Gearing Basic（1）

1．Classification of Gears
 1.1 What is a Gear?
 1.2 Shaft Arrangement
 1.3 Gear Types

What is a gear?

gear pair
ISO 1122-1:1998 mechanism consisting of two gears rotatable
around axes of which relative positions are
fixed and one gear turns the other by the
toothed gear action of teeth successively in contact
toothed member designed to transmit motion to, or
receive motion from, another toothed member, by
means of successively engaging teeth

Transmitting motion requires force

The purpose of gearing is to transmit motion and

force; i.e., to transmit power from one shaft to
another.
power = force speed (motion)
 Shaft Arrangements
Parallel Intersecting

Crossed
screw
motion

pitch surface
pitch surface = cone
= cylinder
pure
pure rolling
rolling
pitch surface
= hyperboloid

Classifications of Gears

based on the arrangement

of axes of gear pair

parallel-axis gears: cylindrical gears, which have

cylindrical reference surfaces
intersecting-axis gears: bevel gears, face gears (on-
center), involute conical gears, which have
conical reference surfaces
crossed-axis gears: worm gears, hypoid gears, face
gears (off-center), skew gears (crossed helical
gears), which have various reference surfaces
 Cylindrical Gears
classified into
external gear

(a) external gear (b) internal gear (c) rack

Fig. Classification 1
herringbone
(no center groove)

(a) spur gear (b) helical gear (c) double helical gear
Fig. Classification 2

Bevel Gears

(a) crown gear (b) straight bevel gear

(c) skew bevel gear (d) spiral bevel gear

Fig. Classification
 Worm, Hypoid, & Face Gears
(cylindrical) worm enveloping worm

(single enveloping) double enveloping

wormwheel wormwheel

(a) cylindrical / single enveloping (b) double enveloping

worm gear pair worm gear pair
Fig. Worm gear

cylindrical gear /
cylindrical worm /
conical worm

offset
= center distance
Fig. Hypoid gear Fig. Face gear (on-center)

Gear Arrangements

a pair of gears
whose helix angle
are different

Fig. Gear pair(*)

Fig. Gear train(*)

Fig. Skew gear

(*) Peter Lynwander,, Gear Drive Systems - Design and Application, 1983, Marcel Decker, Inc.
 Gear Arrangements (cont.)

Fig. Planetary gear(*) Fig. Differential gear(*)

Fig. Cycro drive®(*) Fig. Harmonic drive®(*) (*) YouTube

Summary

This chapter has introduced the following:

1. toothed gear and gear pair
2. parallel-, intersecting, and crossed-
axes
3. cylindrical and bevel gears
4. worm, hypoid, and face gears
5. various gear arrangements
 Gearing Basic（2）

2．Kinematics of Gears
 2.1 Mechanism
 2.2 Instantaneous Center
 2.3 Kennedy s Theorem
 2.4 Camus s Theorem
 2.5 Interchangeability
 2.6 Involute Curve

Mechanisms

Systems for converting and transmitting motions and

forces / torques; i.e., powers

Examples of 4-link mechanism

✴ link: moving rigid bodies which form a mechanism
✴ pair: joints connecting two continuous links

revolute pair lever slider

crank

crank
sliding
pair

Fig. Crank-lever mechanism Fig. Crank-slider mechanism

 Plane Kinematics of Rigid Body

Fig. Relative motion to a fix coordinate system(*)

(*) J.L. Meriam, et. al., Engineering Mechanics DYNAMICS, 8th ed., 2016, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Plane Kinematics of Rigid Body

every plane motion is a

combination of a relative linear velocity vA/B is
translation and rotation always perpendicular to the line AB

Fig. Relative motion to a fix coordinate system(*)

Fig. Interpretation of relative velocity(*)

(*) J.L. Meriam, et. al., Engineering Mechanics DYNAMICS, 8th ed., 2016, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Plane Kinematics of Rigid Body

every plane motion is a

combination of a relative linear velocity vA/B is
translation and rotation always perpendicular to the line AB

Fig. Relative motion to a fix coordinate system(*) if vA = vB; i.e., translation, the

instantaneous center is at infinity

Fig. Interpretation of relative velocity(*)

the intersection of two

perpendiculars becomes
the center of pure rotation
at the instant considered
Fig. Instantaneous center(*)
(*) J.L. Meriam, et. al., Engineering Mechanics DYNAMICS, 8th ed., 2016, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Instantaneous Center

✴ Instantaneous center is a point on / off a member

which another member rotates around
instantaneously, in some cases permanently.
✴ At the instantaneous center, two members have an
equal velocity in magnitude and direction.
✴ Instantaneous center lies on the normal to velocity
vectors at any point.
✴ When a member executes translation relative to
another member, the instantaneous center between
them is at infinity.
✴ Instantaneous center is determined between two
members, so that a mechanism which consists of N
members has      instantaneous
N ( N −1) 2 centers.
 Kennedy s Theorem

The three instantaneous centers shared by three

rigid bodies in relative motion to one another all lie
on the same straight line.

If instantaneous centers are not on a straight

B
A line, the relative velocity vba of body B to A at
v vbc = 0 point Obc cannot be equal to the relative
Oab = Oba ca velocity vca of body C to A; i.e., the relative
velocity vbc of body B to C at point Obc is not
vba zero, because they must have different
Oac = Oca Obc = Ocb direction.
Obc (Ocb) never becomes
instantaneous center!

C The three instantaneous centers

Fig. ICs not on a straight line must lie on the same straight line.

Friction-Roller Drive Example

roller A and roller B turn

on each other at point Oab
A without any sliding
Oa

ωa same velocity v → relative velocity 0

v
Oab
ωb
point Oab is instantaneous center

Ob points Oa and Ob are

fixed centers
B ω a ObOab
= = const.
ωb OaOab
three centers are on
Fig. Friction-roller drive the same straight line
 Requirements of Tooth Profiles

Smoothly continuous contact between two tooth profiles

requires their velocity components in the contact normal
at any contact point are equal.

Nevertheless, the profiles come

off / move into each other in the
next instance.

Conjugate action

keeping a constant angular

velocity ratio (uniform rotary
motion)
Camus s Theorem

Camus sTheorem

To transmit uniform rotary motion from one shaft to

another by means of gear teeth, the normals to the profiles
of these teeth at all points of contact must pass through a
fixed point in the common center line of the two shaft.(*)

OI Instantaneous center, I ー II
Tooth profile I
✴ relative velocity → on L
L
C
vI
✴ Kennedy s theorem → on OIOII
vII vI-II RI

α
P
Tooth profile II Friction drive of
I.C. is point P
✴ pitch point
R II
rollers RI & RII
✴ line of action OII
✴ pitch circle
pressure angle
Conjugate action → point P is fixed
✴

Fig. Camus s theorem (*)E. Buckingham, Analytical Mechanics of Gears, 1963, Dover Publications, Inc.
 Interchangeable Profile System

Phantom rack
Two profiles conjugate to the rack
profile can be defined on the both
One of the most convenient sides. They are also conjugate to
each other.
methods for determining
conjugate profile pairs

Phantom
Generally, no interchangeability
rack
Pitch circle of Two tooth profiles of any two
left profile gears which have any number of
How? teeth are conjugate to each other.
Pitch point
Pitch line
✴ rack profile symmetrical in
Pitch circle of
right profile relation to the pitch point
Fig. Phantom rack ✴ pitch circles whose diameters are
proportional to number of teeth
The simplest profile is a line

What Profile?
line of action is a fixed line
→ constant pressure angle tilt angle & ★ are equal to α, and
are also called pressure angle
Pla
act ne of Linear profile
ion The pitch circle rolls on the pitch
of basic rack
α C1 Conjugate line without any slippage, so that
A1 A2 tooth profile
C2 B2
B1 Pitch line A1 A2 = !B1 B2
D2 I
D1 ★ Pitch circle
⎪⎧⎪ C C = A A cosα
✴ line of action is tangent rb ⎪ 1 2 1 2
⎨
to the base circle ⎪⎪ ! !
⎪⎪⎩ D1 D2 = B1 B2 cosα (⇐ Rb = Rcosα)
✴ profiles contact on the base circle
tangent

Fig. Conjugate profile of linear rack

C1C2 = !
D1 D2 !
CI = DI
the locus traced by a point on a taut string as it
unwinds from a circle → involute curve of the circle
 Involute Curve

radius of
curvature, ρ parametric expression

sin (inv α) ⎫⎪⎪

x = rb ⎪
cosα ⎪⎪
⎬
cos(inv α)⎪⎪
y = rb ⎪
parameter α also cosα ⎪⎪⎭
called pressure
angle
involute function
Fig. Involute curve
inv α = tanα−α
Involute gears
✴ flexible about center distance
gears whose tooth ✴ generation tooth cutting with
profile is an involute
straight edge tool → hobbing
curve ← gears specified
✴ easy inspection principle
in industrial standards
✴ ・・・

Summary

This chapter has introduced the following:

1. Kennedy s theorem
2. Camus s theorem
3. interchangeable profile system
4. involute curve
 Gearing Basic（3）

3．Gear Tooth Geometry

 3.1 Basic Rack
 3.2 Spur-Gear Teeth
 3.3 Helical-Gear Teeth
 3.4 ISO 21771
 3.5 Undercut & Pointed Tooth

Standard Basic Rack

a basis for defining tooth Module

dimensions of interchangeable
✴ a size which gives pitch
profile system in standards
✴ a size which gives tooth
dimensions
✴ a size which gives gear
dimensions
similar to nominal diameter
of thread screws (see ISO 54)

Table Standard basic rack proportion(*)

zm
d=

all lengths are specified

in terms of module, m

Fig. Standard basic rack tooth profile(*)

(*) ISO 53:1998, Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering ̶ Standard basic rack tooth profile
 Standard Basic Rack

a basis for defining tooth Module

dimensions of interchangeable
✴ a size which gives pitch
profile system in standards
✴ a size which gives tooth
dimensions
✴ a size which gives gear
dimensions
similar to nominal diameter
of thread screws (see ISO 54)

Table Standard basic rack proportion(*)

from ISO 54
zm

1, 1.125, 1.25, 1.375, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5, 2.75,

d=

all lengths 3,
are4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, (6.5,) 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16,
specified
in terms of18,
module,
20, 22,
m 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50
  bold: series I  regular: series II  (): should be avoided

Fig. Standard basic rack tooth profile(*)

(*) ISO 53:1998, Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering ̶ Standard basic rack tooth profile

Spur Gears

thread screws have definite dimensions,

xmtanα
but gears can be adjusted for space
p=ϖm counterpart of and load capacity by a profile shift
ϖm/2 ϖm/2 basic rack
⎫
generating pitch ⎪ the essence of
line of rack ⎪⎪ gear geometry
xm

datum line
s
⎪⎪
⎬ roll without sliding
generating pitch cicle ⎪⎪⎪
= reference circle ⎪⎪
2ψ ⎭
2ηb

2ψb
d
db πm
s= + 2xm tanα
2

Fig. Profile shift

ψ=s d ⎫⎪
⎪⎪ ⎫⎪
d = zm, db = d cosα ⎪ sb = db ψb ⎪⎪
ψb = ψ + inv α ⎬ ⎬
d a = d + 2m(1+ x ), d f = d a − 2hP ⎪⎪ eb = db ηb ⎪⎪
ηb = π z − ψb ⎪⎪ ⎪⎭
⎪⎭
 Helical Gears

generating motion
basic rack profile The normal plane is
parameters on normal defined to a basic rack
plane have subscript n
normal plane not to generated gears
ϖm n
pn=
pt = ϖmt rack profile for
involute generation
parameters on axial
αn plane have subscript t transverse plane

αt helix angle
All equations for spur gears
β become valid for helical gears
by the subscript t being
Fig. Basic rack for helical gears (for left-hand teeth) assigned.

The xt is not defined, but only the x (= xn) is defined,

i.e., xt mt = x(n) mn. πmt
πmt st = + 2xt mt tanαt
st = + 2x mn tanαt 2
2

Helical Gears (cont.)

normal plane tooth twisted linearly

ϖm n along the gear axis
pn=
pt = ϖmt

αn transverse plane involute helicoid

αt
β An involute helicoid intersects
on a helix with every cylinder
Fig. Basic rack for helical gears (for left-hand teeth) which has the same axis.
The helices have an identical
⎛π ⎞ lead pz.
st = mt ⎜⎜ + 2x tanαn ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
m ⎫
⎪⎪
mt = n ⎪⎪
cos β ⎬ tan βb = tan β cosαt pz = πd tan β = πdb tan βb
⎪
tanαn = tanαt cos β ⎪⎪⎪
⎭ base helix angle
 Helical Gears (cont.)

plane of action
db
= cosα yt
dy
normal plane
pz = πd y tan β y = πdb tan βb
αn
1 transverse plane tan βb = tan β y cosα yt
αt
sinαt

βb

1 rack tooth flank

sinαn

sinαn
cos βb =
sinαt

ISO 21771（gear dimensions）

for external gears
π + 4x tanαn π + 4x tanαn
ψ= ψb = + inv αt
2z 2z
π − 4x tanαn π − 4x tanαn
η= ηb = − inv αt
2z 2z

arbitrary
diameter Fig. Diameter, angular pitch, transverse pitches
on helical cylindrical gear(*)

τ = 2π z p yt = τ d y 2

cosα yt = db d y tan βb = tan β y cosα yt

pbt = pt cosαt = pet
Fig. Tooth thickness and space width
(external and internal gear teeth)(*)
(*) ISO 21772:2007, Gears ̶ Cylindrical involute gears and gear pairs ̶ Concepts and geometry
 Undercut & Pointed Tooth
lin basic rack
eo
f ac
tio If the relationship,
n

xmn
z mn sin 2 αt 2
z sin αt
datum line > (1− x ) mn , i.e. > (1− x ),
2 cos β 2 cos β
generating

mn
pitch line I would not exist, then undercut could
occur. Therefore,
base circle cos β 2
z sin αt
reference circle z > 2(1− x ) , or x >1− .
d= 2
sin αt 2 cos β
zm αt
n /
cos minimum number profile shift
β of teeth lower limit

O pointed

Fig. Undercut criterion

The tooth thickness half angle at tip circle, base circle

ψb, must be positive; i.e.,
π + 4x tanαn profile shift undercut
> (inv αa − inv αt ).
2z upper limit
Fig. Undercut & pointed tooth
Nevertheless, the tooth will be pointed.

Summary

This chapter has introduced the

geometries of spur and helical gears. The
following should be grasped.
1. basic rack: module and helix angle
2. tooth geometry: tooth thickness and
space width
3. gear geometry: diameters and
pitches
4. undercut & pointed tooth
 Gearing Basic（4）

4．Gearing Geometry
 4.1 Center Distance & Backlash
 4.2 Meshing Conditions
 4.3 Contact Ratio
 4.4 Tooth-Frank Sliding

Center Distance & Backlash

O1
The backlash (clearance between non-operating
/2 flanks) jbt in the figure is essential for gear pairs to
prevent adverse effects due to manufacturing
d b1
2invαwt
2ηb1 deviations, misalignment, elastic deformations of
teeth, gears, shafts, bearings, housing ….
p bt αw
I1 The larger center distance is, the larger backlash is
given. What relation?
A1 B1 C1
j bt
D1

P
on the other tangent
D2 j bt tooth flanks contact on
the internal common pbt + jbt = D1 P + D2 P = A1C1 + A2C2
C2 B2 A2 tangent to base circles
aw

= A1 B1 + B1C1 + A2 B2 + B2C2
I2 2ηb2
= db1 (inv αwt + ηb1 ) + db2 (inv αwt + ηb2 )
2invαwt
jbt j sinαn
= bn ← cos βb =
sinαt sinαn sinαt
/2

αw
b2
d

inv αwt − inv αt 2 ⎪⎧⎪ jbn ⎪⎫⎪

= ⎨( x1 + x2 ) + ⎬
tanαn z1 + z2 ⎪⎪⎩ 2mn sinαn ⎪⎪⎭

( z1 + z2 ) mn cosαt We can determine aw from (x1+x2)

aw =
O2 2cos β cosαwt & jbt, or jbt from (x1+x2) & aw, or
Fig. Meshing gear pair (x1+x2) from aw & jbt.
 ISO 21771（meshing conditions）
The number of tooth pairs in simultaneous contact is two on
the segments AB and DE, and one on the segment BD.
O2

1. active flank gear 1 1. tangent to pitch circles

2. active flank gear 2 2. driving pinion rotation
3. line of action
4. tangent to pitch circles
5. driving pinion rotation
(a) external gear pair (b) internal gear pair
Fig. Active working flanks in a transverse section (*)

(*) ISO 21772:2007, Gears ̶ Cylindrical involute gears and gear pairs ̶ Concepts and geometry

Contact Ratio

The average number of tooth pairs in simultaneous contact

simultaneously
contacting lines
(2 pbt −g α )×1+ (gα − pbt )×2 = g α
εα = gα
pbt (= pet ) pbt p bt
b

1
=2
( 2
d a1 − db12 + d a2
2 2
− db2 − asinαwt) βb
O1
πmt cosαt rb1
p bx

base circle

ra1
gα b tan βb
g α + btan βb
εγ = tip circle
pbt ra2 base circle
ne

gα b rb2
t li

plane of = + = εα + εβ
tac

action pbt pbx

con

βb
α wt
overlap ratio
bsin β
εβ =
The higher contact ratio yields smooth meshing. πmn
The larger tooth depth results in higher contact
O2

ratio. Practically, wide contact pattern is required. Fig. contact lines of helical gear pair
 Sliding Velocity

ω1 ρ w2 db2
= = =u dy2
ω2 ρ w1 db1 dy1
db1
db2 ρw1
ρy1 1
vt = d w1 ω1
O2 2 O1 v g = vt1 − vt 2 for ζ1 ⎫⎪⎪
⎪⎬
1
ω2 = d w2 ω2 ω1 v g = vt 2 − vt1 for ζ 2 ⎪⎪
constant vn 2 ⎭⎪

v2
specific sliding ζ

y
gα
1
vn = dbi ωi (i = 1,2) vt2
2
vt1
v1 ρw2 vg 1 ρy2 ⎪⎫⎪
vt i = vn tanα yt i = ρ y i ωi (i = 1,2) ρy2 ζ1 = = 1− ⎪⎪
vg vt1 u ρ y1 ⎪⎪
⎪⎬
depend on dy vg ρ y1 ⎪⎪
ζ2 = = 1−u ⎪⎪
vt 2 ρy2 ⎪⎪
⎪⎭
Fig. sliding velocity between tooth flanks

sliding factor Kg (ratio of sliding speed, vg, to the velocity, vt, of the pitch circles)
v v −v ω ω ⎛ 1⎞ g g
K g = g = t1 t 2 = (ρ y1 −ρ y 2 u) 1 = (ρ y1u −ρ y 2 ) 2 = ⎜⎜1+ ⎟⎟⎟ αy = (u +1) αy
vt vt vt vt ⎜⎝ u ⎟⎠ d w1 2 d w2 2

Nomenclatures (ex. from ISO 21771)

mn normal module pen normal pitch on the path of contact

mt transverse module pet transverse pitch on the path of contact
αn normal pressure angle τ angular pitch
αt transverse pressure angle sn normal tooth thickness on the reference circle
β helix angle st transverse tooth thickness on the reference circle
βb base helix angle sbn normal tooth thickness on the base circle
z number of teeth sbt transverse tooth thickness on the base circle
x profile shift coefficient en normal space width on the reference circle
b facewidth et transverse space width on the reference circle
d reference diameter ebn normal space width on the base circle
db base diameter ebt transverse space width on the base circle
da tip diameter ψ tooth thickness half angle at the reference circle
df root diameter ψb base tooth thickness half angle
dFa tip form diameter η space width half angle at the reference circle
dFf root form diameter ηb base space width half angle
dNa active tip diameter aw center distance
dNf active root diameter (SAP diameter) jbn contact backlash
dV V-circle diameter jbt transverse backlash on the base cylinder
dw working pitch diameter !α length of path of contact
h tooth depth εα transverse contact ratio
ha addendum εβ overlap ratio
hf deddendum εγ total contact ratio
hw working depth of teeth in a gear pair vg sliding speen
p pitch on the reference cylinder Kg sliding factor
pbn normal pitch on the base cylinder ζ specific sliding
pbt transverse pitch on the base cylinder
 Summary

This chapter has introduced the gearing

geometries. The following should be
grasped.
1. center distance and backlash
2. dimensions related to gear pair
3. contact ratio and specific sliding