“An essay on comparing and contrasting the

characteristics of the five approaches of Qualitative

Research"

Submitted by
Tasnia Naz Adiba
Roll-49
Session- 2017-18
Department of public administration
University of Dhaka

Submitted to

Dr. Momtaz Jahan

Professor
Department of public administration
University of Dhaka
 Contents
Mid-Term
➢ Introduction
➢ The five approaches of qualitative research
➢ Comparison and contrast of the five approaches
➢ Conclusion
➢ reference

Class Test
➢ Informed Consent Form
➢ Questions for Data Collection
Introduction

Qualitative research is used to get in-depth understanding of concepts, ideas, or experiences,

that’s why it involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to comprehend those
concepts, ideas, or experiences to get deeper insights into a problem or generate new ideas for
research. There are mainly five approaches used in qualitative research design, in this essay those
five approaches will be discussed thoroughly.

The five approaches of qualitative research

Qualitative research is used to get in-depth understanding of concepts, ideas, or experiences,

that’s why it involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to comprehend those
concepts, ideas, or experiences to get deeper insights into a problem or generate new ideas for
research. There are mainly five approaches used in qualitative research design, which are
discussed below-

This method is concerned with human knowledge organization, knowledge management, and
narrative research, all of which share the concept of transferring unquantifiable elements of
knowledge, such as experience. So, it begins as a method with the experiences of individuals as
they lived it and expressed it in told stories. Czarniawska (2004) defines it as a specific type of
qualitative design in which “narrative is understood as a spoken or written text giving an account
of an event/action or series of events/actions, chronologically connected”.

The main characteristics of narrative approach are-

• Narrative researchers collect stories from individuals, about individual’s lived and told
experiences. and those stories may shed light on the identities of individuals and how
they see themselves.
• Narratives or stories are obtained through a variety of data sources, including interviews,
which are the most common, but also observations, documents, photographs, and other
types of qualitative data.
• Narrative stories are often heard and shaped into a chronology by researchers, even if
they are not told that way by the participants. Because when people communicate about
their lives and experiences, there is a time shift that is expressed. They may speak about
their past, present, or future.
• Analysis of narratives are often done in two ways: content-focused and meaning-focused.
The analysis does not occur at the end of the data collecting phase; rather, it occurs
throughout the research process.
• Narrative stories often contain turning points (Denzin, 1989) or specific tensions or
interruptions that the researchers highlight in the telling of the stories.
• Narrative stories occur within specific places or situations. The context becomes
important for the researcher’s telling of the story within a place.

There are various types of narrative stories, which includes-

o A biographical study is a form of narrative study in which the researcher writes and
records the experiences of another person’s life.
o Autoethnography is written and recorded by the individuals who are the subject of the
study
o A life history portrays an individual’s entire life, while a personal experience story is a
narrative study of an individual’s personal experience found in single or multiple
episodes, private situations, or communal folklore.
 o An oral history consists of gathering personal reflections of events and their causes and
effects from one individual or several individuals.

A phenomenological investigation describes a concept's or phenomenon's shared meaning for

multiple people based on their lived experience, it focuses on describing what all participants
have in common as they experience a phenomenon. Phenomenology's primary goal is to reduce
individual experience with a phenomenon to a description of its universal essence.

The main characteristics of Phenomenology are-

• A focus on a phenomenon to be investigated and phrased in terms of a single concept or

idea, such as educational concept of “career choices”, psychological and behavioral
concept of “discrimination” etc.
• A philosophical discussion about the basic ideas involved in conducting a
phenomenology.
• The method of data collection involves interviewing people who have experienced the
phenomena, but this isn't a uniform feature. However, some phenomenological studies
use a variety of data sources, such as poems, observations, and documents.
• Data analysis that can follow systematic procedures that move from the narrow units of
analysis, and on to broader units and on to detailed descriptions that summarize two
elements, “what” the individuals have experienced and “how” they have experienced it.
• A phenomenology concludes with a descriptive section that explains the essence of the
experience for individuals, including both "what" and "how" they experienced it. The
“essence” is the culminating aspect of a phenomenological study.

There are two types of Phenomenology-

 o Hermeneutic Phenomenology, where researcher usually explains texts to reconnoiter
existed experience to determine people’s lived experience with some phenomenon.
o Transcendental phenomenology focuses on people's perceptions of an existent
practice of a phenomenal idea. The purpose of transcendental phenomenology is to
describe the essence and the nature of experiencing the phenomena that being studied.

The intent of a grounded theory study is to move beyond description and to generate or discover
a theory, that’s why researchers studies people's experiences, attitudes, and reactions in order to
provide a theory or an illustration of the process and how it works. This qualitative design was
developed in sociology in 1967 by two researchers, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss.

The main characteristics of grounded theory are-

• The focus of the study is on a process or activity that has distinct steps or phases that
occur throughout time. As a result, a grounded theory study has "movement," or some
behavior that the researcher is trying to explain and aspires to build a theory of this
process or activity.

• The common method of data collection is interviewing in which the researcher is

constantly comparing data gathered from participants with ideas about the emerging
theory, Going back and forth between the participants, getting additional interviews, and
then returning to the evolving theory to fill in the gaps and to elaborate on how it works
are all part of the process.

• Data analysis can be organized by generating open categories, selecting one category as
the center of the theory, and then describing other categories (axial coding) to construct a
theoretical model. The theory emerges from the intersection of the categories which is
known as selective coding. This theory can be presented as a diagram, as propositions (or
 hypotheses), or as a discussion (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Data analysis can also be less
structured and based on developing a theory by piecing together implicit meanings about
a category (Charmaz, 2006).

There are two popular approaches to grounded theory, those are-

o The systematic procedures of Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998), where the investigator

seeks to systematically develop a theory that explains process, action, or interaction on a

topic.

o The constructivist approach of Charmaz (2005, 2006), it advocates for a social

constructivist perspective that includes emphasizing diverse local worlds, multiple

realities, and the complexities of particular worlds, views, and actions.

An ethnography focuses on a specific cultural group. An ethnographer is interested in examining

these shared patterns, and the unit of analysis is typically larger than the 20 or so individuals

involved in a grounded theory study. According to Harris (1968), “ethnography is a qualitative

design in which the researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values,

behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group.”

The main characteristics of ethnography are-

• Ethnographies are concerned with creating a complex, comprehensive depiction of the

culture of a group, a culture-sharing group. The ethnography may be of a complete group
or a subgroup of a group. Wolcott (2008) mentioned, ethnography is not the study of a
culture, but a study of the social behaviors of an identifiable group of people.
• In an ethnography, the researchers look for patterns of social organization such as rituals,
customary social behaviors, or regularities and ideational systems activities, such as their
ideas and beliefs expressed through language, or material activities.
• In addition, theory plays an important role in focusing the researcher’s attention when
conducting an ethnography. For example, ethnographers start with a theory—a broad
explanation as to what they hope to find—drawn from cognitive science to understand
ideas and beliefs, or from materialist theories, such as techno environmentalism,
Marxism, acculturation, or innovation, to observe how individuals in the culture-sharing
group behave and talk (Fetterman, 2010).
• In an analysis of this data, the researcher relies on the participants' perspectives as an
insider emic viewpoint, reporting them verbatim, and then synthesizes the data, filtering
it through the researchers' etic scientific viewpoint to generate an overall cultural
interpretation. This cultural interpretation is a description of the group and themes related
to the theoretical concepts being explored in the study. Typically, in good ethnographies,
not much is known about how the group functions (e.g., how a gang operates), and the
reader develops a new, and novel, understanding of the group.
• This analysis results in an understanding of how the culture-sharing group works, the
essence of how it functions, the group’s way of life. Wolcott (2010) provides two helpful
questions that, in the end, must be answered in an ethnography: “What do people in this
setting have to know and do to make this system work?” and “If culture, sometimes
defined simply as shared knowledge, is mostly caught rather than taught, how do those
being inducted into the group find their ‘way in’ so that an adequate level of sharing is
achieved?”
There are mainly two forms of ethnography, which are discussed below-

o The realist ethnography is an objective account of the situation, typically written in the

third-person point of view and reporting objectively on the information learned from

participants at a site.

o The critical ethnography is a type of ethnographic research in which the authors

advocate for the emancipation of groups marginalized in society.

Case study research entails the investigation of a case in a real-life, current context or

environment. Case study research is a qualitative methodology in which the investigator

investigates a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or many bounded systems (cases)

over time using extensive, in-depth data gathering from numerous sources of information, such

as observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and papers and reports, and produces a case

description and case themes. The unit of analysis in the case study might be multiple cases (a

multisite study) or a single case (a within-site study).

The main characteristics of case study are-

• The selection of a specific case is the first step in case study research. A tangible entity,
such as an individual, a small group, an organization, or a partnership, may be used in
this circumstance.
• The purpose of the case study is also crucial. A qualitative case study can be written to
show a unique case, one that is of remarkable interest in and of itself and must be
documented and detailed. This is called an intrinsic case.
 • In a case study, the method to data analysis will be different. Some case studies require
the examination of multiple units within the case. while others report on the entire case.
• Good case study research also includes a summary of the case so that the researcher can
discover themes, issues, or specific scenarios to investigate in each case.
• Case studies often end with conclusions formed by the researcher about the overall
meaning derived from the case(s). These are called “assertions” by Stake (1995) or
building “patterns” or “explanations” by Yin (2009).

There are three variation of qualitative case studies, which are-

o The single instrumental case study (Stake, 1995), where the researcher focuses on an
issue or concern, and then selects one bounded case to illustrate this issue.
o The collective case study or multiple case study, in which one issue or concern is again
selected, but the inquirer selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue.
o The intrinsic case study, in which the focus is on the case itself. because the case
presents an unusual or unique situation.

Comparison and contrast of the five approaches

All five methodologies share the overall research process, which begins with a research problem
and progresses to questions, data, data analysis, and the research report. They also use
comparable data collecting methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, and
audiovisual resources, to varied degrees.

A few of possible similarities between the designs should also be observed. When the unit of
analysis is a single person, narrative research, ethnography, and case study research may appear
identical. True, one can approach the study of a single person from any of these three
perspectives.
However, the sorts of data collected and analyzed would vary greatly. In narrative research, the
inquirer focuses on the tales recounted by the person and organizes these tales in chronological
sequence; in ethnography, the focus is on framing the people' tales within the framework of their
culture and culture-sharing group; and in case study research, the single case is typically selected
to illustrate an issue, and the researcher compiles a detailed description of the setting for the case.

When comparing narrative to ethnography, and case study there is similarities when the unit of
analysis is a single individual. The similarities include data collection processes, interviews,
observations, documents and audiovisual materials; however, the types of data collection would
differ.

Also, the challenges researchers need to overcome while conducting research using these designs
also differ with each other.

In narrative approach the researcher needs to collect extensive information from the participant,
clear understanding of individual’s life and experiences, and an active collaborative including
their own experiences.

In phenomenology researchers need structured approach to analyzing data, understand

philosophical assumptions and identify with the assumptions, and suspending in a reflective
move cultivating curiosity.

Researchers need structured approach to analyzing data, understand philosophical assumptions

and identify with the assumptions, and suspending in a reflective move cultivating curiosity
while using grounded theory design.

And in ethnography researches need to be sensitive to the needs of the participants – avoid going
native.
Conclusion

As discussed in this essay, it is clear that the five techniques have several similar features, such
as research procedures and data gathering techniques. There are, however, differences. Each
approach should be employed for a certain type of research. Some have their own distinguishing
kinds, while others do not.

Researchers must define approach to qualitative research in order to show it as a competent

study, to provide it as a distinct kind so that reviewers may correctly evaluate it.
References

❖ Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc
❖ Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Class Test: A Semi-Structured Questionnaire on ‘Dhaka University Students
find Public Sector Career More Attractive than that of Private Sector’

Informed Consent Form

This questionnaire comprises questions whose answers will help determine if students at the
University of Dhaka are more interested in public sector employment opportunities than private
sector employment opportunities, and if so, why. The respondents are University of Dhaka
students.

The research paper will contain only the responses to pertinent questions. Without the
participants' permission, no third party will have access to their personal information. Consent is
not necessary if a researcher is forced to disclose this information to authorities owing to a legal
problem regarding a participant. This, however, is an uncommon event. The interview will be
audiotaped, typed, and translated into English (in the event that any participant wishes to respond
in Bangla).

There are no predicted risks in this study that exceed those encountered in daily life.

This program's participation is totally optional. There will be no repercussions if someone decides not to
participate or refuses to answer certain questions.

The researcher has fully explained the study's objective and advantages to the participant and has
confirmed that the obtained data will be used in the manner described above.

The participant has read and comprehended the informed consent document and has consented to
participate in the study by authorizing the researcher to collect and use his or her data.

_______________________ _______________________
Researcher’s Signature Participant’s Signature
 ❖ Thank you in advance for participating in the study!

Basic Information

▪ Name: ………………………………………………………………………………
▪ Department: ……………………………………………………………………….
▪ Semester/Year: …………………………………………………………………….

▪ Where did you live before coming to university?

o Urban area
o Sub-urban area
o Rural area

Interview Question:

1.What do you think about the appeals of career opportunities in public sector?

2.What do you think about the appeals of career opportunities in private sector?

3.Which one is your personal preference?

o Public sector
o Private sector

4. What are the motivations behind your choice/ preference?

5. Have you ever encountered any kind of pressure (e.g. peer pressure or family pressure) to
pursue a career in the public sector? If yes, please elaborate.

6. Is there any demotivating factor for you to not considering the other option? If yes, please
elaborate.

7.Do you believe that the majority of students at the University of Dhaka are more drawn to
careers in the public sector? If yes, please state your reasons.

o Yes
 o No

9. Which one do you think your acquaintances like your friend, cousins or other family members
will mostly prefer? a career in the public sector or the private sector? please state your reasons.

o Public sector
o Private sector

10. Do you think that the environment of the place (e.g. urban/sub-urban/rural area) in which you
have grown up has influenced your choices?