Semester 1

1ST year (Medical English 1) UPSAT
Match the vocabulary words on the left with the definitions on the right.
a) The upper front section of the human body between the neck and the abdomen.
b) The structure at the front of the face in people and certain animals that contains
nostrils, organs of smell, and a passageway for breathing.
1. shoulder c) The joint between the upper and lower portions of the human leg.
2. chest d) The part on the end of the human arm, used for grasping or holding.
3. knee e) In vertebrate animals, the lower part of the leg below the ankle joint, on which the
body stands and moves.
4. leg
f) One of the limbs that support and transport the animal or human body.
5. eye g) Either of the two upper limbs of the human body, between the shoulders and the
6. neck wrists.
7. arm h) The organ of hearing in man and vertebrate animals.
8. head i) The part of the head that extends from the forehead to the chin and from ear to
9. foot ear.
10. hand j) The body part of a human being or animal that contains the brain or primary nerve
center and the facial features.
11. ear
k) The organ of sight and the area close around it, including the lids, lashes, and brow.
12. mouth l) The part of a human or other vertebrate that is on the opposite side from the chest
13. face and abdomen and between the neck and the tailbone.
14. nose m) The opening in the face through which one eats, breathes, speaks, and emits vocal
15. back sounds, and which includes the lips, teeth, and tongue.
n) The part of the human body extending from the base of the neck to either upper
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arm.
o) The part of the body that connects the head with the trunk.
Identify the body part from the clues given.
Example: We had to amputate his limbs used for walking and supporting the body
____legs__________ because the infection spread so quickly.
1. My new shoes caused a blister on my back part of the foot _____________
2. Gabrielle has a chronic part of the body on the opposite side of the chest
which extends from the neck to the end of the spine _____________
disorder and cannot lift heavy objects.
3. The doctor removed a benign tumor from my part of the body that connects
the head to the trunk _____________ and I went home the same day.
4. In order to ease the patient’s breathing permanently, the doctor inserted a
cannula in his passage from the back of the mouth down inside the
neck_____________
5. Ever since I injured my leg I've been having muscle spasms in my upper parts
of the legs between the hip and the knee _____________
6. I had an emergency C-section because the long flexible tube like structure
connecting a fetus with the placenta __________ ________was wrapped
around the baby's neck.
7. You will have to wear a sling because of your dislocated joint between the
body and the arm _____________
8. We're hoping that the tests will show that the lump in your the part of a
woman's body that produces milk _____________is benign.
9. You will probably always have to wear a brace on your joint between the leg
and the foot _____________ when you jog.
10. I strained my the fleshy muscular back part of the human leg below the
knee _____________leaping to make that shot.
11. Appropriate footwear is essential, preferably walking boots or other footwear
with good non-slip bottom of the foot _____________
12. Forget about turning the other parts of the face below the eye
_____________, revenge is good for you.
13. Upper front part of the body enclosing the heart and lungs_____________
x-ray showed some congestion on the lungs.
14. Meningitis can be a serious complication following a bony or cartilaginous
framework of the head_____________ fracture.
15. People who play racquet sports are most likely to injure the tendons on the
outside of the middle joint of the arm _____________
16. To find out if your child has a fever, place a thermometer under your child’s the
hollow under the arm where it is joined to the shoulder _____________or
use a special ear thermometer.
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17. After the car accident he had a bad bruise on his flat area at the front of the
head above the eyebrows and below the hair. ……………………..
18. As a result of the stroke, one of the patient's parts of the skin that cover the
eyes when they are not open seemed to be a little more
closed………………………
19. The footballer was admitted to hospital for a middle joint of the leg operation.
………...
20. Cycling develops the muscles in your parts of the legs between the hip and
the knee. ….
22. The surgeon explained that the joint between the body and the leg
replacement would be a routine operation. …………………………..
23. He fractured two of his 12 pairs of bones running round the chest in the car
crash. ……..
24. The nurse gave him the injection in the left fleshy part of the body on which
people sit. ……………………………………..
25. She went to the chemist's to get something for her cracked edges of the mouth
where the skin is delicate and rather red. ……………………….
26. After being involved in a fight, the man was found to have a fractured lower
bone of the face in which the teeth are fixed. …………………………..
27. As he had a bad cold, he couldn't breathe through his organ of smell.
……………………
28. The physician asked the patient to put out his moveable fleshy organ inside
the mouth. ……………………………
29. The patient complained of a constant ringing in her left organ of hearing.
………………
30. When he brushed his teeth he noticed that his areas of firm, pink flesh in
which the teeth are fixed were bleeding. ………………………..
31. Nervous people often bite their hard, falt pieces that cover the fronts of the
end of the fingers……………………………
32. The mountaineer had three of his the five parts at the end of each foot
amputated. ……..
33. The boy had five stitches to the cut on his the front part of the face below the
mouth …………..
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Anatomical Position
The anteriorsurface of this subject's body is that surface that can be seen (the
front,) and the posterior surface is that surface that can not be seen (the back.)
The midline it is a line drawn down the anterior (or posterior) aspect dividing the
body into left and right halves. To the left or right of the midline, moving away
from it or back toward it, is a concept that defines lateral or medial. Lateral being
farther from the midline, medial being closer to the midline. Superior is closer
to the head, than inferior which is closer to the feet (simply stated higher or
lower.) Proximal and distalrefer to directions or relationships between different
structures or aspects of the extremities (arms and legs.) For example the elbow is
proximal to the wrist, and the elbow is distal to the shoulder. Ventral and
dorsalrefer to the anterior and posterior aspects of the torso (generally used when
the patient is not in the "anatomical position," or the "patient" is not customarily
thought of as one who walks upright.)Bilateral and unilateral are used to describe
structures or occurrences in the body. Eyes, for example are bilateral (one on
either side of the midline,) whereas some organs are unilateral (the spleen.)
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The Heart
Although people are living longer than ever before, they’re increasingly living with chronic
conditions or the effects of acute ones. Of these conditions, cardiovascular disorders head the
list. Year after year, the number of affected patients continues to rise. Because of this upward
trend, you’ll be dealing with cardiovascular patients more often. To provide effective care for
these patients, you need a clear understanding of cardiovascular anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy and physiology

The cardiovascular system delivers oxygenated blood to tissues and removes waste products.
The heart, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, pumps blood to all organs and tissues
of the body. Arteries and veins (the vascular system) carry blood throughout the body, keep the
heart filled with blood, and maintain blood pressure.
The heart is a hollow, muscular organ about the size of a closed fist. Located between the lungs
in the mediastinum, It weighs between (250 to 285 g). Leading into and out of the heart are the
great vessels:inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery and four
pulmonary veins.
A thin sac called the pericardium protects the heart. It has an inner, or visceral, layer that forms
the epicardium and an outer, or parietal, layer. The space between the two layers contains 10 to
30 ml of serous (pericardial) fluid which prevents friction between the layers as the heart pumps.
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The heart has four chambers — two atria and two ventricles —separated by a cardiac septum.
The upper atria have thin walls and serve as reservoirs for blood. They also boost the amount of
blood moving into the lower ventricles, which fill primarily by gravity.
Fill in the missing words in the sentences below. Chose from the following.
arteries......arterioles......atria......beats......branch.....capillaries......cavity......chambers
circulatory.......close........communicate........contraction.........cusps=orifice..........heart
lungs........muscle........oxygenated........pulse.........pump.........pumping........pyramidal
relaxation......systemic......valves......veins......vessels.......wall......wrist.............organ
1. Most people feel the most important organ in the body is the heart. Together with
thecirculatory system it maintains life. The heart is roughly pyramidal in shape and is
located in the pericardial cavity.
2. The heart is divided into right and left halves which do not communicate.
3. Blood travels round the body in blood vessels . Thearterioles carry blood from the
heart to all parts of the body while blood returns to the heart in veins.
4. The pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the lungs while the aorta carries
blood to all parts of the body from the heart.
5. Blood carried in the systemic arteries is oxygenated but in the pulmonary artery it
is not.
6. The heart is a muscle with four chambers, two ventricles and two atria. The left ventricle
has a much thicker wall than the right because it is responsible for pumping blood
around the circulatorysystem. Blood is forced round the system by contraction
(systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the heart.
7. The pulmonary and aortic valves control the exits from the ventricles. Each one has
three cusps. The sound of the heart is when they close .
8. Each minute the heart beats about 72 times. This is known as the pulse rate and can be
measured in the radial artery in the wrist.
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9. The systematic arteries branch (divide) many times and become arterioles . They
then deliver blood to small capillaries from where exchange can take place.
What Is a Heart Attack?
A heart attack occurs when blood flow to a section of heart muscle becomes blocked. If the flow
of blood isn’t restored quickly, the section of heart muscle becomes damaged from lack of
oxygen and begins to die. Treatment is most effective when started within 1 hour of the
beginning of symptoms.
Overview
Heart attacks occur most often as a result of a condition called coronary artery disease (CAD).
In CAD, a fatty material called plaque builds up over many years on the inside walls of the
coronary arteries (the arteries that supply blood and oxygen to your heart). Eventually, an area
of plaque can rupture, causing a blood clot to form on the surface of the plaque. If the clot
becomes large enough, it can mostly or completely block the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the
part of the heart muscle fed by the artery.
During a heart attack, if the blockage in the coronary artery isn’t treated quickly, the heart
muscle will begin to die and be replaced by scar tissue. This heart damage may not be obvious,
or it may cause severe or long-lasting problems.
Severe problems linked to heart attack can include heart failure and life-threatening arrhythmias
(irregular heartbeats). Heart failure is a condition in which the heart can’t pump enough blood
throughout the body. Ventricular fibrillation is a serious arrhythmia that can cause death if not
treated quickly.
Get Help Quickly
Acting fast at the first sign of heart attack symptoms can save your life and limit damage to your
heart. Treatment is most effective when started within 1 hour of the beginning of symptoms.
The most common heart attack signs and symptoms are:
 Chest discomfort or pain—uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness, or pain in the

centre of the chest that can be mild or strong. This discomfort or pain lasts more than a
few minutes or goes away and comes back.
 Upper body discomfort in one or both arms, the back, neck, jaw, or stomach.
 Shortness of breath may occur with or before chest discomfort.
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 Other signs include nausea (feeling sick to your stomach), vomiting, light-headedness or
fainting, or breaking out in a cold sweat.
Fill each of the gaps with one word from the box.
A. artery, B. buildup, C. decades, D. death, E.evidence,

F. flow, G. myocardium, H. period, I. reason, J. symptoms
Coronary heart disease and atheroscleroticheart disease
Coronary heart disease (CHD), also called coronary _________(1) disease (CAD) and
atheroscleroticheart disease, is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques
within the walls of the arteries that supply the _________(2) (the muscle of the heart). While the
_________(3) and signs of coronary heart disease are noted in the advanced state of disease,
most individuals with coronary heart disease show no evidence of disease for _________(4) as
the disease progresses before the first onset of symptoms, often a "sudden" heart attack, finally
arise. After decades of progression, some of these atheromatous plaques may rupture and
(along with the activation of the blood clotting system) start limiting blood _________(5) to the
heart muscle. The disease is the most common cause of sudden _________(6), and is also the
most common _________(7) for death of men and women over 65 years of age.
Atherosclerotic heart disease can be thought of as a
wide spectrum of disease of the heart. At one end of
the spectrum is the asymptomatic individual with
atheromatous streaks within the walls of the coronary
arteries (the arteries of the heart). These streaks
represent the early stage of atherosclerotic heart
disease and do not obstruct the flow of blood. A
coronary angiogram performed during this stage of
disease may not show any _________(8) of coronary
artery disease, because the lumen of the coronary
artery has not decreased in calibre.
Over a _________(9) of many years, these streaks
increase in thickness. While the atheromatous plaques initially expand into the walls of the
arteries, eventually they will expand into the lumen of the vessel, affecting the flow of blood
through the arteries. While it was originally believed that the growth of atheromatous plaques
was a slow, gradual process, some recent evidence suggests that the gradual _________(10)
of plaque may be complemented by small plaque ruptures which cause the sudden increase in
the plaque burden due to accumulation of thrombus material.
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The Respiratoire System

The respiratory system consists of the airways, lungs, bony thorax, and respiratory muscles and
functions in conjunction with the central nervous system (CNS). These structures work together
to deliver oxygen to the bloodstream and remove excess carbon dioxide from the body.
Airways: The airways are divided into the upper and lower airways. The upper airways include
the nasopharynx (nose), oropharynx (mouth), laryngopharynx, and larynx. Their purpose is to
warm, filter, and humidify inhaled air. They also help make sound and send air to the lower
airways.
The top tier: The epiglottis is a flap of tissue that closes over the top of the larynx when the
patient swallows. It protects the patient from aspirating food or fluid into the lower airways. The
larynx is located at the top of the trachea and houses the vocal cords. It’s the transition point
between the upper and lower airways.
The lower airways: The lower airways begin with the trachea, which then divides into the right
and left mainstem bronchial tubes. The mainstem bronchi divide into the lobar bronchi, which
are lined with mucus producing ciliated epithelium, one of the lungs’ major defense systems.
The lobar bronchi then divide into secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, terminal bronchioles,
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and, finally, into the alveoli, the gas-exchange units of the
lungs. The lungs in a typical adult contain about 300 million alveoli.
Lungs: Each lung is wrapped in a lining called the visceral pleura. The larger of the two lungs,
the right lung has three lobes: upper, middle, and lower. The smaller left lung has only an upper
and a lower lobe.
Thorax: The bony thorax includes the clavicles, sternum, scapula, 12 sets of ribs, and 12
thoracic vertebrae. You can use specific parts of the thorax, along with some imaginary vertical
lines drawn on the Ribs are made of bone and cartilage and allow the chest to expand and
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contract during each breath. All ribs attach to the vertebrae. The first seven ribs also attach
directly to the sternum. The 8th, 9th, and 10th ribs attach to the costal cartilage of the ribs
above. The 11th and 12th ribs are called floating ribs because they don’t attach to anything in
the front.
Review questions
Q) Match up the beginning of the sentence 1-15 with the appropriate ending a-o to form
fifteen true sentences about respiration.
1. External respiration involves taken in A. by cilia.

O2 in to the bodyand.........
2. from the nose and mouth air flows...... B. food and liquid from entering the lower
respiratory tract.
3. The trachea divides....... C. renewing alveolar air.
4. Gaseous exchange takes place..... D. causes them to vibrate and cause
sound.
5. Ventilation is the process of...... E. increase dramatically.
6. The respiratory tract is lined with...... F. by its pleural cavity.
7. The mucus in the respiratory tract is G. into the larynx and windpipe.
continuously moved........
8. Residual air is left behind in the lungs.. H. the chest wall and diaphragm move to
increase the volume of the thorax.
9. During heavy exercise, the depth and I. getting rid of excess co2.
rate of ventilation.....
10. The epiglottis prevents..... J. with fluid.
11. The larynx is also known as.... K. in the alveoli.
12. Each of the two lungs is surrounded. L. after expiration.
13. The pleural cavities are filled.... M. into the left and right bronchi.
14. Air flows into the lungs when... N. the voice box of Adams apple
15. Tensing the vocal folds in the larynx O. a layer of sticky mucus.
in a stream of air....
Diseases of the Respiratory System
The condition of the airways and the pressure difference between the lungs and
atmosphere are important factors in the flow of air in and out of lungs. Many diseases
affect the condition of the airways.
 Asthma narrows the airways by causing an allergy-induced spasms of

surrounding muscles or by clogging the airways with mucus.
 Bronchitis is an inflammatory response that reduces airflow and is caused by
long-term exposure to irritants such as cigarette smoke, air pollutants, or
allergens.
 Cystic fibrosis is a genetic defect that causes excessive mucus production that
clogs the airways.
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Comprehension:
Asthma is a disease of the lungs that is that is characterized by tightening of the air
pathways. Common symptoms of asthma are wheezing, shortness of breath, coughing,
chest pain, tightness or pressure. Many of these conditions are reversible with
medication but not 100% reversible in all patients. Some common features of asthma
are inflammation, airway obstruction and airway sensitivity. Some risk factors for
asthma are a family history of asthma, regular lung infections, presence of allergies,
exposure to tobacco smoke, low birth weight, and being male.
The current rise in asthma cases among children is alarming. Asthma may occur at any
age but is very common in children. Approximately 10% of children have asthma and
that rate may rise in the future. Experts don't agree why the rate is increasing but here
are some ideas:
- Children are being exposed to more triggers (things that bring on asthma
attacks; dust, tobacco smoke, pollution)
- Children don't have strong immune systems (they aren't exposed to many
childhood diseases.)
- Decreases in the rates of breast feeding may also play a role.
Asthma is a disease that causes many problems for the patient. However, it can be
controlled. With the right information and medical attention medical professionals can
prevent many deaths.
1. What are some common symptoms associated with asthma?

a. shortness of breath b. coughing c. chest pain
d. all of the above
e. What age does asthma present at?

a. any age b. childhood c. 30s d. 10-12 years
f. Asthma is ___________ of the lungs.

a. a part b. a disease c. a risk factor d. a symptom
b.
g. Family history of asthma, regular lung infections, and exposure to tobacco smoke
are all ___________ of asthma
a. risk factors b. triggers c. diseases d. exposures
h. Recently, there has been an increase in asthma cases among ________.

a. young adults b. IV drug users c. the elderly
d. Children
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i. Many of the symptoms of asthma are 100% ________ with medication in some
patients.
a. reversible b. stronger c. avoidable d. sensitivity
b.
j. What percent of children have asthma?
a. 20% b. 1% c.10% d.15%
k. What is one idea why the asthma rate is increasing in children?
a. ? Children are being exposed to more triggers.

b. ? Children have strong immune systems.
c. ? Breast feeding has increased.
d. ? More children are smoking.
e.
l. Airway obstruction and airway sensitivity are common ________ of asthma.
a. diseases b. triggers c. features d. risk factors
b.
m. Asthma is a disease that causes _________ .
a. ? severe headaches
b. ? tightening of air pathways
c. ? relaxation of the lungs
d. ? medication
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The Digestive System

The GI system’s major functions include ingestion and digestion of food and elimination of
waste products. When these processes are interrupted, the patient can experience problems
ranging from loss of appetite to acid-base imbalances. The GI system consists of two major
divisions: the GI tract and the accessory organs.
GI tract
The GI tract is a hollow tube that begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. It consists of
smooth muscle alternating with blood vessels and nerve tissue. Specialized circular and
longitudinal fibers contract, causing peristalsis, which helps propel food through the GI tract.
The GI tract includes the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (it has three sections:
the duodenum,the jejunum, and the ileum), and the large intestine that includes the cecum; the
ascending, transverse,descending, and sigmoid colons; the rectum; and the anus.
Accessory organs include the liver, pancreas, gallbladder stone and bile ducts. The abdominal
aorta and the gastric and splenic veins also aid the GI system.
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The food we eat has to be broken down into other substances that our bodies can use.
This is called digestion. Without digestion, we could not absorb food into our bodies
and use it.After we swallow, our food passes through these organs in turn:
 oesophagus or gullet
 stomach
 small intestine
 large intestine.
Stages of digestion
 Food is digested in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.

 Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine.
 Excess water is absorbed back into the body in the large intestine.
 Any undigested food passes out of the anus as faeces.
Digestion and enzymesOur teeth break food down into small pieces when we chew.
This is only a start to the process of digestion, as chewed pieces of food are still too
large to be absorbed by the body. Food has to be broken down chemically into really
small particles before it can be absorbed. Enzymes are needed so that this break-down
happens quickly enough to be useful.Different types of enzymes can break down
different nutrients:
 carbohydrase or amylase enzymes break down starch into sugar

 protease enzymes break down proteins into amino acids
 lipase enzymes break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth , stomach and small intestine.

Carbohydrase enzymes break down starch into sugars.
Proteinsare digested in the stomach and small intestine. Protease enzymes break
down proteins into amino acids. Digestion of proteins in the stomach is helped by
stomach acid, which is strong hydrochloric acid. This also kills harmful micro-
organisms that may be in the food.
FatsLipase enzymes break down fat into fatty acids and glycerol. Digestion of fat in the
small intestine is helped by bile, made in the liver. Bile breaks the fat into small
droplets that are easier for the lipase enzymes to work on.
Things that are not digested
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Minerals, vitamins and water are already small enough to be absorbed by the body
without being broken down, so they are not digested. Digestive enzymes cannot break
down fibre, which is why it cannot be absorbed by the body.
Absorption and egestion

These are the processes that happen in the digestive system:
ingestion (eating) → digestion (breaking down) → absorption → egestion
AbsorptionDigested food molecules are absorbed in the small intestine. This means
that they pass through the wall of the small intestine and into our bloodstream. Once in
the bloodstream, the digested food molecules are carried around the body to where
they are needed.Only small, soluble substances can pass across the wall of the small
intestine. Large insoluble substances cannot pass through.
Absorption into bloodstream
The inside wall of the small intestine needs to be thin, with a really big surface area.
This allows absorption to happen quickly and efficiently. If the small intestine had a thick
wall and a small surface area, a lot of digested food might pass out of the body before it
had a chance to be absorbed.
To get a big surface area, the inside wall of the small intestine is lined with tiny villi (one
of them is called a villus). These stick out and give a big surface area. They also
contain blood capillaries to carry away the absorbed food molecules.
MCQ:
1.What is the main reason why we need protein in our diet?
for energy
to provide roughage
for growth and repair
2.What are the nutrients needed for energy?
carbohydrate and fat
carbohydrate and fibre
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fat and minerals
3.Which nutrient cannot be digested?

fibre
fat
protein
4.Which nutrients do not need to be digested?

protein, minerals and vitamins
minerals, vitamins and water
fat, minerals and vitamins
5.What is the correct order for food passing through the digestive system?
stomach - large intestine - small intestine
small intestine - stomach - large intestine
stomach - small intestine - large intestine
6.What is mainly absorbed in the large intestine?

water
digested food
fibre
7.Where is most digested food absorbed?

in the stomach
in the small intestine
in the gullet
8.What is produced when proteins are digested?

sugars
fatty acids and glycerol
amino acids
9.What does lipase digest?

carbohydrates
proteins
fats
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10.What gives the small intestine a large surface area?

lots of loops of intestine
thin walls
villi
11.When faeces are passed out of the body, this is called:

ingestion
egestion
indigestion
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The urinary system
The organs, tubes, muscles, and nerves that work together to create, store, and carry
urine are the urinary system. The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters,
the bladder, two sphincter muscles, and the urethra.
How does the urinary system work?
Your body takes nutrients from food and uses them to maintain all bodily functions
including energy and self-repair. After your body has taken what it needs from the
food, waste products are left behind in the blood and in the bowel. The urinary system
works with the lungs, skin, and intestines all of which also excrete wastes to keep the
chemicals and water in your body balanced. Adults eliminate about a quart and a half
of urine each day. The amount depends on many factors, especially the amounts of
fluid and food a person consumes and how much fluid is lost through sweat and
breathing. Certain types of medications can also affect the amount of urine eliminated.
The urinary system removes a type of waste called urea from your blood. Urea is
produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain
vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the
kidneys.
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs about the size of your fists. They are near the
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middle of the back, just below the rib cage. The kidneys remove urea from the blood
through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of
small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule.
Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes
through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.From the kidneys,
urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. The ureters are about 8
to 10 inches long. Muscles in the ureter walls constantly tighten and relax to force
urine downward away from the kidneys.
Passive Voice
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not
known, however, who or what is performing the action. It is formed with the verb be
and the past participle of the main verb. Regular verbs simply add d or ed.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know,
however, who did it.
Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle
Example: A letter was written.
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When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
 the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
 the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
Fill in the missing verbs in the following text. Chose from the following but you will have
to change them into simple present passive voice.
absorb...........alter............call.............eliminate............feel............form............lose
pump............recover...........reflect.............retain..............separate..............set up
situate..............store...............surround..............transport
In the urinary system, waste (1) is eliminated by the kidneys. A filterate of water, ion and small
molecules (2)...............................from the blood which comes from the renal artery.
The kidney consists of about 1 million units which (3).........................nephrons. Each nephron is
a complicated structure positioned partly in the medulla and partly in the cortex of the kidney.
The glomeruli and proximal convoluted tubules (4) .................................in the renal cortex. The
glomerulus is a coiled mass of capillaries which (5)...................................by specialized cells.
Fluid leaves the capillaries and passes into the lumen of the nephron. The electrolyte
composition of the blood (6)..........................in the urinary filtrate. Plasma proteins and blood
cells do not pass out but (7).......................................in the capillaries.
In the proximal convoluted tubule, sodium ions (8)..........................................back into the body.
Sugars and amino acids (9)...................................from the filtrate and most of the water
(10).............................by the end of the proximal convoluted tubule.
In the loop of Henle, the composition of the filtrate (11)............................hardly.......................but

a gradient of sodium concentration (12)...........................................
Water and ions are further recovered in the distal convoluted tubule. Collecting ducts
(13).......................................by several distal convoluted tubules. In the collecting ducts, ions
and small molecules such as urea are retained but water (14)..............................to the
surroundings.
Urine (15)............................in the uretersfrom each kidney to the bladder where it

(16)......................................When the volume of urine reaches between 200 and 300 ml a
desire to void urine (17) .................................Urine is conveyed from the bladder to the exterior
via the urethra.
21
The Endocrine System

Although we rarely think about them, the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they
release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system is
instrumental in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as
well as sexual function and reproductive processes.
In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such as
cell growth. Faster processes like breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous
system. But even though the nervous system and endocrine system are separate systems, they
often work together to help the body function properly.
About the Endocrine System
22
The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and glands. As the body's chemical
messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to another.
Although many different hormones circulate throughout the bloodstream, each one affects only
the cells that are genetically programmed to receive and respond to its message. Hormone
levels can be influenced by factors such as stress, infection, and changes in the balance of fluid
and minerals in blood. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive
glands, which include the ovaries and testes. The pancreas is also part of this hormone-
secreting system, even though it is also associated with the digestive system because it also
produces and secretes digestive enzymes.
Although the endocrine glands are the body's main hormone producers, some non-endocrine
organs — such as the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, thymus, skin, and placenta — also
produce and release hormones.
Problems with the Endocrine System
Type 1diabetes. When the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin, type 1 diabetes
(previously known as juvenile diabetes) occurs. Symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger,
urination, and weight loss. In children and teens, the condition is usually an autoimmune
disorder in which specific immune system cells and antibodies produced by the immune
system attack and destroy the cells of the pancreas that produce insulin. The disease can cause
long-term complications including kidney problems, nerve damage, blindness, and early
coronary heart disease and stroke. To control their blood sugar levels and reduce the risk of
developing diabetes complications, kids with this condition need regular injections of insulin.
Type 2 diabetes. Unlike type 1 diabetes, in which the body can't produce normal amounts of
insulin, in type 2 diabetes the body is unable to respond to insulin normally. Children and teens
with the condition tend to be overweight, and it is believed that excess body fat plays a role in
the insulin resistance that characterizes the disease. In fact, the rising prevalence of this type of
diabetes in kids has paralleled the dramatically increasing rates of obesity among kids in recent
years. The symptoms and possible complications of type 2 diabetes are basically the same as
those of type 1. Some kids and teens can control their blood sugar level with dietary changes,
exercise, and oral medications, but many will need to take insulin injections like patients with
type 1 diabetes.
QUIZ: True or false
1. The endocrine system acts through neurotransmitters called hormones that influence

growth, development, and metabolic activities.
2. Since the endocrine glands are scattered throughout the body, they are regarded as
different systems.
3. The specific cells that respond to a given hormone have receptor sites for that
hormone.
23
4. Some glands have endocrine and non-endocrine regions, which function differently.
5. The heart also acts as an endocrine organ in addition to its major role of pumping
blood.
Fill each of the gaps with one word from the box.
A. blindness, B. developed, C. glucose, D. hyperglycemia,

E. incurable, F. interaction, G. leading, H. pregnancy, I. renal, J. single
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by _________(1) (high

glucoseblood sugar), among other signs. The World Health Organization recognizes three
main forms of diabetes: type 1, type 2 and gestational diabetes (or type 3, occurring during
_________(2)). Although these share signs and symptoms, they have different causes
and population distributions. They are not a _________(3) disease or condition. Type 1
is generally due to autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing cells —
pancreaticbeta cells — while type 2 is characterized by tissue wide insulin resistance and
varies widely. Gestational diabetes is due to a poorly understood _________(4)
between fetal needs and maternal metabolic controls. Type 2 sometimes progresses to
loss of beta cell function as well.
Since the first use of insulin (1921) Types 1 and 2 have been _________(5), but
treatable chronic conditions; gestational diabetes typically resolves with delivery. Aside
from acute _________(6) levels abnormalities, the main risks to health are the
characteristic long-term complications. These include cardiovascular disease, chronic
_________(7) failure (the main cause of dialysis in developed world adults), retinal damage
(which can lead to _________(8) and is the most significant cause of adult blindness in
the non-elderly in the _________(9) world), nerve damage, microvascular damage, the
_________(10) cause of non-traumatic amputation in developed world adults.
24
The Nervous System
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of
neurons.This system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information
from all parts of the body. The nervous system monitors and coordinates internalorgan
function and responds to changes in the external environment. This system can be
divided into two parts: the central nervous system(CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord, which function to receive, process,
and send information to the PNS. The PNS consists of cranial nerves, spinal nerves,
and billions of sensory and motor neurons. The primary function of the peripheral
nervous system is to serve as a pathway of communication between the CNS and the
rest of the body. While CNS organs have a protective covering of bone (brain-skull,
spinal cord - spinal column), the nerves of the PNS are exposed and more vulnerable to
injury.
Types of Cells
There are two types of cells in the peripheral nervous system. These cells carry
information to (sensory nervous cells) and from (motor nervous cells) the central
nervous system. Cells of the sensory nervous system send information to the CNS from
internal organs or from external stimuli. Motor nervous system cells carry information
from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands.
Somatic and Autonomic Systems
The motor nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls skeletal muscle,as
well as external sensory organs, such as the skin. This system is said to be voluntary
because the responses can be controlled consciously.Reflex reactions of skeletal
muscle, however, are an exception. These are involuntary reactions to external stimuli.
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and
cardiac muscle. This system is also called the involuntary nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system can further be divided into parasympathetic, sympathetic,
enteric divisions.
The parasympathetic division functions to inhibit or slow down autonomic activities such
as heart rate, pupil constriction, and bladder contraction. The nerves of the sympathetic
25
division often have an opposite effect when they are located within the same organs as
parasympathetic nerves. Nerves of the sympathetic division speed up heart rate, dilate
pupils, and relax the bladder. The sympathetic system is also involved in the flight or
fight response. This is a response to potential danger that results in accelerated heart
rate and an increase in metabolic rate.
The enteric division of the autonomic nervous system controls the gastrointestinal
system. It is composed of two sets of neural networks located within the walls of the
digestive tract. These neurons control activities such as digestive motility and blood flow
within the digestive system.
While the enteric nervous system can function independently, it also has connections
with CNS allowing for the transfer of sensory information between the two systems.
Central nervous system (CNS)

 Consist of the brain and the spinal cord
 Responsible for sensory activity, storing memory and emotions
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Consist of the cranial and spinal nerves
 Brings messages to and from the CNS to the rest of the body.
Somatic Nervous System Autonomic nervous system
Responsible for voluntary muscle movement Responsible for Involuntary actions (heart beat, pupil dilation etc)
Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous Enteric

Responsible for activities that increase SystemResponsible foractivities that controls digestive system activity.
energy expenditures. conserve energy expenditures.
1. What is the nervous system?

a. A highly specialized network with components called neurons
b. A network of tissue
c. A network of muscles
d. it enables humans to react to their surroundings and coordinate behavior

2. What are the names of the two nervous systems in the human body?
a. Nerve and Muscle systems
b. Nerve and Tissue systems
c. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems
d. All three
3. Which nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord?
26
a. Peripheral Nervous System
b. Tissue Nervous System
c. Muscle Nervous System
d. Central Nervous System

4. What are the three major parts of the nervous system?
a. Brain, spinal cord, nerves
b. Lung, heart, blood
c. Eyes, nose, ears

All of the above
d.
5. The most basic function of the nervous system is?

a. Stimulation
b. Neuron
c. Conduction
d. Inhibition
6. What does the nervous system do?
a. develops a blood clot leading to a tumor
b. prevents health problems
c. allows the body to respond to changes in the environment
d. creates a reflex action which is not operated by the brain

7. What are the two components of the Nervous System?
a. somatic and autonomic
b. sympathetic and parasympathetic
c. spinal cord and brain
d. central and peripheral

8. What inner layer of meninges protect for
a. bacteria coming from outside of the body
27
b. it protects the brain from the injury

supplies it with nutrients and oxygen
c.
28
Immune System Function
The function of this system is to prevent or reduce the occurrence of infection. This is
accomplished through the coordinated function of the body's immune cells.
Cells of the immune system, known as white blood cells, are found in our bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus and tonsils. When microorganisms, such as bacteria or
viruses invade the body, non-specific defense mechanisms provide the first line of
defense.
Innate Immune System

The innate immune system is a non-specific response that includes primary deterrents.
These deterrents ensure protection against numerous germs and parasitic pathogens
(fungi, nematodes, etc.). There are physical deterrents (skin and nasal hairs), chemical
deterrents (enzymes found in perspiration and saliva), and inflammatory reactions
(initiated by immune cells).
White blood cells involved in the innate immune response include macrophages,
dendritic cells, and granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils). These cells
respond immediately to threats and are also involved in the activation of adaptive
immune cells.
Adaptive Immune System

In cases where microorganisms get through the primary deterrents, there is a back-up
system called the adaptive immune system.
This system is a specific defense mechanism in which immune cells respond to specific
pathogens and also provide protective immunity. Like innate immunity, adaptive
immunity includes two components: a humoral immune response and a cell
mediated immune response.
Humoral Immunity
The humoral immune response or antibody‐mediated response protects against
bacteria and viruses present in the fluids of the body. This system uses white blood
cells called B cells, which have the ability to recognize organisms that don't belong to
the body. In other words, if this isn't your house, get out! Intruders are referred to as
antigens. B cell lymphocytes produce antibodies that recognize and bind to a specific
antigen to identify it as an invader that needs to be terminated.
Cell Mediated Immunity

The cell mediated immune response protects against foreign organisms that have
managed to infect body cells. It also protects the body from itself by controlling
cancerous cells. White blood cells involved in cell mediated immunity include
29
macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and T cell lymphocytes. Unlike B cells, T cells
are actively involved with the disposal of antigens. They make proteins called T cell
receptors that help them recognize a specific antigen.
There are three classes of T cells that play specific roles in the destruction of antigens:
Cytotoxic T cells (which directly terminate antigens), Helper T cells (which precipitate
the production of antibodies by B cells), and Regulatory T cells (which suppress the
response of B cells and other T cells).
Immune Disorders
There are serious consequences when the immune system is compromised. Three
known immune disorders are allergies, severe combined immunodeficiency (T and B
cells are not present or functional), and HIV/AIDS (severe decrease in the number of
Helper T cells). In cases involving autoimmune disease, the immune system attacks the
body's own normal tissues and cells. Examples of autoimmune disorders include
multiple sclerosis (affects the central nervous system), rheumatoid arthritis (affects
joints and tissues), and graves disease (affects the thyroid gland).
Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is a component of the immune system that is responsible for the
development and circulation of immune cells, specifically lymphocytes. Immune cells
are produced in bone marrow. Certain types of lymphocytes migrate from bone marrow
to lymphatic organs, such as the spleen and thymus, to mature into fully functioning
lymphocytes.
The lymphatic system is a vascular network of tubules and ducts that collect, filter, and
return lymph to blood circulation. Lymph is a clear fluid that comes from blood plasma,
which exits blood vessels at capillary beds. This fluid becomes the interstitial fluid that
surrounds cells. Lymph contains water, proteins, salts, lipids, white blood cells, and
other substances that must be returned to the blood. The primary functions of the
lymphatic system are to drain and return interstitial fluid to the blood, to absorb and
return lipids from the digestive system to the blood, and to filter fluid of pathogens,
damaged cells, cellular debris, and cancerous cells.
Lymphatic System Structures

The major components of the lymphatic system include lymph, lymphatic vessels, and
lymphatic organs that contain lymphoid tissues.
 Lymphatic Vessels Lymphatic vessels are structures that absorb fluid that
diffuses from blood vessel capillaries into surrounding tissues. This fluid is
directed toward lymph nodes to be filtered and ultimately re-enters blood
circulation through veins located near the heart.
 Lymph Nodes Lymphatic vessels transport lymph to lymph nodes. These

structures filter lymph of pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses . Lymph nodes
also filter cellular waste, dead cells, and cancerous cells. Lymph nodes house
30
immune cells called lymphocytes. These cells are necessary for the development
of humoral immunity (defense prior to cell infection) and cell-mediated immunity
(defense after cell infection
 Thymus; The thymus gland is the main organ of the lymphatic system. Its
primary function is to promote the development of specific cells of the immune
system called T-lymphocytes. Once mature, these cells leave the thymus and are
transported via blood vessels to the lymph nodes and spleen. T-lymphocytes are
responsible for cell-mediated immunity, which is an immune response that
involves the activation of certain immune cells to fight infection. In addition to
immune function, the thymus also produces hormones that promote growth and
maturation.
 Spleen; The spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system. Its primary
function is to filter blood of damaged cells, cellular debris, and pathogens. Like
the thymus, the spleen houses and aids in the maturation of lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes destroy pathogens and dead cells in the blood.
 Tonsils; Tonsils are arrays of lymphatic tissue located in the upper throat region.
Tonsils house lymphocytes and other white blood cells called macrophages.
These immune cells protect the digestive tract and lungs from disease-causing
agents that enter the mouth or nose.
 Bone Marrow; Bone marrow is the soft, flexible tissue found inside bone. Bone
marrow is responsible for the production of blood cells: red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets. Bone marrow stem cells play an important role in
immunity as they generate lymphocytes. While some white blood cells mature in
bone marrow, certain types of lymphocytes migrate to lymphatic organs, such as
the spleen and thymus, to mature into fully functioning lymphocytes.
Lymphatic System Summary

The lymphatic system plays a vital role in the proper functioning of the body. One of the
major roles of this organ system is to drain excess fluid surrounding tissues and organs
and return it to the blood. Returning lymph to the blood helps to maintain normal blood
volume and pressure. It also prevents edema, the excess accumulation of fluid around
tissues. The lymphatic system is also a component of the immune system. As such, one
of its essential functions involves the development and circulation of immune cells,
specifically lymphocytes. These cells destroy pathogens and protect the body from
disease. In addition, the lymphatic system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular
system to filter blood of pathogens, via the spleen, before returning it to circulation. The
lymphatic system works closely with the digestive system as well to absorb and return
lipid nutrients to the blood.
Read the passage and answer the questions below

Medical scientists are becoming more and more interested in allergies. An allergy is a
condition caused by an excessive reaction in some people to a substance or substances
which would not normally cause a disease. In fact, some researchers do not classify
31
allergies as diseases, although they can be just as troublesome. Severe reactions can
even result in death.
Substances that cause allergies are called allergens. The most common natural
allergens are dust and pollen. Some plants and flowers give out pollen to the atmosphere
during spring and early summer. Many people develop symptoms like those of the
common cold such as watery eyes and nose, sneezing and a slight rise in temperature.
This is commonly called the hay fever. Allergic reactions can also be caused by food.
Milk and eggs are known to be allergenic for some people. However, almost anything
eaten, drunk, inhaled or touched can cause a reaction.
Drugs, even the common ones like aspirin, can result in distressing symptoms. Some
are dangerous. When penicillin was first manufactured on a large scale, it proved to be
effective against many pathogens. But it had a tendency to cause reactions so strong that
patients sometimes died. The sulpha drugs were also quite dangerous, although they did
not kill as many people as penicillin did. We now have better antibiotics, but they must
be taken with great care.
There is no sure remedy for allergies. Sometimes the body cures itself. Treatment
might consist of giving drugs either to reduce the symptoms or to suppress the reaction.
Drugs of the second type are called antihistamines. They are not always effective, and
they tend to make the patient sleepy. Some doctors think it is better to identify and avoid
the allergen, but this in not always possible.
A. Circle the letter of the best answer.

1. A good title for this passage is
A. Treatment of Allergies B. Causes of Allergies
C. Definition and Classification of Allergies D. Allergies
2. Sulpha drugs were _______ than penicillin.
A. less dangerous B. more dangerous C. more common D. less common
3. The word ‘they’ refers to _______
A. drugs B. sulpha drugs C. penicillin drugs D. better
antibiotics
4. The word ‘antibiotics’ means _______.
A. chemicals that work with life B. chemicals that work for life
C. drugs that work against allergies D. drugs that work against life
5. From the last paragraph you can infer that antihistamines are _______
A. allergy causing substances. B. disease causing agents.
C. drugs to suppress allergic reactions
D. drugs to reduce the severity of the symptoms.
6. Which of the following statements is true, according to the passage?

A. Dust and pollen are the rarest allergens in nature.
B. There is no definite treatment for allergies.
C. Antibiotics are given to patients to reduce the symptoms.
D. People should avoid milk and eggs to prevent allergies.
32
B. Say whether the following statements are true or false.

1. _______ A substance causing an allergy can easily be avoided.
2. _______ Some scientists do not think allergies are diseases.
3. _______ Early antibiotics were quite dangerous.
4. _______ Penicillin is an effective antihistamine.
5. _______ The common cold is also known as the hay fever.
The purpose of the immune system is to:

A) Help germs invade your body
B) Fight off sickness
C) Make your nose run
D) Give you diarrhea
The immune system is made up of:

A) Tissues
B) Organs
C) Cells
D) All of the above
As part of the immune system, white blood cells fight germs. Another name for white
blood cells is:
A) Rhinovirus
B) Leukocytes
C) Glands
D) Nodes
Leukocytes are found in lots of places, including an organ in your belly that filters blood
and helps fight infections known as the:
A) Heart
B) Spleen
C) Kidneys
D) Brain
lymph nodes are found in the:

A) Neck
33
B) Armpits
C) Groin
D) All of the above
The process of acquired immunity is the basis of

A) vaccination
B) communication
C)ventilation
D) verification

Disorders in the immune system can result in disease
true
false

34
The Immune System
Innate (non specific) defense Adaptive (specific) defense

mechanisms mechanisms
First line of defense Second line of defense Third line of defense
 Skin  Phagocytic cells  Lymphocytes

 Mucous membrane  Antimicrobial proteins  Antibodies
 Secretions of skin and  The Inflammatory  Macrophages
mucous membranes response
35
Skeletal System and Muscular System
Skeleton Components
The skeleton is composed of fibrous and mineralized connective tissues that give it
firmness and flexibility. It consists of bone, cartilage, tendons, joints, and ligaments.
 Bone - a type of mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen and

calcium phosphate, a mineral crystal. Calcium phosphate gives bone its
firmness. Bone tissue may be compact or spongy. Bones provide support and
protection for body organs.
 Cartilage - a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely
packed collagenous fibers in a rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin.
Cartilage provides flexible support for certain structures in adult humans
including the nose, trachea, and ears.
 Tendon– a fibrous band of connective tissue that joins bones and other
connective tissues together at joints.
 Ligament - a fibrous band of connective tissue that is bonded to bone and
connects bone to bone.
 Joint - a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined
together.
Skeleton Divisions
Bones are a major component of the skeletal system. Bones that comprise the human
skeleton are divided into two groups. They are the axial skeletal bones and
appendicular skeletal bones. An adult human skeleton contains 206 bones, 80 of which
are from the axial skeleton and 126 from the appendicular skeleton.
Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton includes bones that run along the medial sagittal plane of the body.
Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back and divides the
body into equal right and left regions. This is the medial sagittal plane. The axial
skeleton forms a central axis that includes bones of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column,
and thoracic cage. The axial skeleton protects numerous vital organs and soft tissues of
the body. The skull provides protection for the brain, the vertebral column protects the
spinal cord, and the thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs.
Axial Skeleton Components(Blue)

 Skull - includes bones of the cranium, face, and ears (auditory ossicles).
 Hyoid - U-shaped bone or complex of bones located in the neck between the
chin and larynx.
 Vertebral Column - includes spinal vertebrae.
 Thoracic Cage - includes ribs and sternum (breast bone).
Appendicular Skeleton
36
The appendicular skeleton is comprised of body limbs and structures that attach limbs
to the axial skeleton. Bones of the upper and lower limbs, pectoral girdles, and pelvic
girdle are components of this skeleton. Although the primary function of the
appendicular skeleton is for bodily movement, it also provides protection for organs of
the digestive system, excretory system, and reproductive system.
Appendicular Skeleton Components

 Pectoral Girdle - includes shoulder bones (clavicle and scapula).
 Upper Limbs - includes bones of the arms and hands.
 Pelvic Girdle - includes hip bones.
 Lower Limbs - includes bones of the legs and feet.

37
Bone Function
Bones provide several important functions in the body. Some major functions include:
 Structure - Bones compose the skeleton, which provides structure and support
for the body.
 Protection - Bones provide protection for numerous vital organs and soft tissues
of the body. For example, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord, and the
thoracic (rib) cage protects the heart and lungs.
 Mobility - Bones work in conjunction with skeletal muscle and other skeletal
system components to assist in enabling body movement.
 Blood Cell Production - Blood cells are produced by bone marrow. Bone
marrow stem cells develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
 Storage - Bones store important minerals and mineral salts, including calcium,
phosphorus, and calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate gives bone its firmness.
Bone also stores fat in yellow bone marrow.
Types of Muscle
Muscle tissue is one of the four major tissue types found in the human body, and all
muscle cells function in the same basic way; they contract or get shorter and pull
whatever they are attached to closer together. Muscles only do work when they
contract, they do not actively push things further apart when they stretch back out.
Instead, muscle cells are said to relax when they stretch back out because it is a
passive action that does not result in any force being applied by the cell. In contrast,
contraction requires energy and results in a force being exerted by the cell.
Some muscles in our bodies are under our conscious control and allow us to control our
movements. These muscles are said to be voluntary muscle or muscle that can be
contracted consciously by the human. In contrast, the body also contains muscle that is
not under our conscious control. This involuntary muscle is muscle that cannot be
consciously contracted by the human. There are three types of muscle cells, two that
are involuntary and one that is voluntary. These three muscle types are cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle and skeletal muscle.
Cardiac muscle cells are involuntary muscle cells that make up the heart. Cardiac
muscle is only found in the heart and a key difference between cardiac muscle and
other muscle types is that cardiac muscle cells pass electrical signals to each other. In
this way, when one cardiac muscle cell gets a signal to contract, it passes that signal
along to all its neighbors. The electrical signal is quickly passed to all of the muscle cells
of the heart chamber and they contract in unison. Smooth muscle cells are involuntary
muscle cells that are found throughout the body, except for the heart.
38
Smooth muscles are located throughout the body
Skeletal muscle cells are voluntary striated muscle cells that control body movements.
These are the muscles that people are generally most familiar with because many of
them are visible and we actively control them all the time in our everyday lives.
What is the skeletal system?

All the bones in the body
All the muscles and tendons
All the body's organs, both soft and hard tissue
All the bones in the body and the tissues that connect them
How many bones are there in the average person's body?

33 639
206 It varies by the individual.
Which of the following statement is INCORRECT?

Bone is where most blood cells are made.
Bone serves as a storehouse for various minerals.
Bone is a dry and non-living supporting structure.
Bone protects and supports the body and its organs.
Which bone protects the brain?

Calcium
The cranium
The cerebrum
The cerebellum
Besides the brain, the skull also protects ...

the lungs
39
the diaphragm
the body's cells
the sense organs
What makes bones so strong?

Silica
Cartilage
Blood and marrow
Calcium and phosphorous
What is the difference between cartilage and bone?

Bone is rubbery, and cartilage is firm.
Cartilage is rubbery, and bone is firm.
Bone is a more primitive tissue than cartilage.
Bone is inside the body, and cartilage is outside.
The hollow space in the middle of bones is filled with ...

air
blood
bone cells
bone marrow
What is a joint?
A hinge
A ball and socket
The place where two bones are joined
The place where tendons are fastened together
40
Muscles are made of ...

silica
polyester threads
calcium and phosphorous
groups of cells called fibers
How do muscles attached to the bones move the body?

automatically
pull movement only
push movement only
push and pull movement
What is the function of a tendon?

To link bones to bones
To link muscles to bones
To link muscles to ligaments
To bind the cells in compact bone closer together
41
Revision Organ Systems
The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one unit.
Organ systems fit between the hierarchical levels of organs and the organism. Ten
major organ systems of the body are listed below along with several organs that are
associated with each system. It is important to keep in mind that these organ systems
don't just exist as individual units. The final product of these cooperating systems is one
unit called the body.Each system depends on the others, either directly or indirectly, to
keep the body functioning normally.
1. Circulatory System
The main function of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients and gasses to cells
and tissues throughout body. This is accomplished by the circulation of blood. Two
components of this system are the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
 Cardiovascular: This system is comprised of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
The beating of the heart drives the cardiac cycle which pumps blood throughout
body.
Cardiovascular organs:heart, blood vessels, blood

 Lymphatic: This system is a vascular network of tubules and ducts that collect,
filter, and return lymph to blood circulation. As a component of the immune
system, the lymphatic system produces and circulates immune cells called
lymphocytes.
Lymphatic organs:lymph vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils
2. Respiratory System
The respiratory system provides the body with oxygen via gas exchange between air
from the outside environment and gases in the blood.
 Respiratory organs:lungs, nose, trachea, bronchi
3. Digestive System
The digestive system breaks down food polymers into smaller molecules to provide
energy for the body.
Digestive juices and enzymes are secreted to break down the carbohydrates, fat, and
protein in food.
 Primary organs: mouth, stomach, intestines, rectum

 Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, liver, pancreas
4.Urinary/Excretory System
The urinary/excretory System removes wastes (urea) and maintains water balance in
the body.
42
 Structures:kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, ureters
5. Endocrine System
The endocrine system regulates vital processes in the body including growth,
homeostasis, metabolism, and sexual development.
Endocrine organs secrete hormones to regulate body processes.
 Endocrine structures:pituitary gland, pineal gland, thymus, ovaries and testes
6. Nervous System
The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to
changes in the external environment.
 Structures:brain, spinal cord, nerves
7. The Immune system

The function of this system is to defend against infection. This is accomplished through
the coordinated function of the body's immune cells.
 Innate Immune System
 Adaptive Immune System
Lymphatic System: The lymphatic system is a component of the immune system that
is responsible for the development and circulation of immune cells.
Structures: lymph, lymphatic vessels, and lymphatic organs that contain lymphoid
tissues.
8. Skeletal System
The skeletal System: This system supports and protects the body while giving it shape
and form.
 Structures:bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, cartilage
9. Muscular System
The muscular system enables movement through the contraction of muscles.
 Structures:muscles
 There are three types of muscle cells, two that are involuntary and one that is
voluntary.
 These three muscle types are cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and skeletal
muscle.
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1ST year (Medical English 1) UPSAT

Anatomy and physiology

What Is a Heart Attack?

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The most common heart attack signs and symptoms are:

 Chest discomfort or pain—uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness, or pain in the

A. artery, B. buildup, C. decades, D. death, E.evidence,

Coronary heart disease and atheroscleroticheart disease

The Respiratoire System

Anatomy and physiology

1. External respiration involves taken in A. by cilia.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

 Asthma narrows the airways by causing an allergy-induced spasms of

1. What are some common symptoms associated with asthma?

e. What age does asthma present at?

f. Asthma is ___________ of the lungs.

h. Recently, there has been an increase in asthma cases among ________.

k. What is one idea why the asthma rate is increasing in children?

a. ? Children are being exposed to more triggers.

The Digestive System

Anatomy and physiology

 Food is digested in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.

 carbohydrase or amylase enzymes break down starch into sugar

Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth , stomach and small intestine.

Things that are not digested

Absorption and egestion

ingestion (eating) → digestion (breaking down) → absorption → egestion

Absorption into bloodstream

fat and minerals

3.Which nutrient cannot be digested?

4.Which nutrients do not need to be digested?

6.What is mainly absorbed in the large intestine?

7.Where is most digested food absorbed?

8.What is produced when proteins are digested?

9.What does lipase digest?

10.What gives the small intestine a large surface area?

11.When faeces are passed out of the body, this is called:

The urinary system

How does the urinary system work?

Example: My bike was stolen.

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

In the loop of Henle, the composition of the filtrate (11)............................hardly.......................but

Urine (15)............................in the uretersfrom each kidney to the bladder where it

The Endocrine System

About the Endocrine System

Problems with the Endocrine System

QUIZ: True or false

1. The endocrine system acts through neurotransmitters called hormones that influence

4. Some glands have endocrine and non-endocrine regions, which function differently.

A. blindness, B. developed, C. glucose, D. hyperglycemia,

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by _________(1) (high

The Nervous System

Somatic and Autonomic Systems

Central nervous system (CNS)

Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous Enteric

1. What is the nervous system?

d. it enables humans to react to their surroundings and coordinate behavior

b. Nerve and Tissue systems

c. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems

a. Peripheral Nervous System

b. Tissue Nervous System