VERTEBRATE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different
species. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species).
The study helps to show organisms function, develop and how they are linked by evolution.

Many important physical futures can be seen in the outside of the animal body but often the
most revealing ones are hidden inside provide valuable clues. Anatomical studies of
vertebrates shows that the same underlying body systems have adapted to life in water, on
land and in the air. For example despite being brainless and boneless, Tunicates and lancelets
clearly show some of the physical characteristics that were key to vertebrate success.

The tunicates use a series of slits for feeding. These slits develop into gills in fish resulting in
efficient mechanism for oxygen extraction from water. Lancelets have a stiff structure called
the notochord that enables them to swim efficiently. The vertebral column which has replaced
the notochord in vertebrates is even more efficient. In the chordates all animals from
Amphioxus to man develop notochord, visceral clefts and nerve cord in the same manner
showing strong relationship between them.

Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution; it indicates that various
organisms share a common ancestor. Also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based
on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. The study supports Darwin's theory
of descent with modification, also known as evolution. A common example of comparative
anatomy is the similar bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats, and humans. All of
these appendages consist of the same basic parts; yet, they serve completely different
functions. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would
not be ideal to form a wing, which is better-suited for flight. One explanation for the
forelimbs' similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and
natural selection, each organism's anatomical structures gradually adapted to suit their
respective habitats. Two major concepts of comparative anatomy are:

* Analogous structures - structures similar in different organisms because they evolved in a

similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. They
evolved from different ancestors / origins, porpoises and sharks developed analogous
structures as a result of their evolution in the same aquatic environment. They usually serve
the same or similar purposes. An example is the;

-the wings, eyes and legs of fly and those parts in birds may carry out the same function but
the similarity may cease because they have no common structural feature.

Homologous structures – it refers to common origin. This implies structural and

developmental likeness far from the coincidence of similar function but from similar origin.
For example, the wings of a bird and the forelimbs of a mammal are based on a common
pentadactyl limb pattern but work in a different way (or no longer serve the same purpose).
Ones that have evolved from a shared ancestor built on the same underlying plan. Homology
indicates that species have shared ancestry. They are structures (body parts/anatomy) which
are similar in different species because the species have common descent. They may or may
not perform the same function. An example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and
whales.
 Vertebrate evolution

Geological eras of early vertebrates include the Paleozoic (oldest) Mesozoic and
Cenozoic.

 Cambrian Period: the period of Ostracoderms- first vertebrates that are shell skinned
appeared. Class Agnatha- jawless fish possess the following features;

No paired fins, Bony exoskeleton with dermal armor Eg. Hagfish and Lampreys.

Jawed fish evolved from Ostracoderms in Silurian period. It is believed that an

Echinoderm-like organism (deuterostomes) gave rise to vertebrates. Remember that in
Deuterostomes- blastopore gives rise to anus while in Protostomes- blastopore gives
rise to mouth

Placoderms consist of members from Class Placodermii with the following features;

Jawed and have paired fins, Bony dermal exoskeleton; armored fish and 1 st jaws were
large

Jawed fishes gave rise to all other fishes. The age of fishes is the Devonian Period.
There are generally two types of fishes; -Anadromous- from sea to freshwater &
Catadromous- freshwater to sea for breeding.

* Chondrichthyes; they have Cartilaginous skeleton, Bone remains in scales- placoid

scales, Teeth are modified scales. Eg.Sharks, Rays and Skates. Fishes have several
Tail Types;

Heterocercal- Eg. Sharks, Homocercal- Eg. Perch, Diphycercal- Eg. Lungfish.

*Class Osteichthyes; Bony skeleton

-Subclass Actinopterygii. They are ray-finned with the following orders

Chondrostei- most primitive with heterocercal tail. Eg. Sturgeon, Paddlefish.

Holostei- dominant in past; heterocercal tail Eg. Gar, Bowfin

Teleostei- dominant today; homocercal tail. Include Majority of all fish.

-Subclass Sarcopterygii (fleshy or lobe finned). The lingfishes characterized by;

Torpidity- inactivity; hibernation and Aestivation- burrow through dry season. The
following orders have been identified; Order Dipnoi and Order Crossopterygii

Crossopterygiians (lobe-finned fish) gave rise to Labyrinthodonts (early amphibians) in

Devonian Period. The Crossoterygii skull shows place for third (pineal) eye visible in young
tuatara reptiles.
Tooth structure is a Labyrinthodont tooth, limbs and vertebrae evolved here and girdles
become similar. Fin’s skeletal composition exhibits homology with early amphibians. The
peak of Amphibian diversity is during Carboniferous period. Amphibians are the 1 st to
possess cervical vertebrae and have 10 pairs of cranial nerves. Lost scales but Primitive frogs
have dermal scales. They lay Anamniotic eggs and have 3 chambered heart. They show
Metamorphosis and have 2 occipital condyles.

THE SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA (Classification )

These are the higher chordates, they have skull (cranium) which houses the brain and the
vertebrae (backbone / cartilage) which support the ribs, skull and the remaining fore and
hind appendages. They have the following general characteristics;

1. Agnatha (Jawless fishes)- Include the hagfishes and lamprey. They have no paired
fins, mouth is disc like and modified for sucking or biting. They are characterized by
lacking jaws and having a body composed of overlapping plates of dermal bone.
Higher ones like the lamprey have a prominent notochord that forms the axial
skeleton throughout the agnathanʼs life but lack a bony skeleton, scale, or dermal
bony plates. No bony jaws or definite vertebral column. Other notable features of the
lamprey and hagfishes include;
 Lampreys having vestigial eyes covered by a thin, opaque membrane and resemble
hagfish in appearance being eel-like aquatic

 They have a well-developed buccal funnel with tooth-like structures that

anchor the lamprey on to its prey.
 Lamprey have a muscular tongue coated with tooth-like denticles
designed to scrap away the flesh of the prey so as to feed on its blood.
 lamprey have a singular naris that opened into anasopharyngeal duct connecting to an
olfactory sac.
 All lamprey species have seven pairs of gill slits.

2. Gnathostomes (Jawed fishes)- has two classes and they have paired fins, both pelvic
and pectoral.. i.e the chondritchthyes (the cartilaginous fishes) & the ostiechthyes
(bony fishes) with ventral and terminal mouth respectively. Eg. Dogfish, Tilapia. The
chondritchthyes eg Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) have the following anatomical
features;
 Have a cartilaginous skeleton and the only bony component is found in the teeth and
placoid scales.
 They have exposed gill slits, typically five pairs, and one pair ofspiracles.
A transitional group called the acanthodians are a group of fishes named for their
hollowspines and bony plates also covering the body. They had an operculum and the
skeleton had both cartilaginous and bony elements.
The Osteichthyes on the other hand are the ray-finned fishes and include both ancient
and modern bony fishes. They are represented by the Actinopterygii andSacropterygii.
They have the following anatomical features;
 Have bony skeletons and membraneous fins supported by bony rays.
 They have an operculum and scales.
 A distinct group of the bony fishes the Teleosti are the most successful group of
vertebrates today making up 96% of all extant fish species. They include the group
having a fleshy lobe to their pairedfins and are believed to give rise to the tetrapods.
Other features include;

* Having internal nares that open internally into theoropharyngeal cavity.

* They retain a gas filled air sac that has the potential todevelop into a lung.

* The order Rhipidistians(the lungfishes) includes the suborder Dipnoans which is

thegroup that gave rise to amphibians.

3. Tetrapoda- has four classes ie, the Amphibia, Reptilia, Avia & Mammalia.
All tetrapods possess these characteristics
 Bony skeleton,
 Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs
 Visceral clefts never develop gills except in larval amphibian.
 No external ears except in mammals.

Class Amphibia:They are unique in the possession of soft moist skin, external fertilisation
and development (Ovoviviparity) and the need of water for reproduction. In addition, they
show metamorphosis during life cycle.
The amphibians are the first tetrapods with the following anatomical features;
Earliest forms the labyrinthodonts are a diverse group but all share a similar pattern
on the apical surfaces of their teeth.
They share many features with higher fishes such as dermal scales, a fish-like tail supported
by rays. They also have a lateral line. Higher amphibians show lateral lines in the tadpole but
it is lost in theadult form of extant groups.
This group is believed to have given rise to amniotes in general and to reptiles in particular
eg.The Seymouria that is believed to have lainleathery eggs.

Class reptilia: The reptiles are unique in the followings;

 The possession of dry scaly skin and showEvidence of Uricotelism.
 Internal fertilisation but external development (Oviparity).
They are the first Amniotes. Amniotes include all of the mammals, birds, and reptiles
and are characterized by:
 The development of shell-covered eggs, a trait that can be replaced over evolutionary
time by becominglive-bearing. It increases the ability of tetrapods to conquer land.
 Possession of extraembryonic membrane such as the amnion which allowed reptiles
to lay eggs on land and avoidan aquatic larval stage. They are:
 Reptiles are covered by scales composed of cornified epidermalscales so as to
decrease dehydration.
They have better developed limb girdles and claws on theirdigits and have developed
a neck.
 They developed the Metanepheric Kidney.
 They display the partial or complete division of the heart into rightand left chambers.
 Modern and ancestral reptiles are Ectothermic (cold blooded).
 However they have given rise to endothermic tetrapods on a fewoccasions such as
mammals, birds, and possibly some dinosaurs.
  They have a skull structure based on which they are divided into;
 Anapsids are reptiles whose skulls lack temporal fossa eg turtles and Diapsids are all
of the other reptiles which have skulls having two temporal fossa on each side. They
include the snakes, lizards, the dinosaurs and crocodilians.

The aves are unique in the followings;

 Forelimbs modified as wings and skin bear feathers and legs have scales.
 Possess air sacs for flight and bones are hollow.
 Internal fertilisation, external development but eggs in calcareous shells.

The Aves are bipedal, endothermic amniotes that are covered with insulating feathers and
have evolved for flight (although some have lostthis trait). They have no teeth.
The ancient bird archaeopteryx was primitive and found in the Bavarian rocks of the Jurassic
period. This is a period when reptiles were the most successful animals. The remains of
archaeopteryx proved that this early bird was in reality a reptile specialised for aerial life
which confirms the suspicion that birds are descendents of reptiles. Modern birds include the
flightless eg Ostrich and the flying eg pigeon.

The mammals are unique in the followings;

 They are viviparous (internal fertilisation and development of young).
 They possess hair/fur covering the skin and external ear or pinna.
 Have different type of teeth for different functions (heterodant).
In general, fishes, amphibians and reptiles are poikilothermic (cold blooded) while aves and
mammals are homiothermic (warm blooded).

Mammals are endothermic amniotes covered by insulating hair and

Producing milk for their young and are believed to have evolved from synapsid through
therapsid reptiles.Mammals first appeared in the Triassic period and modern mammals still
display a synapsid skull.Other features of mammals include:
* auditory ossicles, a muscular diaphragm separating the thoracic and
Abdomino pelvic cavities and the absence of a cloaca in the adult in all mammals excepting
the monotremes.
* The vast majority possess sweat glands.
* Presence of heterodontic teeth with adult and juvenile dentitions.
* The homodontic teeth of cetaceans and loss of the fourth aortic arch
* A single dentary bone on each side of the lower jaw that will articulate with the squamosal
bone
* Pinna to gather sound waves a more specialized larynx.
* Extensive development of the cerebral cortex.
Based on reproductive strategy there are two groups of mammals.
-Prototheria (or Monotremes) are egg laying mammals eg the spiny anteater and duck billed
platypus.
-Metatheria are mammals that give rise to live young. There are two groups:
Marsupials) give birth to almost larval young that migrate to, and finish development in a
pouch. They lack a placenta, Instead a yolk sac serves as the role of the placenta.
Eutheria (or Placental Mammals) have young that receive nourishment via a placenta while in
the womb.
  Animal body systems

The integumentary system

This is the external covering that shields the body from the outside world. It helps in
protecting the animal from physical damage and heat loss in water. The system is important
particularly for land animals since air can quickly dry out and kill living cells.

Simple invertebrates like the sponges and cnidarians have an outer bdy covering that is one
cell thick. More complex animals eg. The nematodes, annelids & arthropods are often
protected by a non living outer layer called the cuticle. In worms, this layer is thin enough to
be flexible but in arthropods, it forms a rigid case around the entire animal.

In all vertebrates from fish to man, the integument consists of two layers i.e the epidermis
and dermis. In most land dwelling species, the outermost layer of the skin (epidermis) is
covered by a sheet of dead cells that act as a weather proof barrier. The dermis is an elastic
layer that contains nerves and blood vessels.

Vertebrates have evolved a wide range of external structures that helps the skin to do its
work. Most fish are covered by scales which can be rough, smooth or slippery. Reptilian
scales serve primarily to prevent water loss. But birds shares scales on their feet and legs.
Few mammals like the scaly anteater use scales as a form of armor.

Modern birds and mammals have largely abandon scales in favor of feathers and hair that
cover most parts of the body. Feathers are essentially modified reptilian scales while hairs
grow from a follicle within the skin. The only group of vertebrates that have bare skin are
the amphibians . Most fish scales are made of bone but scales from other animals are made
up of tough protein called Keratin which forms the composition of the nails, claws and horn.

Fishes- The aquatic life renders the epidermis soft and cornifications of it are comparatively
rare. Glands on the other hand are abundant of different shape which secrete mucus that
furnish the slime on the surface. There is an involusion of the malpighian layer while the
dermis is thin and made up horizontal bands of fibrous tissue.

Amphibians- they have a remarkable skin that consists of two layer with numerous mucus
glands (poisonous gland). The dermis or Corium is thin and richly supplied with blood
(vascularised). The stratum corneum (epidermis) is shed periodically either as a whole or
part of the body.

Reptiles- they are characterized by external development of horny scales. Although the
epidermis is cornified, glands are rare in the skin but some turtles have the scent gland. The
corium / dermis present two layers and they have claws on their toes.

Birds/ Aves- both layers are present and thin. The epidermis produce feathers and there is
extensive development of cornified structures but few glands are available in the body. In
ostrich, there is no gland in the body. There are scales in the legs and claws on the feet and
occasionally on the wings. These are derivatives from a reptilian ancestor which are found
on the modern birds. Feathers are derived from scales which are greatly modified.

Mammals- have relatively thicker skin than other vertebrates. Both layers contribute to the
thickness. There are numerous glands and abundance of hair in all except the whale. Other
cuticular structures like horn and claws are widely distributed in several forms. The corium
or dermis is thick and composed of irregularly interlaced fibres with muscles, blood vessels
etc. in the thin epidermis, several strata may usually be recognized. At the base, a thick
malpighian layer, then a thin startum lucidum in which distinct cells can be recognized and
the stratum cornium.

The skeletal system

This is a frame work which support for the animal body and helps in movement by giving
muscles something to attach and pull against. It serves for support, protection and giving
shape. Most skeleton are made up of hard materials although the simplest type of skeleton
called hydrostatic is found in animals with no hard body parts (soft body). This form is
common in Jelly fish, earthworm and tunicates.

Skeletal structures are divided into the dermal eg the scales of fish and the endoskeleton
which includes- the membraneous stage, cartilage stage and bony stage. The bony skeleton
(most advanced form) is divided into the axial and the apendicular.

Axial skeleton- this consists of the vertebral column, skull, ribs and sternum.

Appendicular skeleton- this forms the framework of the girdles and limbs that are attached.

Fishes- in the elasmobranchii, the typical vertebrae are developed in a cartilage. In the trunk
region, each centrum may be with short rib at their extremeties. In skates, there is a true
joint between the skull and the vertebral column but in shark, the anterior vertebrae are
fused together unto the skull.

Amphibia- In all except the legless forms eg salamander have caudal, sacral, thoracic and
single cervical vertebrae.

Reptiles-They always have the vertebrae ossified. The sacral always do not posses more
than 2 in number in existing species. However, the pterausus had 3-7 sacral bones while in
the dinosaurs they have up to 10 sacral.

Birds-They are saddle shaped as the birds stand on two feet and holds the body obliquely.
Several of the dorsal and caudal vertebrae (up to 20), fuses to the sacral to form a common
mass. A large proportion of these up to 20, uniting with the pelvis.

Mammals- Except in the whale where true sacral is lacking, all have the 5 vertebrae regions
differentiated clearly. The dorsals are usually 19 or 20.
 The muscular system

Practically all motion in vertebrates is caused by muscles. They are known as muscle fibres
and usually arranged in bundles or sheets. They work and contraction and are triggered by
nerves, hormones or their inbuilt rhythm. Vertebrates posses three different types of
muscles;

Skeletal- these are attached to bones and move parts of the skeleton in relation to each
other. They are under conscious / voluntary control like in walking, lifting objects or speech.

Smooth- these are not under voluntary control. Like in the blood vessels where they work in
adjusting the diameter of blood vessels and intestine where they push food into the
alimentary canal.

Cardiac- these are found exclusively in the heart and they contract spontaneously without
needing any trigger from outside.

In fish, most of the skeletal muscles fan out from either side of the backbone. Almost all of
the muscles are involved in moving the tail and spine with very few operating other parts of
the body.