DFA Handbook - June 2021

DESIGN
FOR
ASSEMBLY
HANDBOOK
Table of Content
1 DFA definition and overview 5
1.1 What is design for assembly? ............................................................... 5

1.2 PCB design for assembly (DFA) ............................................................ 6
1.3 The objectives of DFA ........................................................................... 6
1.4 DFA tips for PCB assembly ................................................................... 7
2 Aspects of DFA 8
2.1 Reduction and simplification ................................................................. 8

2.2 Standardization of components ............................................................ 9
2.3 Efficient fastening methods ................................................................. 9
2.4 Single or double-sided PCB ................................................................... 9
2.5 Board repositioning and handling ......................................................... 10
2.6 Design for automation ........................................................................... 11
2.7 Design for test (DFT) .............................................................................. 12
2.7.1 Pre-assembly test - Bare board tests ......................................... 12
2.7.2 Post assembly test - ICT or in-circuit testing .............................. 12
2.7.2.1 Flying probe test .............................................................. 13
2.7.2.2 Flying probe test process................................................
14
2.8 Poka Yoke ...............................................................................................
15
2.8.1 Defects and process variation .................................................... 15
2.8.2 Types of Poka-Yoke systems ..................................................... 15
2.8.3 When to use ..................................................................................
17
2.9 Factors affecting assembly speed ........................................................ 17
2.9.1 PCB Assembly of through-hole parts .......................................... 18
2.9.1.1 Component placement .................................................. 18
2.9.1.2 Automated soldering ...................................................... 18
2.9.2 Do not include (DNI) components ............................................... 19
2.9.3 PCB footprint creation errors........................................................ 19
2 2.9.3.1 Incorrect pad sizes........................................................

2.9.3.2 Incorrect pad spacing ....................................................
19
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Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

Table of Content
2.9.3.3 Small component outlines ................................................... 20
2.10 Board assembly notes ......................................................................... 20
3 DFA requirements: 22
3.1 Preferred file format for assembly ........................................................ 22

3.1.1 What is Gerber?.............................................................................. 22
3.1.2 ODB++............................................................................................ 23
3.1.3 Why ODB++? .................................................................................. 23
3.1.4 What’s the difference between ODB++ and gerber files?............ 23
3.2 Good silkscreen practices ..................................................................... 24
3.3 Component spacing ............................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Part-to-part spacing...................................................................... 26
3.3.2 Part-to-edge spacing..................................................................... 29
3.3.3 Part-to-hole spacing...................................................................... 30
3.4 Component clearance ............................................................................ 30
3.5 Component availability ......................................................................... 31
3.5.1 Allocation ......................................................................................
31
3.5.2 Top 5 Ways to mitigate PCB component availability problems.. 32
3.6 Thermal relief ......................................................................................... 34
3.6.1 PCB thermal relief guidelines....................................................... 34
3.7 PCB quality control methods ............................................................... 36
3.7.1 IPC certification ........................................................................... 36
3.7.2 Component expertise.................................................................... 36
3.7.3 Process controls .......................................................................... 36
3.7.4 Assembly checks.......................................................................... 37
3.7.5 Inspection and test ...................................................................... 37
3.7.6 Functional workspace ................................................................. 37
3.8 IPC standards for acceptability.............................................................. 38

3.8.1 IPC A 600 – Acceptability of printed circuit boards ................... 38
3.8.2 IPC A 610 – Acceptability of electronic assemblies .................. 38
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www.protoexpress.com
Table of Content
4 Common DFA issues - Assembly errors and resolution 39
5 Common PCB assembly defects 43
5.1 Open solder joints (Opens) ................................................................... 43

5.2 Solder bridges (shorts) .......................................................................... 44
5.3 Component Shift .................................................................................... 45
6 Factors that impact the cost of the PCB assembly 46
6.1 Turnaround time ..................................................................................... 46

6.2 Technology used - THT, SMT ................................................................. 46
6.3 Component packaging .......................................................................... 47
6.4 Board assembly volumes ....................................................................... 49
6.5 Component count/density ..................................................................... 49
6.6 PCB stack-up cost .................................................................................. 49
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1. DFA definition and overview
1.1 What is design for assembly (DFA)?
DFA is a systematic process that is used to reduce the assembly costs of a product by simplifying
its design. This is done by reducing the number of components or parts in the product design
and ensuring the parts are easily assembled. DFA techniques are intended to arrive at a simpler
product structure and assembly system.
Figure 1: Role of DFA and DFM in PCB manufacturing.
Design for assembly includes a distinct design methodology that considers product
functionality along with the cost and efficiency of the product assembly process. Design
choices go a long way in ensuring the quality and reliability of the end product.
Pre-PCB manufacturing and assembly DFA includes:

• Firstly, checking the product BOM (bill of materials) and identifying obsolete and end-of-
life products. Also, identifying non-washable products and through-hole components.
• Secondly, identifying whether the part numbers in the BOM match with the footprints on
the PCB.
• Thirdly, validating whether the components are too close to each other and inspecting
problems for assembly.
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1.2 PCB design for assembly
Designers and production staff need a crystal clear understanding of DFA to cut down on
component procurement and component placement costs. This is responsible for a major
portion of the cost involved in PCB assembly. DFA methods can help mitigate project lead time
and prevent assembly issues that might need rework or re-design.
PCB DFA is a critical consideration for any board manufacturing enterprise. When implemented
accurately, the advantages of DFA are considerable such as minimizing development costs,
shortening the product cycle. It also ensures a seamless flow from the prototype to the production
stage of manufacturing. Product engineering teams forego the significance of high volume
production factors such as component placement and fixtures in favor of accelerated design
and development timeframes. It might lead to unforeseen costs in the assembly stage in terms
of rework and increased assembly time and cost. This is why DFA is crucial to ensure the process
of circuit board assembly is optimized before production begins.
It is significant to note that the DFA considerations vary between prototype board assembly and
production board assembly. Prototype and production PCB assembly calls for different design
skill sets and appropriate equipment for every stage. The board prototype stage requires a
focus on the validation of circuits and board functionality leading to high-quality circuit board
prototypes. The PCB production stage places importance on testability and manufacturing
guidelines ensuring a smooth and precise production assembly.
1.3 The objectives of DFA
The objectives of DFA are as follows:
• The components selected in the BOM are available and not obsolete or end-of-life products.
• The components’ manufacturing part numbers (MPN) must match with the footprint of the
PCB.
• The component placement, sizes, and distances between the components are compatible
with the assembly manufacturing processes.
• The solder mask and solder paste layers are correct and meet the production requirements.
• The DNI (do not include) components are correctly marked and verified.
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1.4 DFA tips for PCB assembly
Board assembly can be greatly simplified and made more efficient by following these tips:
• Select easily available components and confirm their continued production. This will preclude
or reduce possible future production delays.
• Implement component spacing guidelines. Component placement impacts how your board
can be assembled, the soldering techniques that can be used and the type of thermal
dissipation required. It may also affect signal integrity.
• Stick to component manufacturer’s recommendations of footprints. This is needed to prevent
pad mismatches and ensure that accurate markings and identification are present.
• Follow spacing clearances and tolerances that are within your manufacturer’s capabilities.
This ensures design for manufacturability (DFM).
• Stick to size, spacing, and tolerances for drill holes that fall within your fabricator’s capabilities.
This also ensures the manufacturability of the design.
Figure 2: PCB size Specification
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• Consider the operating environment of the PCB. Boards subjected to significant
vibration will need through-hole components as they can be more securely attached
compared to SMDs.
• Ensure the use of adequate thermal relief. This guarantees good quality solder joints
and rules out certain soldering issues.
• Adopt efficient trace routing techniques. Inadequate solder connections and rework
might result from traces misaligned with pads or vias.
• Implement board edge guidelines. Board shape and component placement can largely
affect the panelization method used.
2. Aspects of DFA
2.1 Reduction and simplification
One of the prime aspects of DFA is to see if any component can be combined with another
component or eliminated. Whenever possible, decide the minimum quantity of components that
is required for the PCB assembly. One technique for deciding what part quantities are necessary
for the assembly is to go through this checklist:
• If the component can be fabricated utilizing the same material as the other components
• If it will affect the ease of disassembly when combined with another component
• If there will be greater ease of manufacture when combined with other components
8 Figure 3: Relation between innovation and component count in a design

When you reduce the number of components on a board, the number of assembly steps will also
decrease proportionally. This will in turn reduce the number of assembly errors that might result
during the assembly process.
2.2 Standardization of components
The use of standard components in PCB design presents many benefits such as decreased
development time and cost. It is a fundamental concept that the use of a custom solution that is
complex will drive up the cost of a product. This might even lead to feasibility issues when it’s time
for high-volume production.
Using standard components helps simplify a product’s supply chain and minimize component
supply issues. Another clear advantage of using standard and easily available components is that
they can be verified easily compared to other components in the design.
2.3 Efficient fastening methods
PCB assembly with the use of fasteners will drive up assembly costs. Thus it is best to reduce the
use of fasteners in the PCB assembly. One way to minimize their use iis to utilize surface mount
components for power ICs along with heat sinks in the board design.
2.4 Single or double-sided PCB
A single-sided board is one where all components are placed on one side of the PCB. A double-
sided circuit board refers to the board which has components mounted on both sides of the PCB.
The designer will have to decide which one is better to fabricate and assemble:
• A smaller board with components placed on either side of the board

• A larger PCB with components placed only on one side of the board
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Figure 4: Single-sided and double-sided board assemblies
2.5 Board repositioning and handling
Repositioning a board during the assembly process will significantly increase the assembly time.
The repositioning will be most needed in double-sided circuit boards where components need to be
installed on both sides of the PCB.
It is good practice to use only surface mount components on one side of the board to facilitate a
single reflow soldering step. This can be followed by the mounting of through-hole components
with wave soldering or manual soldering.
10 Figure 5: Component orientation for proper wave soldering

2.6 Design for automation
Automated assembly aims to minimize the cost of assembly, component inventory, and enhance
the assembly quality and reliability. To ready a product for an automatic assembly, you will need to
use components of consistent quality. Such components should conform to close geometric and
dimensional tolerances to mitigate the chance of assembly defects due to component mismatch.
Figure 5a: Automated soldering station
Here are some steps that designers can incorporate to enable easy assembly automation:
• Wherever possible, opt for components that snap together (press fit).
• Try to minimize the number of fasteners used in the assembly. Instead, use self-aligning and
self-locating features including guide pins, dimples, and chamfers. When fasteners cannot be
excluded, ensure the screw heads used are consistent throughout the design.
• Every component selected during the design should be able to withstand the forces that will be
exerted during the assembly process.
• Choosing components that can be oriented easily will reduce the turnaround time resulting
in cost and time savings. This will eliminate or at least reduce the requirement of reorienting
stations before being fed to the assembly line.
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2.7 Design for test (DFT)
DFT methodologies function as a holistic set of techniques to design a PCB layout for the reliable,
economical, and speedy testing of completed circuit boards.
There are 3 phases for DFT implementation during the circuit board design and layout process.
• Decide on what connections on the PCB require an electrical in-circuit test.

• Define the mechanical requirements for circuit board alignment and how to allot areas for the
test probe to contact the board.
• Generate the necessary data for fixture fabrication and test programming to equip testing
machinery.
PCB testing is done in two parts, before assembly (bare-board test) and after assembly (in-circuit
test, or ICT)
2.7.1 Pre-assembly test - Bare board tests
Isolation testing: This includes the measurement of the resistance between electrical connections.
Continuity testing: This includes checking for open circuits, which is basically a variation on isolation
testing.
Short circuit testing: This includes checking for any undesired electrical connections due to
manufacturing or design errors.
Bare board tests are generated using a netlist which is in turn generated from the design data.
When you send design data to the manufacturer in ODB++ data format the design files will include
a netlist as well. In the case of Gerber design files, the CAM team will generate a netlist using the
Gerber files and schematic. Flying probe test or bed of nails tests can be employed for bare board
testing.
2.7.2 Post assembly test - ICT or in-circuit testing
In-circuit testing verifies the working of a PCB assembly that is also known as white-box testing. In
this method, we employ electric probes to verify the PCB for opens, shorts, and values of capacitance,
resistance, and other parameters.
Conventionally ICT used fixture-based testing also known as “bed of nails.” Every PCB assembly
needed a custom ICT fixture including a group of spring-loaded pogo pins that contact the board
assembly at the required test points. Each pogo pin is meant to connect with a node or test point
n in the assembly when testing. This method is expensive and time-intensive which is
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why it led to the adoption of the flying probe test.

2.7.2.1 Flying probe test
As suggested by the name, flying probe testing makes use of probes that “fly” from one test point
to another as instructed by testing software. As there is no requirement for a custom fixture, this
method is also known as a fixtureless in-circuit test when used for a board assembly. This method
is known to be highly cost-effective for prototypes with low to mid-sized production runs.
Figure 6: Flying probe tester at the Sierra Circuits assembly facility
Flying probe test was developed for bare board testing, and became the default standard. This
testing involves checking for opens and shorts between the copper conductor features on the bare
PCB. The main electrical parameter that is evaluated is the resistance between two nodes or points.
FPTs have evolved to analyze the inductance and capacitance along with the resistance, making
them indispensable to board assemblies as well. The various reasons for the adoption of this mode
of testing for board assemblies are as follows:
• Cost-effective when it comes to smaller production runs.

• Elimination of accessibility issues that are present in the testing method that uses pogo pins
mounted on fixtures. FPT probes can access much smaller pads as compared to fixture testing.
Also while test points need to be designed specifically for fixture-based testing, FPT does not
require such cost-intensive measures.
• FPT probes are controlled by a software program that is easy to modify, enabling easy
implementation of flexible testing strategies. Probe landing positions are a lot easier
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to adjust this way.
• Enhanced test coverage gained from better access to test points through automated
probing and independent of specially designed test points.
2.7.2.2 Flying probe test process
Testing a board assembly in a FPT requires an FPT test program. This program is usually generated
on a PC, offline, similar to an SMT program that is created for pick-and-place machines utilizing an
SMT programming application.
Creation of the program:
Each FPT offers a test program generating application that operates on a PC. This application
needs the board assembly’s BOM and eCAD file. You would need the eCAD to be in ODB++ format/
IPC-2581 format /native eCAD design file format as required by the software used to design the
board. The BOM on the other hand needs to be in an Excel format.
Figure 7: An expert working on the tester program
After the test program is created, it is then loaded into the FPT tester. The PCB assembly that is to
be tested is placed on a conveyor to travel inside the tester area where the probes are present.
After the test program is initiated, the probes will contact the pads and unmasked vias according to
the pre-loaded program, applying test signals and power to make measurements.
Such measurements are then processed within the tester to find if the circuit sections are providing
the expected values within given tolerances. Through this method, FPT will detect unit defects. FPT
hardware includes various types of sensors, frequency counters, DC and AC power supplies, signal
generators, and more. Such instrumentation is used to provide signals to excite the board points
and make measurements on component and interconnection nodes in the assembly.
FPT tries to isolate the component sections between the probes and the rest of the board.
Such virtual isolation of components from the rest of the interconnections on the
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board enables accurate measurement of component values, while still on the PCB.

This tester is also equipped with a camera to aid in the automatic inspection of component polarity.
It also executes diode impedance tests on the inputs of integrated devices whose functioning is
beyond FPT testing. Most FPTs available today are able to make measurements on IC pads that are
beneath the component bodies such as BGAs and QFNs using capacitive probing.
2.8 Poka yoke
Poka-Yoke is a term that refers to mistake-proofing. This is a method that uses tooling, sensors, or
other devices to eliminate or design out, the errors within a process. Poka-yoke serves the purpose
of cutting down the cost of poor quality which includes repairs, rework, rejects, and returns. These
elements of poor quality can be rooted out by incorporating an effective poka-yoke solution.
2.8.1 Defects and process variation
Defects are mostly caused by process variation. Process variation, in turn, occurs due to:
• Poor procedures
• Human error
• Equipment
• Non-conforming material
• Tooling, jigs, and fixtures
Apart from human error, other causes for process variation can be foreseen and remedied with
corrective action to remove the cause of defects.
Poka-yoke is meant to identify process variation and close the process before an error occurs. It
means catching errors before a defective product is manufactured/assembled by focusing on the
process and not quality control.
2.8.2 Types of Poka-yoke systems
There are two approaches to the Poka-yoke process:
1. Control system: This method eliminates human error. An example of this is the four-slot offset
tooling system making it impossible for production staff to place a panel onto a machine the wrong
way.
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Figure 8: Poka-yoke through offset tooling
2. Warning system: When automatic shutoff for the process is not feasible, warning systems can
be used. These can include audio-visual alerts such as lights and buzzers which can alert the
process operator of an undesirable condition. This method is unable to root out human error and
is not as reliable as the control system method, it is effective to a certain extent.
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2.8.3 When to use
Poka-yoke finds application in any process which is open to human error and can be applied to any
process in the manufacturing industry. Errors that can benefit from Poka-yoke include:
• Processing error: missed operations or unexecuted tasks

• Setup error: use of incorrect tooling or improper machine settings
• Missing part(s): when parts or components are missed in the lamination or plating process
etc.
• Improper component: use of incorrect component/part in the process
• Operations error: incorrect implementation of a process
• Measurement error: inspection errors or testing errors
2.9 Factors affecting assembly speed
Board assembly forms a significant portion of the PCB design and manufacturing process. There
are various aspects that come into play that decide the speed of the assembly process. Considering
that the speed of the assembly process also affects the manufacturing cost, it is essential to
understand the factors that impact this process. Given below are a few such aspects:
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Figure 8a: Mounting methods for PCB assembly
2.9.1 PCB assembly of through-hole parts
The assembly of PCBs is a process where significant costs can be saved or spent depending
on the components and assembly process used. SMT components can be automatically placed
due to their uniform size, ease of automation, and use of solder reflow. This process is great for
the efficient mass production of assemblies. Through-hole parts on the other hand need a more
intricate assembly process. Listed below are the aspects of through-hole assembly:
Figure 8b: Reflow soldering machine
2.9.1.1 Component placement:
Even with the availability of many automated component insertion systems, most component
manufacturers will prefer the manual installation of parts due to component volumes. Manual
insertion of through-hole technology (THT) components before soldering is expensive compared
to using pick and place machines that are used for placing surface mount components.
2.9.1.2 Automated soldering:
THT components are conventionally soldered through a wave soldering process. Wave soldering
is the conventional form of soldering that is tried and tested for many years and is known to be
reliable. SMT components can’t be soldered using a wave soldering process. This needs the use of
a specialized pallet to mask the SMT components that need not be exposed to the solder wave.
Only the THT components that need to be soldered will be exposed to the wave.
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Figure 9: Through-hole flow soldering and surface mount reflow soldering
2.9.1.3 Manual soldering:

High-density through-hole components or areas that cannot be subjected to masking will be
soldered manually. This is more expensive when compared to automated soldering.
2.9.2 Do not include (DNI) components

DNI components are parts that will not be procured by the manufacturer and will not be placed on
the board during the assembly process. All components that have been designated as DNI on the
BoM should be kept in-house. These parts can then be mounted on the board at a later date.
DNI components help prevent lead times. DNI is marked for components that involve larger or
heavier objects to minimize the cost of shipping. Some clients choose DNI status for components
on their prototype PCBs to experiment with possible components that could function in the board
location.
2.9.3 PCB footprint creation errors
PCB footprint creation is a critical part of the PCB design process. If the footprints are not created
correctly you might see these problems:
2.9.3.1 Incorrect pad sizes
Pads that are smaller than the requirement can lead to breakout problems for through-hole
components and bad solder joints for SMT components. Pads that are larger than the requirement
can take up room that is needed for trace routing or even cause SMT components to float
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out of position during the soldering process.
2.9.3.2 Incorrect pad spacing
Through-hole pads that are too close together or too far apart can lead to issues in component
insertion during the assembly process. SMT pads that are too close together or too far apart
can cause inadequate formation of solder joints. This will lead to an inadequate portion of the
component lead being available for the soldering process.
2.9.3.3 Small component outlines
If the footprints have body outlines that are smaller than what is required, it might lead to assembly
issues in automated production lines. These errors can be countered with manual assembly, which
will require additional time and cost. Larger errors might not even be suitable for rework and will be
rejected by the manufacturer.
2.10 Board assembly notes
PCB fab notes typically consist of design-related information that is intended to help the manufacturer
carry out the assembly processes without errors. The details mentioned are as follows:
• Class of the PCB (class 1, class 2, and class 3)

• Number of layers
• Overall board thickness
• IPC standards to be followed
• Color of solder mask
• Color of silkscreen
• Layer-wise impedance details
• Cut-out details
• Stack-up details
• Drill-hole details (drill chart)
• Version number and date
All the information given in the fab notes is critical to help the fabricator assemble the board. It is
also essential for future reference in terms of PCB design.
If the board is being designed for a customer it is recommended to get approval from the customer
after the aforementioned step. An example of fab notes is shown below.
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Figure 9a: Fab Notes 21
3. DFA requirements
There are various requirements to ensure that the PCB product being manufactured is designed
for assembly. This can range from the right format for the design files to checking for component
availability before assembly. It can also include the component spacing followed for assembly and
several other design practices.
3.1 Preferred file format for assembly
Design files are the prime communication channels between designers and fabricators. Initially,
Gerber files were popular in the industry since their introduction in 1980. The mid-’90s saw the
introduction of the intelligent ODB++ format which was quickly followed by IPC-2581 standards.
Here is a list of the various files you can send your manufacturer for fabrication:
• Gerber files
• IPC-2581
• IPC Netlist
• Drill files
• BOM (Bill of material)
• Pick and Place files
• Fab drawing
• ODB++ files (Optional)
3.1.1 What is Gerber?
After the layout design of a board is finished and ready to be fabricated, the design is converted
to a standard format called Gerber files. This format can be used by the fabricator to manufacture
PCBs.
22 Figure 9b: Gerber file with drill map

Gerber files are created for each layer of the board. PCBs can have as many as 30 layers and
manufacturers will have to generate gerbers for each layer.
3.1.2 ODB++
The ODB++ format is an intelligent one, with an individual ODB++ file or even directory containing
all the data required to define a board layer.
This particular file format provides a stable framework for the necessary design data. An ODB++ file
does not ensure the provided data is adequate to fabricate the design. But, it permits the designer
to combine all data and implement the needed checks for reliability and manufacturability.
The ODB++ translator will input a compressed file (.tgz, .tar, .gz, .zip, or .tar), an ODB++ archive or a
directory of files from the circuit layout program. Typically, the ODB++ file is sent to the manufacturer
as a single file with gzip extension with all the required files being stored in this main file.
3.1.3 Why ODB++?
The ODB++ hierarchy framework enables programmers and enterprises to transfer more than just
drill data and standard artwork. It can make room for more data in a single file.
For instance, the file can include data about the component placement, bill of materials, material
stack-up, and also the dimension and fabrication data.
Since ODB++ can be accessed using most PCB design software such as Expedition, PADS, and
Allegro, it is considered a universal format by most designers. This enables the simple and efficient
production of boards without any added complexity. This highly versatile format is supported by
every major vendor of CAM, CAD, and DFM tools.
3.1.4 What’s the difference between ODB++ and gerber files?
Gerber RS274X is the most popular format for PCB design. It is an individual board file that comprises
all the layer data, drawings, and pad shapes providing an accurate design.
Unlike an ODB++ file, a Gerber cannot define the layer stack-up and does not include the drill files.
Also, ODB++ can include a large amount of data. Most manufacturers now prefer ODB++ as it aids
in minimizing human errors. Using ODB++, a PCB fabricator could do away with the necessity of
working with a lot of low-level files.
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3.2 Good silkscreen practices
To start the creation of a good PCB silkscreen the first step is the use of optimum sizes and line
widths. When font sizes are too small or drawn too wide as a line, it might look more like an inkblot
than readable text. Line widths that end up being too narrow may not be drawn correctly on the
board.
The next major concern is silkscreen spacing to pads or other PCB features. Silkscreen becomes
unreadable when it ends up on a pad, and more importantly, it will impact the solderability of the
board. Most board fabricators use these values for the best silkscreen printing:
Font size: Best results call for 0.050-inch font size. Also, the font size should not be smaller than
0.025 inches. Typically, three sizes of fonts are used - large 50/50/6, medium 35/25/5, and small
25/22/5. (text height/text width/line width)
Line width: Fonts should not have a line width smaller than 0.005-inch. Although wider lines can be
used with larger font sizes for company names, part numbers and other user information should
use smaller fonts. These can include reference designators, pin numbers, and polarity markings.
Clearance: Silkscreen should be placed at a minimum distance of 0.005 inches from PCB pads and
other features.
Figure 10: Silkscreen on a PCB
The consecutive step involves the arrangement of different items on the silkscreen. Reference
designators should be close to their part and rotated to be easily readable. Unless otherwise
required, only 90-degree rotations should be adopted for designators.
The silkscreen elements should be readable at one go on the board without rotating the board
too many times. It is also essential to ensure that critical silkscreen information is not covered by
placed components. When silkscreen marking is covered by components it will become difficult
for technicians and inspectors to locate pin markings or components.
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3.3 Component spacing
Component placement according to spacing guidelines is critical to creating a PCB that meets
performance expectations. For example, bypass capacitors should be close enough to their
related devices to offer an instant power reservoir and minimize parasitic inductance between
them. Signal paths must be implemented to provide the shortest possible distance between pins
(especially significant in high-speed signal boards). The component placement must also be such
that critical routing does not cross split power planes, preventing the loss of return paths.
Figure 10a: SMD Component clearance in mm
If the components are placed too close to each other for performance reasons, it might affect the
manufacturer’s ability to fabricate the board. This might lead to additional time and cost expenses,
or even redesigns. To prevent such issues, you can implement some component spacing guidelines
to help ensure the success of the PCBA.
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3.3.1 Part-to-part spacing
The land pattern design and spacing for each component package will affect the comprehensive
reliability and timeline requirements for the PCBA along with the repairability of the board. Sufficient
spacing between components on the board guards against possible faults such as solder-bridging
while enabling easier manual soldering or rework. While greater spacing facilitates greater ease of
assembly, some applications need close spacing to accomplish a smaller form factor.
There are a few special scenarios where you need to take extra care of sensitive component
packages such as larger QFP/QFN, POP, or BGA:
Figure 11: Recommended layout for components on a PCB
It is better to place IC sockets as far away from sensitive packages as possible. This is needed
as repeated plugging and unplugging of the IC into the socket might place unwarranted stress on
nearby solder joints.
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Figure 12: Acceptable and unacceptable PCB component placement
It is good practice to avoid placing sensitive component packages in the center of the PCB, as
broken connections can result from bow and twist at maximum intensity in this board region.
Placing BGA and other leadless packages on only one side of the PCB is recommended. If placing
such components on both sides of the board can’t be avoided, then they should not be placed one
beneath the other, using the same XY coordinates on both sides of the board. This might complicate
X-Ray inspection and rework.
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Figure 13: Acceptable and unacceptable PCB component placement
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3.3.2 Part-to-edge spacing
The distance from a given component on the board to the board edge. This factor is critical for the
depanelization process after the PCB assembly is complete. During the depanelization process,
the components near the board edge will be subjected to stress that might compromise solder
joints.
It is common practice to increase the component-to-board edge spacing on the secondary board
side. This is because of the hold-down clamps used in the solder application process, to keep the
PCB from moving while the solder paste is applied. Surface-mount components in this area could
be blocked by the clamps and left with inadequate solder paste. Another possibility is the SMT
components could be damaged.
Figure 14: Part-to-edge spacing for PCBA
It is significant to note that clearances for automated assembly processes and manual assembly
processes are different. This is because manual assembly allows parts to be placed closer to the
edge of the board as they can be installed post reflow and depanelization.
Copper traces can also run much closer to the board edge. Both copper traces and manually
installed parts need to be distanced at least 10mil from the edge of the board to permit a solder
mask gap and prevent pad encroachment.
Certain designs call for copper plating at the board edge which is known as castellated holes. Such
designs will need additional cost and lead time to achieve the desired copper plating.
29
3.3.3 Part-to-hole spacing
Part-to-hole spacing is required for both PCB vias and through-hole components. It is a requirement
that determines the minimum spacing between a component pad/body and either of the hole
types. Such spacing consists of two particular parameters that have to be met to achieve a quality
assembly:
• Part-to-hole wall: This is measured from the actual hole edge in the PCB to the pad edge.
• Part-to-annular ring: This is measured from the edge of the hole’s annular ring to the pad edge.
3.4 Component clearance
The maximum component boundary refers to the outermost boundary of the component along with
the edge of the package and lead ends. The minimum placement courtyard is defined around the
component including the body and the basic land pattern.
Figure 15: Component boundaries
The outermost region is the courtyard manufacturing zone that serves as clearance for other
components, board edge, and hardware. This zone also provides room for rework.
• Unless otherwise specified, clearance is 0.25mm.
• BGA devices need a clearance of 1.0mm.
• Parts smaller than 0603 packages need to have a clearance of 0.15mm.
• Connectors, crystals, and canned capacitors need to include clearance of 0.5mm, along with
the clearance needed for mating of the connector.
30
3.5 Component availability
While designing a PCB, the designers see the components existing as virtual entities, making it easy
to overlook the importance of its actual physical availability. Sometimes, components might be
included in the database that is no longer available resulting in major issues during PCB assembly
and prototyping. There is also the possibility of a critical component reaching the end of its lifecycle
before production begins. Such issues can throw a wrench into design and manufacturing plans,
but these problems can be avoided by optimizing component selection based on availability during
the design phase.
Component Lifecycle
3.5.1 Allocation
Allocation is when there is a shortage of components as the demand for electronic components
exceeds manufacturing capacity. Allocated parts have unclear lead times and are mostly subjected
to delay. Component shortages are made worse by an increase in automobile electronics and the
devices which add to the Internet of things (IoT).
When parts are allocated, suppliers will not receive sufficient components from component
manufacturers to fulfill the customer’s orders.
What are the consequences of component allocation?
• Manufacturers and suppliers may not take on new orders including components that have
critically allocated parts.
• Customer’s orders might be fulfilled partially.
31
• Delivery dates might be delayed without information about the next available date for
the delivery
• This might lead to price increases in the PCBA due to component shortage. An example of this
is that the orders placed in 2017 were subjected to price increases in 2018.
• An instance of the unavailability of components in 2018 is that 100nF capacitors were essentially
unavailable in large quantities. The components that were available were priced at 10-20 times
the market price.
Currently, multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCCs) are subjected to shortages and the problem of
allocation.
Figure 15a: Components used in PCBAs
3.5.2 Top 5 ways to mitigate PCB component availability problems
Here are five ways you can reduce disruption in the design and development of PCBs:
1. Verify the components for availability more than just once and a final time before assembling
the boards.
It is standard practice in design to choose components in the initial design phase or add the said
components as the design phase progresses. All these components should usually be selected
right before the layout phase.
If there is a period of time between selecting the components and ordering them, then it is best to
check for component availability before sending the design files to the fabrication house. This is
important as some components might be out of stock at the time of ordering them, so ensure you
recheck your BOM against component availability at the time of sending the design files.
This is of critical importance when it comes to the fabrication of quick-turn prototypes.
32

Whenever there is a component out of stock the manufacturer will have to get in touch
with the customer leading to delays.

2. Select alternate components before sending the files for fabrication
A way to ensure the design and development of PCBs is not disrupted is to include alternates
in your bill of material. When going through the BOM during the final checks, be sure to include
alternate part numbers in the BOM for parts that might go out of stock. In this manner, you can
save time on substitution approvals, early on in the process.
3. Be flexible with part values when possible
When you can, be flexible with component values, and make sure your fabricator knows. This way,
slight variations in the component values won’t disrupt your design.
4. Consider minor redesigns for long term fabrication goals
It has been an ongoing trend that component packages with larger form factors will be phased out
over time. A good place to start would be to standardize the 0402-size passive components.
Newer components such as RF and power components are only available in smaller BGA or QFN
packages. While these smaller components may pose challenges, the future may see exclusive
use of these components or smaller ones.
5. Respond as quickly as possible to your fabrication partner when you receive a query.
This is a fundamental practice that can prevent significant delays in manufacturing. This will
prevent the fabrication house from guessing what components you need and keep pace with the
manufacturing schedule.
33
3.6 Thermal relief
Thermal management is critical to a successful PCB design. Almost all boards, regardless of it
being single-sided or multi-layered, will make use of large areas of metal for power planes or
ground planes. These planes will typically connect to various component pins. In these instances,
soldering would pose a challenge due to the considerable amount of metal present in the plane.
While soldering small SMT components to a large area of metal, the solder will melt faster on one
side compared to the other. This will lead to the tombstone defect, where the component rises on
one end.
Soldering through-hole components to a large area of metal might lead to a cold solder joint. When
desoldering through-hole components that were soldered to a significant area of metal, it might
lead to the application of excessive heat. This in turn might lead to PCB, and component damage.
Figure 16: Pad with and without thermal relief
This is where thermal relief can prove useful in the form of a thermal relief pad or thermal pad.
The thermal pad generates small gaps in the metal around the hole to make the connection to the
plane through the small metal spokes. Restricting the connection to the plane through the spokes
will decrease the thermal contact with the rest of the plane. This enables the power or ground lead
of a through-hole component to solder at the same rate as the other leads of the component. Given
below are some examples of thermal relief pads.
3.6.1 PCB thermal relief guidelines

• When connecting a through-hole pin to a power plane having a large area of metal or the metal
area is wider than the component pad, utilize thermal relief pads.
34
Figure 17: Thermal relief lands before and after drilling
• When the SMT component is soldered directly to large areas of metal, utilize thermal relief
pads between the solder pad and the metal area.
Figure 18: Different types of thermal relief shapes
• Match the width and spoke count of the thermal relief pads with the pin’s power conduction
level. For instance, if the power requirement calls for a minimum trace width of 40 mils, then
the spokes should add up to 40mil, 4 spokes of 10mil each.
• To avoid spoke connectivity issues, set up your design software to recognize minimum thermal
relief connections. The spokes in a thermal relief pad might not connect properly
when two or more pads are placed too close to each other. Also connectivity issues
might result when being used in a split plane or if the area of metal that they are in is too small.
35
3.7 PCB quality control methods
Quality during PCB manufacturing is a progressive process and the quality control process is an
integral part of this. Here are a few points about the QC process in circuit board manufacturing
3.7.1 IPC certification

IPC training and certification ensure the highest levels of manufacturing quality. The IPC standards
ensure a consistent and uniform approach to various assembly processes. Annual and bi-annual
IPC certifications with the help of an on-site IPC trainer can help keep staff be updated with the
current industry practices.
3.7.2 Component expertise

Component failures are a major issue in PCBAs. A well-documented process is needed for
inspection and quality assurance to ensure the components used are of the highest quality.
Component engineering specialists can work towards procurement needs to obtain the required
components within time. This will help in cutting down on downtime.
Figure 18a: Component placement to avoid board warpage stress
3.7.3 Process controls

The step-wise process of the PCBA needs to be well-documented in accordance with ISO
requirements for QC processes, traceability, and risk management. The quality of the manufacturing
operation needs to be governed by process controls by monitoring shelf life, cleanliness standards,
soldering temperatures.
36
3.7.4 Assembly checks
Multiple inspection points during PCBA allow for a better chance of catching an error during the
process itself, rather than when it was over. These checks can be a mix of manual and automated
inspections to detect potential issues with solder joints and incorrect component placement.
Figure 18b: Component spacing to facilitate an efficient PCBA process
3.7.5 Inspection and test

After the manufacture and assembly of the PCB, there should be a detailed inspection process
before sending the product to the customer/client. The next step is to test the board, and based
on the design, the manufacturer will have a complete test plan which needs to be implemented in
its entirety.
3.7.6 Functional workspace

Fabricating boards for precision electronics require a well-sorted and organized workplace with
updated equipment and processes. Attention should be paid to how well assembly lines are laid
out and how accessible the equipment is to the workforce.
37
3.8 IPC standards for acceptability
PCB assemblies need to meet IPC standards for assembly and manufacturing to qualify as
fit for use in devices. Here are two IPC standards that are relevant to DFA practices for board
manufacturing:
3.8.1 IPC A 600 – Acceptability of printed circuit boards
The IPC A 610 standard in PCB manufacturing covers how boards should be handled and what
the acceptable techniques are for hardware/component installation. Also specified is what
constitutes acceptable soldering and several other manufacturing aspects for boards with
through-hole and surface mount components.
3.8.2 IPC A 610: Acceptability of electronic assemblies
The IPC A 610 is the standard for electronic PCB assemblies that detail what is acceptable in
a PCB assembly. This standard divides electronic assemblies into three classes - 1, 2, and 3.
Class 1 refers to boards required for products such as low-end toys that don’t need high-quality
manufacturing.
Class 2 refers to boards that are to be designed for higher reliability for non-critical electronic
assemblies.
Class 3 refers to conformance with IPC standards for every aspect ranging from laminate
selection and plating thickness to manufacturing processes and inspection. This class is
reserved for critical electronic assemblies used in military and space applications.
38
4. Common DFA issues - assembly errors
Here are some of the DFA issues that we at Sierra Circuits usually face. The possible resolutions
are suggested for some of them.
DFA issue Description Possible resolutions

Footprint mismatch Component from BOM and CAD _
data footprints mismatch and
not possible to assemble PCBA
Mounting orientation • Component orientation mark _
confirmation needed is missing in silkscreen
• Mismatch in silkscreen
marking and actual
component
• Pin 1 mark in silkscreen is
not matching with the actual
component
• When component mounting
orientation is not clear etc.
Cathode mark confirmation Cathode mark is missing/ not

needed clear in silkscreen/ assembly
drawing
Pin1 confirmation needed Pin 1 mark is missing in _
silkscreen/ assembly drawing
Positive terminal confirmation Positive terminal marking is

needed missing in the silkscreen/
assembly drawing.
Example - For electrolytic cap,
tantalum cap, all polarised cap,
components like a buzzer
Mechanical/package The datasheet is not available _

dimension details needed for the component to verify in
DFA
IBOM issue resolution not IBOM resolutions/issues _
complete raised during component
validation is not resolved by
the customer
XY data missing XY data not received from the -
customer
39
BOM components missing in MPN in BOM is not available
Gerber and placement files in CAD and XY data
No polarity marking Polarity mark is missing in
silkscreen/ assembly drawing
Component overlap The component body is _
touching the adjacent
component or overlapping,
restricting assembly
No stock Required item quantity as per • Mention alternate /
BOM is not available with the correct part number from
vendor a different manufacturer
who has stock available
with exact specifications
(using description and
truncated MPN)
• Mention alternate part
number from a different
manufacturer who has
stock available with
reduced specification
(using description and
truncated MPN)
• Supply the part yourself
• DNI
Layer missing Paste/mask layer is not • Provide solder paste/mask

observed in CAD files layer
• Provide the latest and
correct revised files and
confirm the revision
40
Reference designator missing Reference designators are • Provide updated silkscreen
in silkscreen and/or assembly missing in BOM / XY data / CAD • Provide updated XY data
drawing data files • Provide the latest and
• Make DNI
Requote required in case of _

major change
Less stock Required items are not available • Mention alternate / correct
with the vendor in the needed part number from a different
quantity as per BOM manufacturer who has
stock available with exact
specifications (using
description and truncated
MPN)
• Supply the part yourself
• DNI
Wrong polarity marking Wrong polarity mark is observed _

in silkscreen/ assembly drawing
Alternate part number When passives are not available _
in the market, they are to be
replaced with a direct alternate
that matches the form, fit, and
function
Paste/mask layer missing Paste/mask layer is not • Provide solder paste/mask

observed in CAD files layer
• Provide the latest and
correct revised files
and confirm the
revision
Pad missing Pad opening is missing in the _

solder mask layer and solder
paste layer in CAD
41
Ref des missing Reference designators are • Provide updated silkscreen
missing in BOM / XY data / CAD • Provide updated XY data
data files • Provide the latest and
• Make DNI
IBOM resolution pending for IBOM resolutions/issues raised _

alternate part during component validation is
not resolved by the customer
Incomplete SI data NA _
Incomplete part number NA _

Mismatch in quantity There is a mismatch between • Correct the quantity
the quantity and number of • Update the ref des
reference designators for items • DNI
provided in the BOM
Ref des mismatch with Qty There is a mismatch between Provide updated XY data
the quantity and number of Provide the latest and correct
reference designators for items revised files and confirm the
provided in the BOM revision
Make DNI
Part number and description NA _

mismatch
VPN and MPN mismatch Mismatched description of • Mention alternate / correct
component between VPN and part number with exact
MPN specifications (using
MPN)”
• Mention alternate part
number with reduced
specification (using
MPN)
42
5. Common PCB assembly defects
Understanding assembly defects and their root causes can help a fabricator in enhancing the
quality of the PCBA and boosting manufacturing yield. The most common board assembly defects
are as follows:
Figure 19: Soldering defects and acceptable solder joints
5.1 Open solder joints (opens)
Open solder joints happen due to a lack of bonding between the component lead and pad, resulting
in an open joint/connection. It can also result from solder appearing on the pad and not at the
component lead.
Root causes Prevention of defect (by designers and production engineers)
Lack of solder paste or inconsistent Ensure the correct aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of
deposit of solder paste aperture width to stencil thickness
Gap or separation between the PCB Proper PCB design and accurate component placement
pad and component lead
Contamination or corrosion at the Resolve lead coplanarity issues and implement correct
component lead or the PCB pad material handling procedures for operators
Solder paste not active enough Avoid solder paste contamination by preventing extreme
environmental conditions during the manufacturing
process
43
Poor reflow profile, not allowing Resolve PCB fabrication issues
all surfaces to reach target reflow
temperature
5.2 Solder bridges (shorts)
Shorts are sometimes referred to as solder bridging. They occur when solder connects two leads
that are supposed to be separate. Such shorts might even be microscopic and hard to detect as
well. When a short goes unidentified, it could result in serious damage to the PCBA such as a trace
burn-out and component or board damage.
An unsuitable or erroneous reflow Ensure correct reflow profile

profile (initial ramp rate too steep)
Solder pads too large relative to the Ensure the use of appropriate solder paste metal to flux
gap between the pads weight ratio for the required application.
Excess solder on pads due to Ensure paste deposition is in proper resolution and
incorrect stencil specification quality without slump or smear before reflow.
Inactive solder paste, or not active Decrease the stencil aperture dimensions by 10% or
enough thickness of stencil to reduce the amount of solder paste
that is deposited
An inadequate seal between stencil Check the alignment of stencil apertures with pads
and board during printing
Misalignment between stencil and Check the alignment of stencil apertures with pads
PCB
Improper component placement, Ensure required pressure and precision for component
or poor correlation between placement.
component lead and PCB pad size
44
5.3 Component shift
Component shift can be defined as the misalignment of the component with its intended location
on the board. This may occur during the reflow process as the component floats on the solder
and drifts. PCBA components having many pads such as BGA components may drift from their
intended mounting location due to the surface tension of the molten solder. This makes component
placement a critical requirement in board assembly.
A mismatch in part to pad geometry Follow the recommended PCB design guidelines that deal
causing the part to pull towards the with component placement and clearance parameters
closest thermal mass
Bent or mis-shapen leads Implement the recommended temperature and humidity
requirements from component manufacturers
Asymmetrical component heat sink Recalibrate and enhance the accuracy of component
placement machines and processes.
Excessive vibration or rapid speed Minimize the amount of movement resulting from the
modifications in handling or conveyor system or the other handling processes
conveyor system
Poor solder deposition including the Enhance the solderability of components or PCBs with
wrong location, off-pad, or incorrect the required flux
volume of solder paste
Excessive convection rates _
Undesirably high heating ramp rate _

leading to outgassing of flux
Small components are placed next _

to large ones where heated gas is
directed from the side of the large
component towards a smaller one.
45
6. Factors that impact the cost of the PCB assembly
PCB assembly costs consist of varied aspects ranging from the technology used to the number
of components with a fine pitch on the board. Getting a board to be cost-effective will require
considering all these factors:
6.1 Turnaround time
Turnaround time refers to the time taken to complete the PCB manufacturing and assembly
process after the required inputs have been submitted. It is significant to note that assembly
costs will change along with turnaround time. Cost is inversely proportional to the assembly
time, with shorter assembly times driving up costs between 30 to 200% when compared to
conventional assembly times. Accelerated assembly times might mean that the fabricator
will have to halt other orders and focus on the expedited assembly. In certain scenarios, the
manufacturing facility might have to change, further driving up assembly costs.
6.2 Technology used - through-hole or surface mount
A crucial factor impacting the assembly costs is the technology used for assembly if it is through-
hole technology (THT) or surface mount technology (SMT). In some cases both THT and SMT
are used in combination. SMT tends to be more cost-effective than THT due to the low setup
costs, higher component densities, and higher degree of automation. In some cases, the use of
THT is unavoidable and the additional drilling of boards and reduction in routing area will lead to
higher assembly costs.
46 Figure 20: Process flow for through hole and surface mount soldering

6.3 Component packages
As electronic components are available in different packages, assembly costs might also
depend on the component packaging. Ball Grid Array (BGA) and Quad Flat No-Leads (QFN)
components come with a higher assembly cost. This is because the electrical connections
beneath the components require a higher level of accuracy for component placement. These
components also need X-ray inspection to look for voids and short circuits between the pins.
More conventional packages such as SMD, 0603, 0805, 1206 do not have the higher costs
mentioned above associated with their assembly.
Figure 21: SMD component dimensions
47
Solder land dimensions of 0603 components
48
6.4 Board assembly volumes
The assembly cost for boards depends on various factors such as initial setup costs, stencil cost
and programming. Economies of scale come into play here, as high-volume production runs will
bring down one-time set-up costs. Prototype boards might need a different set-up for each run or
even each board, which will add to the cost of the boards manufactured.
Figure 21: Cost variation according to number of board layers
6.5 Component count/density
The number of components is directly proportional to the assembly costs. The more the number
of components to be assembled on the board, the higher will be the cost of the assembly.
6.6 PCB Stack up cost
The PCB cost depends on a number of factors such as the number of layers, blind and buried vias,
the number of laminations, and also the type of material.
Implementing DFA practices in the current market scenario is not just advantageous, but critical to
ensure the product manufactured meets the requirement at an optimum manufacturing cost. With
the knowledge of DFA, designers can come up with an efficient board that is easy to manufacture
and assemble.
49
Sierra Circuits
1108 West Evelyn Avenue
Sunnyvale, CA 94086
+1 (408) 735-7137

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DESIGN

1 DFA definition and overview 5

1.1 What is design for assembly? ............................................................... 5

2.1 Reduction and simplification ................................................................. 8

2 2.9.3.1 Incorrect pad sizes........................................................

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

3.1 Preferred file format for assembly ........................................................ 22

3.8 IPC standards for acceptability.............................................................. 38

4 Common DFA issues - Assembly errors and resolution 39

5 Common PCB assembly defects 43

5.1 Open solder joints (Opens) ................................................................... 43

6 Factors that impact the cost of the PCB assembly 46

6.1 Turnaround time ..................................................................................... 46

Figure 1: Role of DFA and DFM in PCB manufacturing.

Pre-PCB manufacturing and assembly DFA includes:

1.3 The objectives of DFA

The objectives of DFA are as follows:

Figure 2: PCB size Specification

2.1 Reduction and simplification

8 Figure 3: Relation between innovation and component count in a design

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

2.2 Standardization of components

2.3 Efficient fastening methods

2.4 Single or double-sided PCB

• A smaller board with components placed on either side of the board

2.5 Board repositioning and handling

10 Figure 5: Component orientation for proper wave soldering

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

Figure 5a: Automated soldering station

• Decide on what connections on the PCB require an electrical in-circuit test.

2.7.1 Pre-assembly test - Bare board tests

2.7.2 Post assembly test - ICT or in-circuit testing

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

Figure 6: Flying probe tester at the Sierra Circuits assembly facility

• Cost-effective when it comes to smaller production runs.

Figure 7: An expert working on the tester program

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

2.8 Poka yoke

2.8.1 Defects and process variation

2.8.2 Types of Poka-yoke systems

There are two approaches to the Poka-yoke process:

• Processing error: missed operations or unexecuted tasks

2.9 Factors affecting assembly speed

Figure 8b: Reflow soldering machine

2.9.1.1 Component placement:

2.9.1.2 Automated soldering:

2.9.1.3 Manual soldering:

2.9.2 Do not include (DNI) components

2.9.3 PCB footprint creation errors

2.9.3.1 Incorrect pad sizes

2.9.3.3 Small component outlines

2.10 Board assembly notes

• Class of the PCB (class 1, class 2, and class 3)

3.1 Preferred file format for assembly

3.1.1 What is Gerber?

22 Figure 9b: Gerber file with drill map

Copyright Sierra Circuits Inc., 2021

3.1.3 Why ODB++?

3.1.4 What’s the difference between ODB++ and gerber files?

Figure 10: Silkscreen on a PCB

Figure 10a: SMD Component clearance in mm

Figure 11: Recommended layout for components on a PCB

Figure 14: Part-to-edge spacing for PCBA