
Digestible amino acids
Dig. Methionine % 0.48 0.43 0.32 0.40
Dig. Meth. + Cystine % 0.78 0.69 0.56 0.63
Dig. Lysine % 1.00 0.89 0.67 0.74
Dig. Threonine. % 0.67 0.61 0.45 0.50
Dig. Tryptophan % 0.195 0.175 0.152 0.163
Major minerals
Calcium % 1.05 - 1.10 0.95 - 1.10 0.95 - 1.05 1
2.1 - 2.2 1
Available Phosphorus % 0.48 0.44 0.38 0.44
Chlorine minimum % 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15
Sodium minimum % 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16
1
To avoid falls in feed consumption, 50% of the calcium should be supplied in granular form with a diameter between 2 and 4mm.

Feeding program during the production period
Basic rules of our feeding program
Feed management during production should follow several simple rules:
• Hens are grain eaters and have a preference for bigger feed particles. They need to eat all the components of the
formulated feed including the fine particles with higher concentration of amino acids, minerals and vitamins.
• For this reason, we recommend that the birds finish their ration every day so that the feeders rest empty for a while.
• If there are floor or dirty eggs, avoid disturbing the birds with feed distribution during their oviposition time, which
will be the first 5-6 hours of the day.
• Preferably the birds should eat a greater part of their daily ration during the second half of the day. The fast
accumulation of calcium in the eggshell starts at this time and the layers effectively utilize the calcium from the feed
to form a good shell.
• Make the least number of distributions possible to avoid selection of bigger particles (ideally 1-3 distributions in the
afternoon – depending on the capacity of the feeding system). The whole daily ration should be distributed during
this period. Besides the specific appetite for calcium that the bird shows during the eggshell formation, they also
naturally eat more in the last hours of a day, to meet energy needs for the night period.
• The last feed distribution, 1-2 hours before “lights off” also encourages the birds to get to the house from the range
onto the system (slatted area and perches) and to sleep there. The amount of feed distributed must be sufficient to
cover the increased consumption during the next morning (the birds are hungry after the night period and will easily
finish the less attractive fine part of the ration). As feed is not distributed in the morning the hens have time to
find a nest and lay the eggs there. The remains of feed from the previous day will be eaten during this time and
the feeding system can stay empty for one or two hours. When the birds have finished their ration, all the feed is
consumed, the eggs are laid and the feeding system is ready for the first feed distribution of the day. The birds will
have enough appetite to start the intensive feed consumption of the afternoon.
• Birds are very sensitive to feed presentation and the introduction of new raw materials. For this reason, we
recommend a limited number of feed changes.
• Amino acid requirements depend of the productivity of the flocks and the uniformity of productivity. Our amino
acid recommendations are based on an average productivity of 60g per day. At 50 weeks, the egg mass produced
is around 58g. Many birds are able to produce more than 60g of egg mass over a period of 50 – 65 weeks. This is
the reason why it is difficult to reduce the amino acid levels after 50 weeks without affecting the productivity.
• A deficiency in amino acids firstly reduces egg weight and then 4 or 5 weeks later, a drop in the rate of lay.
Pre-lay feed or layer 1

Medullary bone is developed in long bone before the first ovulation. The total calcium contained in this medullary is
around 1.5 to 2 grams. A pre-layer feed with a higher calcium level is needed to establish this bone reserve. It must be
used from approximately 16 weeks. Its characteristics are similar to the layer 1, but with a level of calcium of 2–2.2%.

Don’t forget to use the layer 1 before 2% lay. If the change is implemented later, the earliest birds ingest around 1.8g
of calcium and need to produce a shell with 2g of calcium. They will stop or reduce laying for some days and will
produce eggs without shell. These birds will exhibit cage layer fatigue later and osteoporosis at the end of lay.
A sudden increase in the calcium concentration in the diet as high as in layer 1, can cause a reduced feed intake due to
a difference in the taste of the diet caused by increased levels of calcium in powder form. Therefore a pre-layer diet,
with calcium levels between developer and layer 1 feed, is advised which can prevent this reduction in feed intake by
making the change to an increased calcium level in the diet more gradually. However, if 50 % or more of the calcium is
provided in coarse particles (2-4 mm) a layer 1 diet can be used instead of a pre-lay diet. A pre-lay diet, and therefore
also layer 1 if used as alternative for pre-lay diet, should be provided to the birds two weeks before the first egg is
expected.
Layer 1
Layer 1 must satisfy the amino acid requirements for growth and production at a time when the feed consumption
is lower. At the start of lay feed consumption is lower because feed intake capacity is still limited due to an
underdeveloped crop and gizzard. Growth is not completely finished by 28 weeks. With regard to protein, a
requirement for growth is added to the requirement for production.
We estimate that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6% during the 18-28 week
period dependent on the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks.
This feed has to be used until the moment that the feed consumption is normal or an average egg size of 60-61g is
obtained, or around 26-28 weeks.
At the onset of lay, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption to obtain eggs of marketable size quickly. For this,
a feed enriched in fat improves the presentation of the diet, which gives an increase in feed consumption. Oils rich in
polyunsaturated fatty acids are responsible for a large increase in egg weight.
Layer 2
This feed should be used from 26-28 weeks until 50 weeks or the end of lay. If it is possible, increase the limestone
level at 50 weeks to reduce the percentage of seconds. Birds have daily requirements for amino acids and minerals.
Consequently, the percentage of nutrients has to be defined according to the feed consumption observed. The feed
consumption depends mainly on the energy requirement and the temperature.
Layer 3
Amino acids requirement: Taking into account persistency of lay, individual variability and egg weight, the requirement
for amino acids does not fall throughout the laying period. In an economic context, it may be worth reducing the
safety margins slightly. However, the best results, in terms of productivity and feed conversion ratio, are obtained
by maintaining the intake of amino acids. Any deficiency in amino acids, no matter, which type of amino acid, shows
up as a reduction in performance, of which 2/3 is due to a reduction in rate of lay and the remaining 1/3 due to a
decrease in mean egg weight. It is not possible to reduce egg weight towards the end of lay by reducing the amino acid
concentration without bringing about a reduction in rate of lay.

Persistency in lay has improved considerably (30 to 35 weeks above 90% lay). An analysis of the individual
performance over the period 40-66 weeks shows that 66% of layers had above average performance. The 40% best
layers had laid 177 eggs in 182 days and /or 63.2g of egg mass per day. Productivity of a sample of 694 pullets hatched
in 2001 during the period 40-66 weeks.
Table 17: Production levels of birds in a flock: average versus best performing
Quintile Rate of lay Egg Mass/day
1st 98.2% 65.0 g

2nd 96.3% 61.4 g
3rd 94.1% 59.1 g
4th 90.1% 56.0 g
5th 76.6% 47.8 g
Mean 91.0% 57.8 g
% of pullets above the mean 66.3% 60.4%
Egg weight
A reduction of the oil percentage and energy level is a way to get a stabilization of the egg weight.
Shell quality
Shell weight increases with age throughout lay. For that reason, we advise increasing the calcium concentration in the
diet from 50 weeks of age.
Tabel 18: Effect of age on egg number and egg shell weight
Age of the control Number of eggs controlled Eggshell weight (g)
Shell Weight at 30 weeks g 923 6.25

Influence of the energy level on productivity

Results from experiments on the effect of the feed energy level on production, carried out during the last 15 years,
with white or brown strains, conclude that:
Between 2400 and 3000 Kcal, for an energy level reduction of 100 Kcal, the energy consumption drops by an average
of 1.2% when the effect of diluting the feed is studied, and by 1.4% when the reduction in fat levels is studied.
The energy level of the feed has little effect on the number of eggs produced, and, in all cases, the differences are less
than 1%.

The egg weight reduces in accordance with the reduction in the feed energy level. The reduction can be estimated at
about 0.5% or 0.3g for a variation of 100 kcal. The consumption rate, expressed in Kcal per gram of egg produced,
always improves with the dilution of the feed. The gain is about 0.8% for 100 Kcal. This rate gain is a result of a
reduction in body weight, an improvement in feather cover and an improvement in the digestibility of the feed.
In many experiments, the addition of fats seems to have a specific effect on the energy consumption due to an
improvement in palatability and the physical form of the feed. When the feed is diluted, the reduction in consumption
is particularly marked at the time of the change. Laying hens take several weeks to increase their level of consumption.
Effect of granulometry
Feed consumption is highly dependent upon granulometry. Chickens have a marked preference for grains. They are
easy to pick up and do not lead to beaks becoming clogged. A hen will always tend to leave fine particles. We
(ISA, 1999) carried out the following trial: a commercial feed, of good particle size, was re-milled through a finer
screen. The feeds were distributed from 19 weeks of age.
Table 19: Influence of feed granularity on the performance of laying hens between 23 and 51 weeks
Particle size Standard Fine Difference in %
< 0.5 mm 9% 31%

> 3.2 mm 10% 0%
0.5 to 3.2 mm 81% 69%
> 1.6 mm 65% 21%
Laying, % 93.9 90.7 - 3.4
Egg weight, g 63.3 62.7 - 0.9
Egg mass, g/j 59.41 56.85 - 4.3
Consumption, g/j 118.1 114.2 - 3.4
Consumption Index 1.989 2.008 + 0.9
Weight at 33 wks. (g) 1.930 1.883
Feed consumption is reduced by about 4g when the feed is finely ground. This leads to a reduction of egg mass
produced. Distribution of fine feed is equivalent to rationing for hens. In this experiment, the laying rate proves to be
affected more than the egg weight. Sometimes in other experiments, the reverse is observed.
Conclusion
Energy regulation is not specific to a breed, white egg layers or brown egg layers, but depends on the dilution methods
used. The feed density (g/liter) seems to be the limiting factor in ingestion regulation. The presence of insoluble fiber
appears to be essential. It increases gizzard size, improves starch digestibility and limits feather picking by reducing the
need to ingest feathers.
Conversely, the addition of fats brings about an improvement in feed palatability and thus an increase in energy
ingestion in proportions which can be very significant. Increase in egg weight is only one result of this. These effects
are dependent upon the quantity and type of fats added.

From a practical point of view, the effect of low density, high cellulose (insoluble fiber) raw materials may be balanced
by the use of fats. The feed presentation also has an effect on energy consumption. Presentation of food which is too
fine causes a reduction in energy consumption.
It follows that 3 following factors must be controlled:

1) the physical form of the feed
2) the cellulose content
3) the oil content.
A balance between these 3 criteria must be sought in order to realize the full genetic potential at the lowest cost.
Principal applications and recommendations

At the onset of lay, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption in order to obtain eggs of marketable size quickly.
For this, a feed enriched in fat (1.5 to 2.5%) and incorporating a minimum of insoluble fiber is recommended. After
the onset of lay, a slightly lower energy level, richer in cellulose, will allow a good energy efficiency to be obtained
(expressed in Kcal) and feathering to be maintained. This strategy could be particularly beneficial for alternative
production (free range, organic), especially in the absence of ground litter.
From a practical point of view, the effect of raw materials which are rich in cellulose (insoluble fiber) and of low density
can be compensated for by the use of fat. Feed granulometry also affects energy consumption. Particles which are too
fine lead to a reduction in consumption.
Amino acids requirements

Genetic progress and nutritional consequences
Genetic progress has a considerable influence on dietary amino acid concentrations. Over the last 30 years, measured
at a consistent age, production has increased by more than 40%, while feed consumption has been reduced by about
10%. An important consequence of this genetic progress has been a change in the daily amino acid requirements. It
has also called into question the practice of phase feeding, since productivity remains high over longer and longer
periods. The best units nowadays have daily egg outputs of over 60g/bird right up to 52 weeks of age.
The implication of genetic progress in deciding amino acid levels is, therefore, considerable. It can be approached in
the following way:
Table 20: Feed conversion ratio over the period 30-50 weeks
1971 2.87 g of feed / g of egg

1981 2.36 g of feed / g of egg
2005 1.95 (-17%) g of feed / g of egg
Classically, daily nutrient requirements have been expressed in mg / day. While this type of expression may be very
easy for the formulator to use, it does not allow for genetic progress, nor for genotypic differences. Those genotypes
which produce large eggs, have larger daily requirements than those which produce small eggs.
Most research expresses nutrient requirements in mg of amino acids per gram of eggs produced. Using this method of
measurement as a standard, enables us to quantify “requirement” using numerous experimental data sources, as it is
more precise.

Ideal protein and amino acids requirements

The concept of ideal proteins is a means of expressing the requirements for amino acids as a percentage of the
requirement for LYS. There is a limited interest in applying this concept to layers. It implies that a balance between
the different amino acids is necessary for optimizing requirements. This would suggest that high protein or amino acid
levels would have a negative effect on performance.
In fact, the formulator should make a point of satisfying the requirement for the following amino acids: MET - CYS -
LYS - THR - TRP - ISO and VAL. This is only valid for diets and raw materials in common usage.
Those requirements, which need to be defined by comparison with reference tables, have been taken from the
“European Amino Acids Table ”WPSA, 1992, of raw materials composition.
These results have been expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the
“Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux animaux d’élevage” INRA editions
2002. Digestible Tryptophan values are not given by the INRA tables, consequently we used values given in the
“Rhodimet Nutrition Guide” 2003, from Adisseo).
Expressing results in the digestible form reduces the variability of the results observed.
Table 21: Recommendations for amino acids expressed in total or digestible and ideal proteins established for a production
of 59.5 egg mass per day.
Limiting Ideal protein based Requirements in mg per g Daily Requirements based

amino acids on NRC 1994 based on NRC table 1994 on NRC table 1994
Dig. AA Total AA Dig. AA Total AA
LYS 100 13.50 15.25 810 900
MET 54 7.2 7.6 430 455
MET + CYS 85 11.45 13.0 690 770
TRY 22 3.00 3.5 180 280
ILE 83 11.5 13.0 690 775
VAL 93 12.6 14.2 760 840
THR 70 9.4 11.0 565 655
Feed formulation
Digestible Amino Acids
Bird requirements and the formulation of diets should be made in terms of digestible amino acids. By formulating
in digestible amino acids, one is better able to satisfy the requirements of the birds, to reduce the necessary safety
margins and assess the raw materials according to their true biological value. Formulation according to total amino
acids leads to the same nutritional value being given to all raw materials irrespective of their digestibility. This leads
naturally to increasing the safety margins in order to fully guarantee meeting the requirements of the birds.
Protein Requirements
When diets are formulated by taking into account the need to satisfy the requirement for each of the 7 essential amino
acids, it doesn’t seem to be necessary to introduce a minimal constraint for protein. The requirements for the limiting
amino acids are generally enough.

Conversely, if all the essential amino acids are not taken into account when formulating, it is necessary to use a
constraint for minimum protein, so as to reduce the risk of a deficiency.
Limiting factors
Experience acquired during recent decades in the feeding of layers, especially the use of synthetic lysine, has enabled
us to assert that ISOLEUCINE and VALINE are becoming the limiting factors in layer feeds, when meat products are
excluded from the feed, or when they are used in formulae based on wheat.
TRYPTOPHAN is the limiting factor in formulae, where the base consists of maize, soybean meal and meat products.
THREONINE and even less ARGININE appear not to be limiting factors in the diets used nowadays. These last two
amino acids need to be studied still further.
When the requirements for ISO, VAL and TRY are covered, the requirements for the other essential and non-essential
amino acids are always satisfied when 300 mg of protein per gram of egg is supplied. When the feed formula takes into
account the requirements ISOLEUCINE and VALINE, it is not necessary to impose a constraint for a minimum protein
level.
Feed consumption and formulation

The amino acid concentration of the diets, therefore, depends on:
1) Potential of egg mass produced, which determines the daily requirements.

2) The daily feed consumption which determines the amino acid concentration.
Amino acids recommendations

Daily amino acid requirements during production depend on the level of lay and growth. Grandparent and parent
stock requirements do not differ from commercial layers. The safety margins have been increased (5%) so as to avoid
any nutritional deficiency.
Formulation of layer diets can be carried out by introducing ISOLEUCINE and VALINE as nutritional constraints,
replacing protein as a constraint. If this is not possible, some indications for a minimum of protein for feed not
containing meat and bone meal (MBM), are given hereafter.
From a practical point of view, we estimate that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about
6% during the 18-28 weeks period depending on the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. Total or digestible
amino acids levels are established for a production of 59.5g egg mass per day.

Table 22: Recommendations for amino acids expressed as total and digestible amino acids for a production of 59.5g egg mass
per day and given for alternative feed intake levels
Average feed intake observed

105 110 115 120 125
after 28 wks in g / day
From 2% lay to 28 weeks old (1)

Protein w/o MBM % (18.2-18.7) (17.7-18.2) (17.2-17.6) (16.7-17.2) (16.2-16.7)
Protein with MBM % (19.5-20.0) (18.9-19.4) (18.2-18.8) (17.9-18.4) (17.4-17.9)
Total amino acids % :
Lysine 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.80 0.77
Methionine 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.39
Methionine + Cystine 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.65
Tryptophan 0.210 0.200 0.192 0.184 0.176
Threonine 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.58 0.56
Isoleucine 0.80 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67
Valine 0.86 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73
Digestible amino acids % :
Lysine 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.71 0.68
Methionine 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.37
Tryptophan 0.182 0.173 0.166 0.159 0.153
Threonine 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.49 0.47
Isoleucine 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61
Valine 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.68 0.66
From 28 weeks to the end of lay
Protein w/o MBM % (17.4-17.9) (16.9-17.4) (16.4-16.9) (15.9-16.4) 15.4-15.9)
Protein with MBM % (18.7-19.2) (18.1-18.6) (17.6-18.1) (17.1-17.6) (16.6-17.1)
Total amino acids % :
Lysine 0.86 0.82 0.79 075 0.72
Methionine 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.37
Tryptophan 0.198 0.189 0.181 0.173 0.166
Threonine 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.52
Isoleucine 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.66 0.64
Valine 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.71 0.68
Digestible amino acids % :
Lysine 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.64
Methionine 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35
Tryptophan 0.170 0.162 0.155 0.148 0.142
Threonine 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45
Isoleucine 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.58
Valine 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.52
Those requirements are based on the “European Amino Acids Table” (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and
expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the “Tables de composition et
de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux animaux d’élevage” (INRA editions 2002).

Calcium nutrition and particle size
Year after year, improvements in productivity are brought about by reducing the time taken to produce an egg.
Nowadays, the time taken to produce the egg is close to 24 hours which enables us to achieve very high rates of
production with eggs being laid early in the morning.
Calcification of the eggshell takes about 12 hours, being completed on average 2h – 2h 30 minutes before oviposition.
Eggshell quality depends to a large extent on the quantity of calcium available in the digestive tract during the night
and the form in which calcium carbonate is supplied.
There is a difference between brown and white birds in the moment when calcium deposition for egg shell formation
takes place. In Table 23 below this difference is illustrated by taking a 16 hours of light program as an example:
Table 23: Moment of calcium deposit for white and brown layers
In Average (hours after lights on) White Layers Brown Layers

Beginning of large calcium deposit 15h30 (+/- 2hrs) 12h30 (+/- 2hrs)
End of calcium deposit 3h30 (+/- 2hrs) 0h30 (+/- 2hrs)
Calcification of the shell is mainly realised during the night. A high percentage of brown birds stop calcification at
“lights on” or just after, while white layers finished their shell after “lights on”.
Calcium absorption
During shell formation birds use the calcium contained in the digestive tract and it is dissolved by abundant secretion
of hydrochloric acid. Regular gizzard contractions deliver calcium through the intestine. When the quantity of calcium
is insufficient, bone reserves are used (the calcium is deposited and the phosphorus eliminated by the kidneys). Birds
which are forced to use their bone reserves produce eggs of poorer shell quality. Sauveur (1988) said “the eggshells
are thicker when the part played by the bones is small”. Calcium deposition is slow during the first 5 hours after it
enters into the shell gland. After that and for approximately 10 hours, the rate of shell deposition is rapid and linear.
Calcium absorption varies from approximately 30% to over 70% between periods without calcification and the period
of shell formation. For this reason, all increases in the quantity of calcium available at the end of the night lead to an
improvement in shell quality.
Importance of large limestone particle size

Large size of calcium and retention: Large sizes of limestone (over 2mm) are retained in the digestive tract and
dissolved slowly during shell formation, providing a more regular release of calcium.
The influence of particle size on the “in vitro” and “in vivo” solubility of calcium and its retention in the gizzard, 5 hours
after food withdrawal as shown in table 24.

Table 24: Solubility of limestone by particle size
Diameter of limestone Solubility (%)

particles average size In vitro In vivo Retention in the gizzard (g)
(mm)
A B A B A B
3.3 – 4.7 29.8 36.3 84.8 82.5 15.4 3.4
2.0 – 2.8 45.8 54.8 79.0 84.0 11.8 4.3
1.0 – 2.0 49.3 57.7 77.8 74.4 5.5 4.7
0.5 – 0.8 63.1 67.6 76.5 69.4 0.7 1.6
(Zhang et al., 1997)
A = low solubility sample B = high solubility sample
Table 25: Relationship between particle size and calcium retention for a consumption of 3.75g of calcium
Particles
Size of Rejected in Stored in the gizzard Calcium retained
particles the faeces after 24 hours g %
0.5 to 0.8 mm 44% 0 1.94 52
2 to 5mm 16% 10% 2.40 64
(Rao and Roland, 1989)
Large size of calcium and shell quality

The availability of calcium at the end of the night period is improved by using a coarse calcium source, with a low
solubility. By using a low solubility coarse limestone, the quantity of calcium available during the beginning of shell
formation is reduced, and it is improved at the end of the night.
The most important parameter is solubility, the lower the solubility, the better the shell quality. Chen and Coon (1990)
found a very high coefficient of regression between Shell Index and solubility. Coarse limestone with a high solubility is
not able to optimize the shell quality.
There is no advantage in using oyster shell if the limestone size and solubility are correct.
Table 26: Relation between limestone particle size and egg shell quality traits
Av. screen size Shell index Shell weight Specific Shell thickness
(mm) mg / cm² g gravity µm
3.36 75.6 5.27 1.0837 302
2.38 74.3 5.21 1.0839 290
1.68 74.0 5.23 1.0828 296
1.02 73.7 5.16 1.0825 294
0.50 73.0 5.05 1.0821 286
0.15 70.9 4.97 1.0802 280
(Chen and Coon, 1990)

Importance of soluble form of calcium
At “lights-on”, those birds, which have not completed calcification should have access to powdery calcium, which is
very rapidly dissolved and absorbed. It takes no more than 30 minutes between the intake of calcium and the moment
where calcium is incorporated into the shell. Koreleski et al, 2003, studied which percentage of coarse particles of
limestone has to be used with brown birds. The best result is observed with 60% of large particles.
Table 27: Effect of the percentage of limestone in particles of 2 to 4mm on the shell characteristics
Percentage of large Eggshell breaking Shell weight Shell Index Shell thickness
particles used strength N g mg per cm² µm
0 33.6a 5.70 78.3 365
20 35.4ab 5.80 78.9 365
40 38.0d 5.75 79.7 368
60 38.2d 5.88 80.8 374
80 36.9cd 5.70 79.1 364
100 36.1bc 5.89 81.4 370
(Koreleski, 2003)
Recommendations
White layers finish their shells after “lights on”, consequently 50% of the calcium has to be in particles of 2 to 4mm
and 50% in a powder form.
Around 40% of brown layers have finished their eggshell at “lights on”, consequently 65% of the calcium has to be in
particles of 2 to 4mm and 35% in a powder form.
Table 28: Daily requirement of nutrients during various stages in production
Daily Requirement From 17 to 28 weeks From 28 to 50 weeks After 50 weeks
Available phosphorus (1) mg 400 380 340

Available phosphorus (2) mg 440 420 380
Total calcium g 3.9 – 4.1 4.1 – 4.3 4.3 – 4.6
White birds:
g 2.0 2.1 2.2
Coarse calcium (2 to 4mm)
Brown birds:
g 2.6 2.7 2.9
Coarse calcium (2 to 4mm)
Sodium minimum mg 180 180 180
Chlorine mini-maxi mg 170 - 260 170 - 260 170 - 260
Oil mini-maxi (3) % 2-3 1-2 0.5 – 1.5
Birds require a minimum level of coarse insoluble fiber. 2.5% insoluble fiber
Fiber
is considered a low level and from 5% upwards as high level.

Mineral and oil level recommendations

1) When coarse limestone is supplied as particles of 2 to 4mm, it is possible to use these values.
2) We advise using these values when the calcium is supplied in powder form.
3) Adding vegetable oils which are rich in unsaturated fatty acids increases egg weight. The suggested inclusion rate
for medium to large sized eggs is 2-3%. For markets requesting small to medium sizes eggs a lower inclusion rate,
is advised. Therefore, diet should be adjusted according to each market’s preference for egg size. To avoid egg size
becoming too large at the end of lay, we advise reducing the quantity of vegetable oil being used.
Table 29: Nutrient requirement in percentage depends on feed intake after 28 weeks of age
Average feed intake observed

105 110 115 120 125
after 28 weeks in g / day
From 2% lay to 28 weeks old

Available phosphorus (1) % 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34
Total calcium % 3.9 - 4.1 3.8 – 4.0 3.6 - 3.8 3.4 – 3.6 3.3 – 3.5
Sodium minimum % 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15
Chlorine mini-maxi % 0.17 - 0.26 0.16 - 0.25 0.16 - 0.24 0.15 - 0.23 0.15 - 0.22
From 28 weeks to 50 weeks
Total calcium % 3.9 - 4.1 3.7 - 3.9 3.6 - 3.8 3.4 - 3.6 3.3 - 3.5
Sodium minimum % 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.14
From 50 weeks to the end of lay
Total calcium % 4.1 – 4.3 3.9 – 4.1 3.8 – 4.0 3.6 – 3.8 3.5 – 3.7
Sodium minimum % 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.14

Importance of the feed particle size
Mixing difficulties, inappropriate particle size and separation problems have been resolved by milling the raw materials
relatively fine.
However, diets, which are too finely ground, often seriously reduce feed intake. Low consumption has been avoided
by using diets presented as crumbs or pellets. In effect, the ease of eating and the reduction in feeding time, due to
pelleting, leads to an increase in the number of feeds taken by the birds and in their growth. This effect is observed in
both laying hens and broiler chickens.
Birds are grain eaters and their feed consumption depends on feed presentation.
Pelleted or crumbled diets

In theory, presenting a diet in crumb or pellet form will give higher feed consumption. That presupposes that the
feeding systems in operation and the raw materials used are providing the laying hen with a good quality pellet or
crumb.
Apart from the increased costs of manufacturing, very often, the difficulties in obtaining a good quality crumb are
responsible for under-consumption and some technical problems because of:
• the breaking down of the crumb in the feed distribution system
• the build-up of fine feed particles in the feeders
• more shell quality problems related to the difficulties in using a granular limestone
• more feather pecking due to a shorter feeding time
To develop a good digestive system, it is necessary to have coarsely milled feed. With the intention of keeping good
shell quality we suggest:
• use granular limestone if the diameter of the diet is adapted
• add some of the limestone after pelleting
• distribute 3 to 4g per bird of granular limestone (2 to 4mm) in the poultry house each afternoon.
Mash diets of good texture

During rearing, except for the first 4 or 5 weeks, when the diet should be crumbs, a good particle size will allow good
growth and the development of a robust digestive system.
During the laying period, a good textured diet will allow the birds to increase their feed consumption, their production
and their growth.
The table on page 57 shows the results of Summers and Leeson (1979) when they were comparing a fine mash with a
diet of 60% cracked maize and whole barley grains.

Table 30: Effects of structure on consumption and performance
Cracked Maize + Whole Barley Fine Mash

Consumption (g/day) 114.5 102.0
Rate of lay (%) 86.9 85.1
Egg weight (g) 59.6 56.8
Source: Summers and Leeson, 1979
In hot climates, a good textured feed can reduce the under-consumption experienced in summer.
That’s why, we advise having at least 75 to 80% of the particles between 0.5 and 3.2mm. This type of diet is in fact
easier and cheaper to produce, because the rate of output from the grinder is increased.
Particle sizes less than 0.5mm: 15% maximum

Particle sizes above 3.2mm: 10% maximum
These recommendations also apply to the rearing diets after the age of 4 or 5 weeks. The attractiveness of the diet
improves markedly if the fine particles are sticking together. That can be achieved by the addition of 1.5 to 2.5%
vegetable oil.
The choice of raw materials

Avoid raw materials, which are too dusty, and do not grind ingredients, which don’t need grinding.
When the diet does not contain meat meal 60 to 70% of the calcium carbonate should be supplied as granules of
2-4mm diameter. When meat meal is included the proportion in granular form should be increased to 80%.
The phosphates should be supplied as micro-granules.
Grinding technique
A well textured mash can be obtained by observing the following rules:
• The speed at the periphery of the hammers should be 50 to 55 m/sec. This speed corresponds to about 1500 rpm
for a grinder of 65cm diameter.
• We recommend using grill mesh screens in preference to those with round perforations. They have a higher
proportion of spaces and allow higher throughputs.
• The hole diameters should be the following:
• For wire screens = 8mm minimum
• For screens with round perforations = 8mm minimum, 10mm maximum.
• Note: Using worn hammers gives an increase in the percentage of fine particles and reduces the output of the
grinder.
• Only mill those raw materials that require it.
• Check the texture of the raw material at least twice a week.

Fiber for Breeders
For the use of fiber in rearing, see the section : Nutrition – Rearing Period - Development of the digestive system.
Birds also have a specific requirement for fiber during egg production. They must find fiber in the feed or in their
immediate environment. It has been shown that birds that are deficient in fiber ingest feathers as a fiber source.
Feathers may be taken from the floor or pecked from other birds. Monitor feather presence on the floor and if no
feathers are found, check gizzards for feathers. This is a valuable tool to identify the origin of feather pecking behavior
in a flock.
An appropriate supply of fibers results in a good feather cover, livability, intestinal health, digestion (of mainly starch)
and drier manure quality. Livability is positively influenced by fibers because it increases the feeling of satiety in birds,
which in turn results in quieter birds, by eliminating need for feather ingestion (pecking and cannibalism). Diluting the
feed helps to maintain a good energy balance in older birds and to prevent fatty livers.
Characteristics of good fiber sources for layers are insoluble fiber of a coarse structure. Cellulose, hemicellulose and
especially lignin are classified as insoluble fiber. These fibers are not digested or fermented in the gastrointestinal tract,
and therefore serve as filling material that stimulate gastrointestinal movements without increasing the viscosity of the
intestinal contact. If fiber particles are small (finely ground), the effect on gastrointestinal movements is minimal and
coarse fiber is recommended. Inclusion rates of 2.5% of insoluble fiber are considered to be low in fiber, while 5% of
insoluble fiber is considered to be high in fiber. Beyond the start of lay fiber content can be increased. The inclusion of
6-7% of insoluble fiber (by oat hulls) gives good results in terms of production parameters and livability.
Fiber can be included in the feed or provided in the direct environment. Preferred “in-feed” insoluble fiber sources
are oilseed meals like sunflower meal and rapeseed meal, but also oats and oat hulls. Cereal by-products (like bran)
are also a good source of insoluble fiber, however cereal byproducts have a fine structure and therefore have minimal
effect on gastrointestinal movements, which makes them less suitable as a fiber source.
Fiber that is provided in addition to the diet can be coarse fiber such as straw, alfalfa (lucerne), wood shaving, rice/
oat husk, silage, etc. These materials must be available in the building through round feeders, or directly as a ball on
the scratching area. Birds must have free access to fiber sources at all times. We advise not spreading fiber directly on
the floor. To prevent floor eggs, fiber supply must be introduced after the peak of production when the birds are well
trained to use the nest.

In Table 31 premix recommendations are given for parent stock in rearing and production.
Parent stock diets are often heat treated for extra feed safety. This can have a negative effect on premix stability and
consequently decrease nutrient availability. Therefore, the use of vitamins with excellent stability and an additional
antioxidant is highly recommended. In addition to heat treatment, other factors in feed processing can have a negative
impact on vitamin stability, e.g. conditioning, pelleting, expansion and extrusion. Therefore, premix recommendations
are given for both standard and heat treated diets.
Table 31: Suggested premix composition for parent stock in rearing and production.
Added vitamins per kg of feed
Standard feed 1 Heat treated feed2

Vitamin A 3 IU/kg 15000 17000
Vitamin D3 IU/kg 4500 4800
Vitamin E 4
mg/kg 150 158
Vitamin K3 mg/kg 5.0 8.3
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) mg/kg 3.5 5.6
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
5
mg/kg 12 12
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) mg/kg 6.0 6.8
Vitamin B12 mg/kg 0.040 0.047
Niacin (PP) mg/kg 60 66
Calcium Pantothenate mg/kg 15 17
Folic Acid mg/kg 3.0 3.4
Biotin mg/kg 0.4 0.4
Vitamin C 6 mg/kg 200 200
Added choline 7 per kg of feed
Choline 0 to 5 weeks mg/kg 500 500
Choline 5 weeks to end of rear mg/kg 500 500
Choline in lay 8 mg/kg 1000 1000
Added trace elements per kg of feed
Manganese (Mn) mg/kg 70
Zinc (Zn) mg/kg 80
Iron (Fe) mg/kg 60
Iodine (I) mg/kg 1
Copper (Cu) mg/kg 8
Cobalt (Co) 9
mg/kg 0.3
Selenium (Se) mg/kg 0.5
See next page for explanation of points 1 - 9

Explanation of suggested premix composition:
1 Standard Feed: Reference is DSM Vitamin Supplementation Guidelines 2016 for animal nutrition.
2 Heat treated feed: Reference is DSM Vitamin Supplementation Guidelines 2016 for animal nutrition plus correction
for heat treatment.
3 Vitamin A: Legal limits needs to be observed: EU2015/724 chickens up to 14 days max.
20.000 IU/kg feed (DM 88%) and chickens older than 14 days max. 10.000 IU/kg feed (DM 88%).
4 Vitamin E: Advised level of 150 mg/kg for optimal immune system development and functioning.
5 Vitamin B2: In the first weeks of rearing accurate levels (12 mg/kg) of Vitamin B2 are needed for proper leg
development - especially for males.
6 Vitamin C is synthesized by poultry. This vitamin is not considered as essential but in some circumstances, such as
heat stress conditions, Vitamin C can be added.
7 Added Choline: The conversion factor from added Choline to added Choline Chloride is multiplied by 1.15. For
example: recommendation of 1000 mg Choline per kg feed equals 1150 mg added Choline Chloride per kg feed.
8 Choline in lay: For optimal liver health over long production cycles, consistent results can be achieved by increasing
levels of added choline from 500 to 1000 mg/kg feed.
9 Cobalt: Legal limits needs to be observed: EU2013/601 addition of Cobalt is only approved for ruminating species.
No added Cobalt is allowed for chickens.
Mixing
Trace elements and vitamins should be correctly mixed before being added to the raw materials. Premixes have to be
mixed at a minimum level of 3kg per tonne. Improper mixing or handling can be checked by dosing manganese as a
tracer.
Toxicity of some minerals

Maximum admissible levels for different minerals can be estimated as follows:
Potassium 2000 ppm

Sodium 5000 ppm
Iron 500 ppm
Zinc 2000 ppm
Selenium 10 ppm
Vanadium 10 ppm (due to contamination from rock phosphates)
Magnesium 5000 ppm
Chlorine 5000 ppm
Manganese 1000 ppm
Copper 300-500 ppm
Iodine 300-500 ppm

The care for Parent Stock Management Guide
hatching eggs
Quality requirements for hatching eggs

Hatching eggs must be clean with intact shells. The ideal weight of hatching eggs ranges from 52 g to 70g.
Incubating eggs from breeder flocks younger than 24 weeks of age is not recommended as poor hatching, small chick
size and lower early liveability can be the result. Chick quality will depend not only on egg weight and breeder age,
but also on the female breeder’s growth at the onset of lay. Flocks of layer breeders often start laying at a fast rate. If
feed intake does not increase in line with this egg production, nutrient transfer to the egg is compromised and chick
viability will be poorer.
Egg size increases with the age of the flock. At the onset of lay, poor hatching results are often due to relatively small
yolks. The best hatching results are obtained from eggs collected from birds between 8 and 13 months of age. Eggs
which are too large usually hatch at lower rates, so controlling egg weight throughout lay, and especially at the end of
production is essential to maintain good hatchability. Important points to be considered are the following:
• Bodyweight at onset of lay: average egg weight is largely determined by the pullet’s weight on coming into lay.
Pullets which are too heavy at the onset of lay will lay larger eggs throughout the lifetime of the flock.
• Oil content in feed: high oil levels in the diet leads to increased feed intake and a larger egg size. Consider limiting
feed oil content or replacing it by saturated fats.
• Amino acids: reducing the amino acid level in the laying diet will have an impact on decreasing the egg weight, but
will also lead to a reduction in rate of lay. We therefore advise against any change in amino acid levels during lay.
• Energy intake: if necessary, from 45 weeks of age, a slight reduction of about 50 Kcal in energy level could be
considered to stabilise egg weight, as long as changes in feed composition do not lead to under-consumption.
• Temperature: house temperatures which are too low cause over-consumption and consequently increases egg
weight, and should be avoided.
Shell quality is another important external aspect when it comes to selecting hatching eggs. The shell must be smooth
and free of cracks. Thin-shelled eggs tend to crack more easily, with the consequent risk of contaminating other eggs
and they should not be used. At peak production, during periods of extreme temperatures, and at the end of the
production period, special attention should be given to a proper balance in calcium allowances (supplementary coarse
limestone or oyster shell) to ensure good shell quality.
Hatching eggs should have a normal oval shape. Misshapen eggs and double yolks are not suitable for hatching.
Only clean eggs should be selected as hatching eggs. Dirty eggs, soiled with manure, litter or blood should be rejected.

Collection of hatching eggs
Nests must be always kept clean. Manure and broken eggs should be removed frequently.
In littered type nests, the nesting material must be clean and free of mould and be renewed regularly. In automatic
nests, plastic bottoms or pads must be cleaned periodically. Nests should be equipped with a closing or ejection
system to prevent birds from staying in at night and soiling the nest.
The collection of eggs to be used for incubation should be done at least 4 times per day in manual littered type nests,
and at least twice per day in automatic roll away nests. Increase this rate in hot or cold weather. The embryo will
start to develop above 22°C. Subsequent changes in temperature can cause early mortality, which can be mistaken
for infertility. It is important to note that the development of the embryo has already started in the hen’s body, and
the first 6 hours after oviposition are crucial, since eggs have to cool down from body temperature (41°C) to room
temperature. The recommended temperature for the egg collection room is 20–22°C. Over-development of the
embryo before storage of eggs can cause embryo death.
When eggs are collected in setter trays or plastic trays, eggs cool down more uniformly, but if the room temperature
is too low or there are drafts, cooling can be too rapid. If eggs are collected in cardboard trays, cooling down takes
longer as full trays are piled up. Warm hatching eggs should not be packed directly into egg boxes.
Egg collecting devices such as baskets, plastic trays and belts must have holes to allow organic contamination debris
to fall away from the eggshell surface and to avoid contamination of other eggs. These devices should be cleaned and
disinfected before use. Cardboard trays must not be re-used. Eggs should be placed with the pointed end downwards.
Prior to handling eggs, hands should be washed and then disinfected with a sanitizing solution. Hands should be
re-sanitized frequently during egg collecting time and whenever returning from other tasks.
Dirty eggs are not suitable hatching eggs. Slightly soiled eggs can be dry-cleaned with sand paper or wire wool to
take small amounts of dirt off, but always keep in mind that cuticle, which acts as natural protection against internal
contamination, will be damaged.
Hatching eggs should always be handled with extreme care as rough handling will lead to a higher number of cracks
and lower hatchability as well as further risk of contamination.
Floor eggs
Floor eggs should not be used as hatching eggs. However, in some circumstances and due to economic constraints,
they may be used. They should be collected quickly after lay, selecting clean eggs only, to be disinfected rapidly after
being laid, kept separate and properly identified. Dirty eggs must be eliminated under all circumstances, and they
should not be stored near to clean hatching eggs.
Clean floor eggs should be set in a dedicated setter once a week. In general, floor eggs do not hatch as well as good
quality hatching eggs. Furthermore, the chances of them being internally contaminated are high, so there is a high risk
of explosion in the setters, damaging other eggs in the same incubator.
The number of floor eggs can be reduced by following good management procedures (see “Floor eggs” in the Control
of Behavior section).

Egg sanitation
Because contamination of hatching eggs with microorganisms starts immediately after an egg has been laid, daily
on-farm disinfection is necessary. This disinfection should take place in a specially-designed cabinet, in which
temperature, humidity, ventilation and the period of disinfection can be controlled. Disinfect on trays, not in boxes.
The aim of disinfection is to kill bacteria, molds and certain viruses present on the eggshell to prevent these
microorganisms from penetrating into the egg, through the hundreds of tiny pores in the shell.
Various products and methods are available. The products used should be suitable for hatching egg sanitation, efficient
at reducing the microbiological load of the eggshell, but not harmful for the embryo and safe for human health.
Fumigation with formalin has been widely used as an effective and easy to apply method for hatching egg sanitation
and it is still used when regulations permit it. When local regulations forbid the use of formalin, other products and
methods remain available, such as hydrogen peroxide, quaternary ammonium compounds, glutaraldehyde based
chemicals, peracetic acid, chlorine, UV rays, ozone, or dipping in a disinfectant solution.
Fumigation
Formalin can be used as a disinfectant – when local regulations allow its use - either in powder format, or as a solution
with potassium permanganate.
For an efficient fumigation with no adverse effect on hatchability, certain conditions (concentration, timing,
ventilation, humidity and temperature) need to be met:
Per m3 of the disinfection room, use:

a) 6 grams of paraformaldehyde powder, heated to 204ºC in special electrical pans. Always follow the manufacturers’
recommendations
OR
b) 20 grams of potassium permanganate and 30cc of formalin 38%.
Use porcelain basins. Formalin should be added to potassium permanganate in the basin. When using damaged
enamel basins, oxidation of the metal can occur, whereby formic acid is liberated, which can be very harmful to the
hatching eggs.
Disinfect for 20 minutes at a temperature of 25°C and a relative humidity of 75%. Then ventilate the fumigation
chamber.
If required, after disinfection, the formalin mixture can be neutralized with 40% ammonia (40cc ammonia per m3).
Follow local regulations for the use of the above products.

Disinfection by spraying or fogging
Chemicals other than formalin can be used as sanitizers. Ideally, these products should be safe, easy to apply, and have
a good disinfecting capacity with no negative effect on hatchability and chick quality.
When eggs are sprayed on the farm, an approved hatching egg sanitizer should be used and egg trays or flats must be
individually treated before being piled up or placed in trolleys. For an effective disinfection by spray, eggs should be
collected in plastic setter trays and a suitable spraying device producing fine droplets should be used.
If it is not properly performed, disinfection by spraying has many disadvantages:

• partial disinfection when eggs are on cardboard cases.
• internal contamination when there is excessive spraying or the droplet size is too large.
• Eggs which are too wet get cool quickly and “absorb” eggshell germs through the pores. These eggs will be
responsible for exploders in setters and bad bacteriological quality of day old chicks (Pseudomonas).
Fogging is becoming a widely used method as it is safe, eggs do not get wet and the small size of the droplets (fog)
can easily reach the entire surface of all the eggs. There are different systems
such as cold-fogging or thermal fogging and all of them require the use of specific fogging devices. Always follow the
manufacturer’s instructions and use the recommended concentrations.
Egg washing
Washing hatching eggs is possible, but it requires a well-constructed egg-washing machine, which should be operated
in the correct way to avoid adverse effects on hatchability and contamination.
Strictly follow the manufacturer’s recommendations regarding water quality and temperature (always hotter than egg
temperature), choice and level of sanitizer, duration of washing, frequency of change of the washing solution, rinsing
and drying conditions etc. If the requirements are not met, it can result in the contamination of hatching eggs and
‘exploders’.

Storage of hatching eggs

An appropriate egg storage room is required for the storage of hatching eggs. It should be well insulated and equipped
with a cooling and heating system with a humidifier to maintain a constant temperature and humidity. Walls and roofs
should be kept free of dust and floors tiled for easy cleaning and frequent fumigation. Drafts should be avoided and
mice always kept out of the egg storage room.
Optimum environmental conditions for short storage periods, up to 4 days, are 18°C and 80% R.H. For longer storage
periods, recommended temperatures are lower: 16°C up to 7 days and about 15°C for storage longer than 7 days.
Moisture as well as gases pass through the eggshell pores. Some exchange of gas, as the embryo develops, is normal,
but excessive evaporation of water from the egg during storage will decrease hatchability and chick vitality. High
humidity will prevent early loss of water from the eggs and avoid excessive enlargement of the air chamber prior to
setting.
It is advisable to weigh some hatching eggs prior to placement in cold storage, then reweigh them when going out for
setting. Relative humidity can be increased up to 85% for long storage periods if eggs are stored in plastic egg trays or
setter trays. When hatching eggs are stored on paper trays, RH should be lower, since the risk of dehydration is smaller
and high RH will cause the trays to become wet and floppy.
Normally eggs are stored with the pointed-end downwards for short storage duration, but hatchability increases if the
eggs are stored pointed-end upwards and blunt-end downwards for storage periods longer than 7 days. An alternative
for long storage, to preserve hatchability, is turning the eggs. If there is no specific automatic system installed, the egg
boxes can be turned by hand at least once every 24 hours.
Hatching eggs should never be packed directly on the floor, but on wooden or preferably, plastic slats.
Storing conditions should be set in order to avoid water condensation on the shell’s surface (“egg sweating”), which
creates favourable conditions for microbial growth. This phenomenon occurs when stored eggs are transferred to
a warmer environment and the dew point is reached. To avoid temperature fluctuations and egg sweating during
transport, truck and farm egg storage room temperatures should be equal.
Hatching eggs should always be handled with care in order to avoid mechanical shocks at loading, during transport and
unloading.
If an egg storage room is not available on the farm, eggs must be collected from the farms and transported to the
hatchery daily.

Reference list Parent Stock Management Guide
Bougon, M., Joly, P., Influence du niveau énergétique sur les performances des pondeuses à oeufs roux et évolution
de l’ingéré en fonction de l`âge. 2ême Journée de la Recherche Avicole (1997) 2:115–120.
Cheng, Thim K., Coon, C.N., Effect of calcium source, particle size, limestone solubility in vitro, and calcium intake
level on layer bone status and performance. Poultry science 69.12 (1990): 2214-2219.
Newcombe, M., Summers, J.D., Effect of increasing cellulose in diets fed as crumbles or mash on the food intake
and weight gains of broiler and Leghorn chicks. British Poultry Science (1985) Vol. 26 , Iss. 1.
Koreleski, J., Swiatkiewicz, S., Calcium from limestone meal and grit in laying hen diets-effect on performance,
eggshell and bone quality. J. Anim. Feed Sci. (2004) 13:635–645.
Rao, K.S., Roland, D.A., Influence of dietary calcium level and particle size of calcium source on in vivo calcium
solubilization by commercial Leghorns. Poultry science 68.11 (1989): 1499-1505.
Sauveur, B., Les critères et facteurs de la qualité des poulets Label Rouge. INRA Prod. Anim 10.3 (1997): 219-226.
Zhang, B., Coon, C.N., The relationship of calcium intake, source, size, solubility in vitro and in vivo, and gizzard
limestone retention in laying hens. Poultry Science 76.12 (1997): 1702-1706.

Notes

DISCLAIMER: This Parent Stock Management Guide has been prepared by Institut de Sélection Animale B.V. to inform readers of its activities in the broadest sense. It is by
no means intended to be complete, not even on the aspects mentioned herein. There are no implied or explicit guarantees given by Institut de Sélection Animale B.V. and
its shareholders as to the accuracy and completeness of the provided information in this Parent Stock Management Guide.
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2 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Hygiene and sanitation

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 3

4 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

The care for hatching eggs

Reference list Parent Stock Management Guide 66

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 5

Basic hygiene rules

6 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Personnel and visitors

Clean up and disinfection

These protocols should be followed:

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 7

General Management during the brooding period

The objectives during the brooding period are:

Figure 1: Bodyweight development

8 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Equipment and environment

Age (weeks) 0–2 2–5 0–3 3–5

Table 2: Pan diameter per number of birds

Pan diameter Number of birds / feeder (max.)

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 9

A: radiant heater of 1450 Kcal capacity

10 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Temperature and humidity

Measuring litter temperature Measuring chick body temperature

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 11

Age Brooding temperature Room temperature Relative humidity

(days) At the edge of At 2-3m from Optimum-

Figure 4: Distribution behavior according to temperature

Too cold Too warm Draught Ideal

• CO2: maximum 2500 ppm

12 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Rearing in dark or semi-dark house Rearing in hot climate (open houses)

Figure 5: Cyclical program for the first 2 weeks of age

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 13

• Before 28 days, weigh a group of a minimum of 100 birds each week.

14 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

General Management during the growing period

The objectives during the growing period are:

These objectives can be achieved by:

Housing and equipment

Age (in weeks) 6 – 17 6 – 17

* If males are reared separated, increase floor/cage space by 25%.

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 15

16 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Figure 6: Feed distribution management in rearing

60% of the feed in the afternoon

Night time Night time

12h00 of light at plateau

Pullet feed presented in coarse particles helps gizzard development.

Supplying insoluble grit is a good alternative for gizzard development:

Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics 17

Method of weighing control:

Figure 7: Example of a weighing sheet

Body weight recoding chart

Grams No. Birds 10 15 20 25 30 35 Rearer

Time of Weighing a.m. / p.m. Weighed by :-

18 Parent Stock Management Guide - Hendrix Genetics

Depending on the conclusions, management should be adapted to improve uniformity.