CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

A. Review of Related Theories

1. Vocabulary
a. Nature of Vocabulary
There are many explanations of vocabulary stated by some experts.
Total number of list words (with rules for combining them) which make up
language, range of words known to a person and containing a list of words
with definition or translation are called vocabulary (Hornby in Putra,
2011). Similarly, Vocabulary can be defined in three ways: multi-word
unit, word families and core meanings (Nunan in Putra, 2011). It can be
said that vocabulary is list of words that containing meaning.
Vocabulary as the knowledge of words and word meanings (Alizadeh,
2016). Vocabulary as a list of words arranged in alphabetical order with
their definitions. A word, in most linguistic analyses, is described as a set
of properties, or features, each word is the combination of its meaning,
register, association, collocation, grammatical behaviour, written form
(spelling), spoken form (pronunciation) and frequency. To master a word
is not only to learn its meaning but also to learn seven other aspects.
Vocabulary is knowledge of words and words meaning. Vocabulary
can divide into two form. First, words come and two forms: oral and print.
Oral vocabulary includes words that we recognize and use in listening and
speaking. That we recognize and use in listening and speaking. Print
vocabulary includes words that we recognize and use in reading and
writing (Lehr and Osborn, 2001). It means that, oral vocabulary can be
recognized while listening and speaking activity. For print vocabulary can
be recognized while writing and reading activity. That we recognize and

8
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use in listening and speaking. Print vocabulary includes words that we

recognize and use in reading and writing. It means that, oral vocabulary
can be recognized while listening and speaking activity. For print
vocabulary can be recognized while writing and reading activity. Second,
words knowledge also come in two forms, receptive and productive.
Receptive vocabulary includes words that we recognize when we hear and
see them. Productive vocabulary includes words that we use when we
speak and write (Lehr and Osborn, 2001). In other word, every word that
we hear directly and see them it called by receptive vocabulary and every
word that we use to speak and write it called by productive vocabulary.
Based on the experts’ opinion above, it can be said that vocabulary is
list of words that is used to communicate in English, knowledge of words
and words meaning.
b. The importance of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is considered to be one of the most important elements
in comprehending lesson materials, especially when learning a foreign
language. The mastery of vocabulary is getting important for students as
vocabulary can support them when they communicate in the target
language. Vocabulary is considered as a very essential component of any
languages. To be able to achieve high language performance, learners need
large and rich vocabulary repertoire to use language effectively.
Vocabulary are the most important things students must learn.
English vocabulary are the basic building blocks of the language (Susanto
and Halim, 2017). It means without vocabulary, we cannot be master in
language. Grammar is important, but vocabulary is much more important.
In the case of language learning, students need to be educated with the
strategies which can help the learners acquiring the meaning of words.
Vocabulary is considered as a very essential component of any languages.
The mastery of vocabulary is getting important for students as vocabulary
 10

can support them when they communicate in the target language. Students
who lack vocabulary knowledge may get to be harder to find the right
words to communicate in the target language.
Mastery of vocabulary is very important for learner as vocabulary
can support them when they communicate in the target language. Leaners
who lack vocabulary knowledge may get to be harder to find the right
words to communicate in the target language. They may show their feeling
with gestures or sounds. English vocabulary skill is considered a necessary
skill that learners studying at the tertiary level need to be equipped with,
some textbooks as their reference are written in English. Students who lack
of vocabulary feel difficult to get the point from the text. Vocabulary is
considered a key to understand what they are reading as points out that
reading requires knowledge and skill (Boonkongsaen and Intaraprasert,
2014, p.1). This knowledge includes recognising the letters and words of
the language, having substantial vocabulary, grammatical and textual
knowledge.
Mastering vocabulary is essential for successful second language use
and plays an important role in the formation of complete spoken and
written texts (Alqahtani, 2015). In English as a second language (ESL) and
English as a foreign language (EFL) learning vocabulary items plays a vital
role in all language skills (i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
English vocabularies are the basic building blocks of the language (Susanto
and Halim, 2017). In the circle of language learning, language learning,
vocabulary is an indispensable part of the four language skills. With no
vocabulary, the four skills of English language learning may not be
successfully achieved. To be master in language, student should master the
vocabulary.
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There are four importance of vocabulary (Green in Putra, 2011).

First, vocabulary has become a powerful knowledge to increase
achievement. To be successful in learning acquisition, the learners should
have much vocabulary. Second, vocabulary plays importance role in the
four English skills. In speaking, students who lack vocabulary may get to
be harder to find the right words to communicate in English. In writing,
students cannot produce writing without have rich vocabulary. In reading,
without vocabulary students cannot understand the text. Also in listening,
vocabulary plays important role to help students understand the speaker’s
utterance. Third, the creation of vocabulary is a tool for increasing learning.
It means that vocabulary has important role to improve the four language
skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Fourth, vocabulary
instruction is a vocal point of learning.
Based on experts’ explanation, it can be conclude that vocabulary is
important aspect in language. Mastery of vocabulary is very important for
learners as vocabulary can support them when they communicate in the
target language. In other words, the learner cannot use a language without
having knowledge of the language. To get the meaning from the text in
foreign language, the people should have known much vocabulary.
Because vocabulary is component available for arranging to make a
sentence has meaning.

2. Students Problem in Learning Vocabulary

Mastering vocabulary is one of the most challenging tasks that any
learner faces while acquiring another language. Acquiring vocabulary is not
easy for students. For acquiring it, they will face some problems learning
vocabulary is one of the major challenges that foreign language learners face
during the process of learning a language (Boonkongsaen and Intaraprasert,
 12

2014, p.1). It is a continual process of find new vocabulary items in

meaningful and comprehensible language contexts. Further, it is a more
complex process than simply memorizing the meanings of words because it
encompasses seeing, hearing and using words in meaningful contexts.
The problematic issue of learning vocabulary is meaning (Harmer, 1991,
p.12). Some words have more than one meaning. We know that book means a
collection of words between covers. But, of course, that book has much
meaning. The point is even there is the same collection of sounds and words
can have many different meaning. The second is words have synonyms. When
we say bad and evil, these words are quite same in meaning. The word used
depends on the context and situation. Sometimes, it is difficult to find the real
synonyms. Sometimes, it is difficult to find the real synonyms
Problems in learning vocabulary in English as Foreign Language such as
a limit of English background knowledge, a fear of being blamed and a feeling
of shyness for making mistakes, or a lack of chance to be in an English
environment, may cause the different strategy use of the learners (Thornbury,
2002). There are six factors that make some words more difficult as follows:
a. Pronunciation
Research shows that words that are difficult to pronounce are more
difficult to learn.
1) Spelling
Sounds-spelling mismatches are likely to be the cause of errors,
either of pronunciation or of spelling, and can contribute to a word‟s
difficulty. While most English spelling is fairly law-abiding, there are also
some glaring irregularities. Words that contain silent letters are particularly
problematic: foreign, listen, headache, climbing, bored, honest, cupboard,
muscle, etc.
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2) Length and complexity

Long words seem to be no more difficult to learn than short ones.
But, as a rule of thumb, high frequency words tend to be short in
English, and therefore the learner is likely to meet them more often, a
factor favoring their “learnability”.
3) Grammar
Also problematic is the grammar associated with the word,
especially if this differs from that of its L1 equivalent. Remembering
whether a verb like enjoy, love, or hope is followed by an infinitive (to
swim) or an –ing form (swimming) can add to its difficulty.
4) Meaning
When two words overlap in meaning, learners are likely to
confuse them. Make and do are a case in point: you make breakfast and
make an appointment, but you do the housework and do a
questionnaire.
5) Range, connotation and idiomaticity
Words that can be used in a wide range of contexts will generally
be perceived as easier than their synonyms with a narrower range.
Thus, put is a very wide-ranging verb, compared to impose, place,
position, etc. Likewise, thin is a safer bet than skinny, slim, slender.
Uncertainty as to the connotations of some words may cause problems
too. Thus, propaganda has negative connotations in English, but its
equivalent may simply mean publicity. On the other hand, eccentric
does not have negative connotations in English, but its nearest
equivalent in other languages may be deviant. Finally, words or
expression that are idiomatic (like make up your mind, keep an eye
on....) will generally be more difficult than words whose meaning is
transparent (decide, watch).
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Table 1
Students’ problem in learning vocabulary (Harmer, 1991, p.
12)
No Problems in Learning Vocabulary
1. Some words have more than one meaning.
2. It is difficult to find the real synonyms
3. Limit of English background knowledge,
4. A fear of being blamed and a feeling of shyness for
making mistakes
5. A lack of chance to be in an English environment

3. Vocabulary Learning Strategies

a. Nature of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
There are many explanations of Vocabulary Learning Strategies as
known as VLS stated by experts. Vocabulary Learning Strategies are the
way that students do to help themselves understands and memorize
vocabulary items (Cameron, 2001, p.92). It means VLS is the action to
assist students more easy in learning vocabulary, especially when students
want to understand vocabulary and also memorizing vocabulary items.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies defines as the mechanism used by the
students to learn vocabulary as well as action or way 1) to find out the
meaning of unknown words, 2) to hold them in long-term memory, 3) to
pull out them at will and 4) to use them in oral and written mode (Schmitt
in Nirattisai, 2014, p.275). It can be said that, VLS are a unit step to assist
students in learning vocabulary, especially to getting know the meaning of
words, retain the words stay long-lasting in memory, recall the words when
we need it and help us easy to use the words while oral and written.
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Vocabulary Learning Strategies are a unit of techniques or learning

habits, which language students known using to find out the meaning of
new words, to retain the knowledge of newly-learned words, to enlarge
students’ knowledge of vocabulary (Intaraprasert , 2004, p. 53). It means
VLS are set of techniques or habit in learning, that students use it in order
to discover the meaning of unknown vocabulary, to pull out the knowledge
of newly-learned vocabulary, and to expand students’ vocabulary
knowledge.
In Thai EFL classroom, Vocabulary Learning Strategies played an
important role to assist the students in learning vocabulary
(Panduangkaew, 2018, p.116). It means VLS serve a very significant role
to help students in acquiring new vocabulary. The strategies is mastered by
students to be successful to learn target language.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies are a set of technique, including step
or mental process that students in learning vocabulary in order to facilitate
their learning with purpose of increasing their vocabulary knowledge.
(Boonkongsaen and Intaraprasert, 2014, p.60). It can be explained that
VLS are unit of method that students’ applied to help them in learning in
order to enhance their knowledge of vocabulary and also process that they
do to facilitate them in learning vocabulary.
Based on experts’ explanation, it can be concluded that Vocabulary
Learning Strategies are the effort by the students and their behaviour in
learning vocabulary. It helps students to acquiring new vocabulary, hold
vocabulary and make the words they learn permanent, and expand
students’ vocabulary knowledge.
b. Taxonomy
One of the most famous taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
is Schmitt taxonomy in (Panduangkaew, 2018, p.116). In this taxonomy,
 16

there are two main types of strategies: discovery strategies and

consolidation strategies.
1) Discovery Strategies
Discovery strategies focus on strategies for the find out meaning
of new vocabulary. In discovery strategies, students determine the
meaning when they meet new words for the first time, and in
reinforcement strategies students reinforce meaning when they meet
words again (Baskin, Iscan, Karagoz and Birol, 2017, p.127).
Discovery strategies include determination strategies and social
strategies.
a) Determination Strategies
Determination strategies are used when students discover the
meaning of a new word without using the experience of another
person. In this strategy, students try to guess and discover the
meaning of the new words with the help of context, structural
knowledge and reference material (Schmitt in Panduangkaew,
2018, p.116). That means students find the meaning of the words
on their own. Students apply to understand the meaning of words
without any help from others, such as: guessing context, guessing
from L1 (first language) cognates, using reference materials such
as dictionaries, analyzing affixes and roots, and using dictionaries
to convey particular words (Panduangkaew, 2018, p.118).
Strategies belonging to this group are commonly used to find the
meaning of new words rather than recalling words that have already
been learned.
b) Social Strategies
Another way of discovering a new meaning is to ask the
unknown words to others by using social strategies. This strategies
involves asking other people who know, the meaning of target
 17

languages (Panduangkaew, 2018, p.116). It means belonging to

this group involve interaction with others in learning new words,
such as asking the teacher or classmates, for meaning of words by
paraphrasing, how to use the new vocabulary in sentence. Social
strategies are not only used to discover new vocabulary, but are also
used to remember words that students have previously been
exposed to.
2) Consolidation Strategies
Consolidation strategies are strategies for consolidating
vocabulary that it has been encounter. Consolidation strategies
encompass social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies
and metacognitive strategies.
a) Social Strategies
Social strategies can be used in both groups, they are
included in both (Baskin, Iscan, Karagoz and Birol, 2017, p.127).
These social strategies involve students participating in group
learning, asking teacher to check their vocabulary or word list for
certainty, and communicating with native speaker to increase their
vocabulary knowledge (Panduangkaew, 2018, p.118). Thus, the
foundations of these strategies are social interaction and
engagement.
b) Memory Strategies
Memory strategies are also commonly known as mnemonic
strategies. This strategies deal between relationship of the new
word to be memorized with preexisting knowledge using the
imagery or grouping for better retrieval of the words
(Panduangkaew, 2018, p.118). They are used to recall vocabulary
that has already been studied. Through these strategies, learners
will relate their prior knowledge with the target words by grouping
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the words according to their form or topic, forming imaginary links,

using physical actions, connecting new words to past experiences,
studying the spelling of the words, and speaking the words out loud
while studying them.
On the other hand, memory strategies entail rehearsal and
encoding (i.e. association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and
contextual encoding) strategies. They are the ones learners
manipulate to aid recall of vocabulary like using images of the word
meaning or form, connecting the word to its synonym or antonym,
paying attention to the word spelling or pronunciation, memorizing
affixes and roots, and learning the word part of speech.
c) Cognitive Strategies
These strategies are similar to memory strategies, but they
do not focus as much on the mental process. Cognitive strategies
emphasize the mechanical means of comprehending known words
(Panduangkaew, 2018, p.118). Thus, cognitive strategies utilize
repetition and specific tools to learn vocabulary. Strategies
belonging to these strategies include repeating words verbally and
on paper, making lists of words, and labelling physical objects with
their meanings in the target language. On the other hand, cognitive
strategies include guessing strategies, flash cards, dictionary uses,
and note taking strategies.
d) Metacognitive Strategies
Metacognitive strategies are strategies in which learners
consciously determine the best way to plan, monitor, thinking, and
evaluate their strategies of studying vocabulary. Learners who use
metacognitive strategies decide on their own which words they will
focus on and examine further. Learners also check their
understanding by doing word tests. Examples of metacognitive
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strategies include using English-language media, skipping or

passing new words, constantly studying new words, students
prepare read the material before studying, reviewing the
information taken during the learning and testing oneself by using
word tests or games (Panduangkaew, 2018, p.119).These strategies
are consist of selective attention and self-initiation strategies.

c. Advantages Vocabulary Learning Strategies

There are some advantages of strategies in learning vocabulary stated
by experts. Strategies enable students to take more control of their
learning (Scharle and Szabo, 2000). In addition, aiding students expand
their vocabulary knowledge (Nirattisai, 2014, p.274). Then, assist and
facilitate students in learning vocabulary (Susanto and Halim, 2017,
p.161). In addition, Acquiring to help enlarge and enrich students’
vocabulary (Nation, 2001). Next, help students develop self-regulation
to gain English proficiency and succeed in learning (Panduangkaew,
2018, p.117).

B. Review of relevant Studies

The researcher found a relevant studies related to this research. First, (Guma,
2018) did a research about Thai Students’ Strategies In Learning English
Vocabulary At English Language Education Department of IAIN Salatiga In
The Academic Year 2018/2019, he found students applied eight strategies like
using dictionary, memorizing vocabulary, writing down the word, listening to
music/news, watching a movie/ video, using English application, repeating and
practicing and etc. The similarity between the previous research and this
research is about Thai students’ strategies. Those two researchers are discussed
about the same phenomenon that is about strategies that applied by Thai
students. The differences between this researches with the previous research is
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this research focused Thai students’ strategies in solving their problem in

learning vocabulary in secondary level but the previous research was in
University level.

The second relevant study is a study from (Samalee, 2018) did a

research about A Case Study on Thai Students Linguistics and Non-Linguistics
Learning Problems and Their Learning Strategies at IAIN Salatiga Indonesia in
the Academic year 2017/2018), he found Thai students having problem in
various aspects about English language problems. They are: 1) Difficult in
cognitive process, 2) Obstacles on understanding the language, 3) Shyness in
asking teacher, 4) Difficult in understand homework’s’ instruction, 5) Problem
in four skills. He also found common strategies that used by Thai Students is
regarding social strategy, which to ask to their friends. The similarity between
the previous research and this research is about Thai students’ strategies. Those
two researchers are discussed about the same phenomenon that is about
strategies that applied by Thai students. The differences between this researches
with the previous research is this research focused Thai students’ strategies in
solving their problem in learning vocabulary in secondary level but the previous
research was Thai Students Linguistics and Non-Linguistics Learning Problems
and Their Learning Strategies in university level.

Third, a study conducted by (Alfiyanaini, 2017). She did a research

about A Study on Students’ Learning Strategies in Speaking Skill of the
Eleventh Grade Students in MAN 1 SURAKARTA Boarding School in the
Academic Year 2015/2016. She found the students applied metacognitive
strategy, cognitive strategy and social-affective strategies. The similarity
between the previous research and this research is about students’ strategies.
Those two researchers are discussed about the same phenomenon that is about
strategies that by students. The differences between this researches with the
previous research is this research focused in Thai students’ strategies in solving
 21

their problem in learning vocabulary in secondary level but previous reseearch

focused in Students’ Learning Strategies in Speaking Skill of the tertiary level.