Internal combustion engines 283

BOILERS
Boilers are subject to extensive code and regulatory requirements. All boilers
should have the following minimum safety controls:
• A pressure relief safety valve capable of relieving overpressure at maximum
heat input
• Low and high water alarm, and low low and high high water alarm and
interlock to shut off fuel input
• Alarms and interlocks on airflow to shut off fuel supply in the event of
forced-draft fan failure
Gas-fired boilers should have the additional controls listed below. These con-
trols should cause the safety shutoff valves to close if a condition they monitor
deviates from normal, which are as follows:
• Low and high gas pressure switches
• Main burner and pilot double-block-and-bleed safety shutoff valves
• Flame failure scanners with the time-limiting “trial for ignition” feature
included in the circuitry
On boilers with under boiler air ducts, faulty or plugged fuel oil burners can
cause fuel oil to back up into the air ducting where it will accumulate and burn.
Provision for injecting fire foam or steam should be provided.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Internal combustion engines have many applications in both stationary and mobile
equipment, but these are the sources of ignition when exposed to a flammable
mixture of hydrocarbon vapor. Types of internal combustion engine found in the
process industries include the following:
• Large stationary engines—commonly used as gas-fueled drivers of large
compressors or pumps.
• Intermediate size stationary engines fueled by gas, gasoline, diesel, or LPG
and used to drive pumps, compressors, generators, mixers, and other
equipment.
• Mobile engines fueled by gasoline, diesel, or LPG and used to drive mobile
equipment including cars, trucks, cranes, forklifts, pumps, generators, and
front-end loaders.
Cars, trucks, and other motorized vehicles normally used for highway trans-
portation should not be permitted to enter process units, tank farms, and restricted
locations until the area has been checked with a combustible gas indicator to
284 CHAPTER 12 Equipment

ensure that concentrations of flammable vapors do not exceed 25% of the lower
flammable limit (LFL).
A modified internal combustion engine is less likely to be an ignition source
than an ordinary engine. When special operating conditions justify modifying and
maintaining this equipment, the recommendations of this section should be con-
sidered. Where it is not practical or economical to modify a permanently installed
internal combustion engine, an acceptable alternate is to provide adequate ventila-
tion to prevent accumulation of hydrocarbon vapor in concentrations above 25%
of the LFL. The engine may be enclosed in a pressurized area to exclude vapor or
ventilated with an air sweep that will ensure vapor concentration will never reach
the flammable range. Automatic shutdown should be provided in the event of a
ventilation system failure.
Generally, the fire loss risk should be evaluated on the basis of:
• The probability of a hydrocarbon vapor release near the engine.
• Characteristics of the engine (fuel and ignition systems).
• Existing fire protection facilities (equipment spacing, fire walls, detection, and
extinguishing systems).
The same detection and control systems recommended for larger stationary
gas-fueled engines driving compressors and other equipment should be considered
for other critical or high-risk equipment. Fire and combustible gas detectors
should be employed to sound alarms or shut down operating equipment, shut off
fuel supply, activate motor-operated valves to close all intake and discharge lines,
relieve pressure to a vent stack, or activate fixed extinguishing systems. These
detection systems are recommended for all critical unattended or not-regularly-
attended facilities.
For enclosed internal combustion engine facilities, the detection system
should alarm and activate any emergency ventilation systems to keep air in the
facility below 20% of the LFL. If the combustible levels continued to rise up to
60% of LFL, the detection system should activate further protections (e.g., shut-
ting down the ventilation and shutting down the engine). Another consideration
should be the location of ventilation exhausts with respect to outside ignition
sources.
Fixed fire control systems such as firewater monitors or water sprays over crit-
ical or high-risk equipment or carbon dioxide flooding of enclosures should also
be considered. Except for combustion gas turbine enclosures, situations warrant-
ing such protection are not common.

STARTER SYSTEMS
The starter system can be electrical (Class I, Division 2), pneumatic, hydraulic,
spring recoil, or inertia. It may be acceptable to use an electric starter motor that
 Electrical equipment 285

does not meet the area classification requirements if proper entry permits are used
and one of the following criteria is satisfied:
• A lockable switch is provided so that the electric starter motor can be locked
out to prevent its use in a classified area.
• The starting battery is kept outside the classified area and the engine is started
there.
• The starter, the starter motor switch, and the solenoid are inspected to be sure
they are not an open device.
• The starter motor should have a tight fitting cover band with a gasket installed
to shield commutator arcing.
• The starter motor switch should have a tight fitting cover or the switch cover.
• Terminals should be covered with protective boots to avoid accidental shorting.
Large internal combustion engines are often started with air. This air is pro-
vided by a compressor—typically a conventionally lubricated reciprocating
machine—and then piped to an air distributor on the engine. Explosions can be
caused if combustible lubricant is present in the air. Therefore, noncombustible
lubricants should be used.

INTAKE, EXHAUST, AND FUEL SYSTEMS

The following guidelines apply to intake, exhaust, and fuel systems:
• Combustion air for all internal combustion engines should come through
filtered air intakes. Engine exhausts should extend above the eaves of the
building. The exhaust system for stationary engines with higher risk exposures
should be leak-tight so flames from a backfire cannot escape, and they should
be equipped with a spark-arresting type of muffler.
• Fuel lines should be of steel tubing or piping with flexible steel or steel-braided
tubing sections where necessary to absorb pipe vibration. They should be located
with at least 50 millimeters clearance from exhaust and electrical systems.
• Fuel lines, valves, fittings and vents should be located so that leakage will not
drip on electrical or exhaust systems. Steel shutoff valves located for access in
time of fire should be provided in main fuel lines.

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
The following general guidance applies to the design and operation of electrical
devices:
• All equipment should be properly insulated.
• Consideration should be given to the heating effects of the electrical circuits.
286 CHAPTER 12 Equipment

• All splices and joints and the free ends of conductors should be covered with
an insulating device suitable for the purpose.
• Parts of electrical equipment which, in ordinary operation, produces arcs,
sparks, flames, or molten metal should be enclosed or separated and isolated
from all combustible material.
• Equipment should be properly labeled with information to do with the
manufacturer, voltage, wattage, and other ratings.
• Each service, feeder, and branch circuit should be legibly marked to indicate
its purpose.
• Each means for disconnecting motors and appliances should be legibly
marked to indicate its purpose, unless located and arranged so the purpose is
evident. These markings should be durable.
Electrical equipment in process facilities is often exposed to rain and process
fluids. Therefore it is important to use Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs)
in these situations. These are devices that will trip and disconnect a circuit when
the leakage current to ground exceeds approximately 5 milliamps—below any
personnel hazard level. The speed of response generally is less than 0.05 seconds
for 15 20 amp units. GFCIs should be used for the following applications:
• All 120-volt single-phase 15 and 20 amp outlets that are not part of the
permanent wiring of a building or structure (e.g., temporary wiring during
construction)
• Washroom and change room outlets
• For all areas with moist or wet ground where electrical equipment or
portable electric tools are likely to be used
• Areas where portable electric tools are used regularly, such as in plant shops,
or during maintenance