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LEC - Fonetica Si Fonologie. Lexicologie - Gabriela Dima
LEC - Fonetica Si Fonologie. Lexicologie - Gabriela Dima
Facultatea de Litere
Specializarea:
Limba și literatura română – Limba și literatura engleză
Anul I, Semestrul 1
,,Dunarea de Jos’’ University of Galati
Faculty of Letters
Galaţi
2017
Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 5
Learning Unit no. 1
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS ..................................................................... 7
1.1. The Speech Mechanism. The Vocal Organs ......................................................... 7
1.1.1. Articulation and Articulators ........................................................................... 9
1.2. Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds ..................................................... 9
1.2.1. Contoids / Consonant - Type Sounds ........................................................... 10
1.2.2. Vocoids / Vowel-Type Sounds....................................................................... 12
Learning Unit no. 2
ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS ................................................ 15
2.1. Acoustic Phonetics ............................................................................................... 15
2.1.1. Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds ............................................... 15
2.1.2. Acoustic Classification of Speech Sounds .................................................. 16
2.2. Auditory Phonetics ............................................................................................... 17
Learning Unit no. 3
THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM ............................................... 19
3.1. The Phoneme Theory............................................................................................ 19
3.1.1. Diachronic Apercu to the Theory of Phoneme............................................. 19
3.1.1.1. The Prague Phonological School ................................................................. 19
3.1.1.2. The London Phonological School .................................................................. 20
3.1.1.3. The American Phonological School ............................................................ 20
3.1.2. Present-Day Approach to the Theory of Phoneme ...................................... 20
3.2. Total Inventory of English Phonemes ................................................................. 22
3.2.1. Vowel Phonemes ............................................................................................ 23
3.2.2. Diphthongs...................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3. Consonant Phonemes .................................................................................... 25
3.2.4. Semi-Vowels /j,w/............................................................................................ 28
Learning Unit no. 4
SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH .......................................................... 29
4.1. Phoneme Changes in Connected Speech .......................................................... 30
4.1.1. Assimilation .................................................................................................... 30
4.1.2. Elision.............................................................................................................. 30
4.2. Stress / Accent. The Nature of Stress / Accent .................................................. 31
4.2.1. Stress Position ............................................................................................... 32
4.2.2. Stress in Connected Speech ......................................................................... 32
4.3. The Syllable. Syllable Formation ......................................................................... 33
Learning Unit no. 5
PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY ................................................. 35
INTRODUCTION
word may differ from another in one sound only, e.g. big [ b i g]; bag [b æ g]; bog [ b כg ].
- The three main forms of the so-called ‘irregular’ verbs in English, which are the
result of a long historical development of the English language, are also expressed in
phonetic form and differ from one another because of vowel alternations in the root:
e.g. rise - rose - risen
[ai] [ou] [i]
swim -swam- swum
[i] [æ] [Λ]
Remark:
One should avoid considering sounds in isolation without taking into account the
linguistic function they perform in view of their formal patterning and arrangement.
b) On the other hand, phonetics is closely connected with a number of other
sciences, such as physics (or rather acoustics), biology, physiology and others which help
one understand the intricate process of producing speech sounds according to universal
laws.
function of sounds, and to provide new terms such as vocoid - for the
vowel - type sounds and contoid for the consonant-type ones, for their
articulatory classification. The terms vocoid and contoid were suggested
by the American linguist Pike 1963.
Certain authors (Gimson 1970, Chiţoran 1978, O'Connor 1991)
underline the fact that the terms contoid and vocoid are used to refer
mainly to the phonetic division of sound types, whereas the terms vowel
and consonant are used to denote linguistic categories. With reference to
a strict phonetic description, contoids are better characterized in terms of
articulation since they involve easily observable movements and contact
or strictures between various organs of speech; vocoids are better
described in terms of auditory relationships which do not imply such
contacts or strictures.
The assignment of the sounds of English to one of these phonetic
classes is performed according to certain criteria observing that their
linguistic categorization does not always correspond to the phonetic one.
Palatal j
Velar k g ŋ
Glottal h
d) Duration
~ long or short, the length of the sounds depends considerably on
the actual position a given vocoid /vowel-type occupies in a word or
utterance, length which is always associated with muscular tension.
the meaning of what is said, while a phonologist should take into account
only those sound features which have a definite function in a language.
With reference to the theory of phonological oppositions, Trubetzkoy
further develops his system of oppositions by giving special prominence to
the most essential members:
a) the phoneme, which he defines as a unity of the phonological
relevant features of a sound.
b) the speech sound, which he defines as a unity of all the features,
both relevant and irrelevant of a sound representing the phoneme in
connected speech.
The linguist also emphasizes the fact that the inventory of the
phonemes of a language is practically a correlation of its system of
phonological oppositions.
Some oppositions may be neutralized, the phoneme in the position of
neutralization is the arch-phoneme, defined as a unity of relevant features
common to two phonemes.
3.2.2. Diphthongs
b) Fricatives: /f, v; θ, ð; s, z; ſ, ʒ, h/
For all these sounds, the velum closes off the nasal cavity, and the
airstream through the larynx and the mouth is narrowed at some point but
not stopped. The "audible friction" characteristic of the group (hence the
term "fricative") is set up by this narrowing of the airstream, which takes
place at five different points:
- for /f/ and /v/ = labiodental fricatives, the narrowing is between the
lower lip and the upper teeth ,which are pressed together so that the air
has to force its way between them; /f/ is unvoiced and fortis, /v/ is voiced
and lenis .
- for /θ/ and / ð,/ = dental fricatives, the tip and the front of the tongue
lightly touch the inner surfaces of the upper teeth; the escaping air is
forced between the tongue and the teeth; /θ/ is unvoiced and fortis, / ð,/ is
voiced and lenis.
- for /s/ and /z/ = alveolar fricatives, the contact is between the
tongue and the alveolar ridge; the tongue is hollowed to form a groove
down the middle, in which air friction takes place; /s/ is unvoiced and fortis,
/z/ is voiced and lenis.
- / ſ / and /ʒ/ = palato-alveolar fricatives, are formed in rather the
same way as are /s/ and /z/, but the contact between the tongue and the
roof of the mouth extends farther back, and friction is set up over a wider
area; / ſ / is unvoiced and fortis; /ʒ/ is voiced and lenis.
- for /h/ = glottal fricative there may be a slight narrowing of the
passage between the vocal cords, though the narrowing is as a rule too
slight to result in voice. Friction is set up throughout the vocal tract.
Spelling.
/f/: fast, affair, leaf, Philip
/v/: van, ever, leave, nephew
/θ/: thin, thigh, ether, breath
/ ð /: then, thy, leather, breathe
/s/: sit, cease, escape, loss
/z!: zeal, rose, roses, buzz
c) Affricates / t∫,dʒ /
For both sounds / t∫, dʒ /, the velum blocks off the nasal cavity and
the tongue is raised to make a make closure at about the same position
as it makes the narrowing for / ∫/and /ʒ/.The release is slower than it
would be for a plosive, resulting in a fricative sound : an affricate may be
regarded as a combination of a plosive and a fricative.
Spelling:
- dark [l ], for which the back of the tongue somewhat raised towards
the soft palate and found before consonants, as in help, salt, cold or at the
ends of words, as in feel, fill, little.
f) Post-alveolar frictionless continuant I r /
The phoneme / r /, as in rat, very, has a number of allophones:
frictionless continuant, fricative, alveolar tap, rolled.
For a detailed account of allophones of / r / consult Gimson (1970).
The sounds of English, in fact of any language, are not usually uttered
in isolation, independently of each other. Speech thus becomes a stream
of continuous activity: the phoneme, so to speak, is only a recurring
pattern in the stream. For any phoneme, of course, there will be a
recurrent set of movements of the speech organs, not identical for all
occasions, but broadly similar. Thus, for /f/ sounds, we shall have certain
common features: the glottis wide open, the vocal cords not vibrating; the
velum raised to close off the nasal cavity, a narrow passage between the
lower lip and the upper teeth, and the air escaping with audible friction.
This combination, however, is an episode of movement rather than a
stationary "pose". It may be helpful to regard the pose or position as a kind
of "target" for the actual movements of speech: a target which may or may
not be "hit". In articulating, for instance "fish", the vocal organs need not
wait to hold the /f/ position before moving on to /i/ and in a detailed
analysis of their movements we might distinguish the three stages in the
production of any given sound:
a) an initial stage, the onset or the on-glide, during which the organs
involved in the production of the given sound take up the appropriate
position for the pronunciation of the respective sound, that is the vocal
organs are moving up to the target position.
b) a medial stage, the retention or hold during which the speech
organs are kept for a short time in the adequate position for the sound
production, that is the vocal organs are on the target.
c) a final stage, the release stage during which the speech organs
move away to a neutral position, that is the organs are moving towards
the target of the following sound.
When articulating sounds in sequences, the three phases (onset,
hold, release) are not necessarily preserved; on the contrary, they
frequently merge into one another, the basic qualities of the respective
sounds undergoing important modifications. For example, the /k/ phoneme
in the English word actor has only the first and second phase, while the
following /t/ phoneme has only the second and the third phase. Thus, the
articulation of this combination of two plosives has a closure, a double long
pause and an explosion: the third phase of /k/ and the first phase of /t/
coalesce.
4.1.2. Elision
a) Elision of Vowels
The elision of vowels is restricted to unaccented syllables,
particularly to / ə/ and /i/ situated in this position. Thus, /ə / may be
dropped in the following cases:
- when it is preceded by a consonant and followed by a liquid /l/ or
/r/: e.g. secretary / ′sekrətri/; novelist /′novəlist/; police /′plis/, etc.
- in front of other sounds, too, if the preceding one is a continuant
consonant: e.g. phonetically /fə′netikəli/; fashionably / ′fæſnəbli/.
b) Elision of Consonants
The elision of consonants is restricted to certain sounds situated in
consonant clusters or it has been established as such:
- /t/ and /d/ are usually dropped when they are medial in a three
consonant cluster: handbag, postman, dustbin, etc.
- /θ/, /ð /, /f/ may also be lost when occurring in clusters difficult to
pronounce: twelfths, clothes, etc.
- /l/ is lost in walk, talk, half, etc.
- final /b/ and /n/ when preceded by /m/, as in comb, tomb, autumn,
etc.
- /k/ and /g/ are lost in initial position and preceded by /n/: knee,
gnaw, knock, etc.
The term stress is used to refer to the degree of force with which a
sound or syllable is uttered. A strong force of utterance means energetic
action of all the articulating organs; it involves a strong "push" from the
diaphragm and consequently strong force of exhalation, thus giving the
objective impression of loudness. Hence, the "expiratory or ynamic stress
theory".
According to this theory, it is supposed that the strongest syllable in a
word, i.e. the stressed syllable, is made more prominent than the others by
means of a stronger current of air, by a stronger expiration, and also by a
more energetic articulation of the syllable. The influence of more energetic
expiration upon stress is of little importance in comparison with the role of
the dynamic principle.
Stressed syllables usually contain a vowel, and vowels do not require
a stronger current of air in order to be intensified. What they need is an
intensification of musical tone, which is achieved by more energetic
articulation: the vocal cords, the walls of the resonance chambers, and all
the speech organs become tenser. The same is observed when the
articulation of voiced consonants is intensified.
To conclude, we quote the linguist O'Connor (1994), who specifies
that stress is the name given to the stronger muscular effort, both
respiratory and articulatory, which we can feel in connection with some
syllables as opposed to others. For instance, in English, August [′`כ:gəst]
has more effort on the first than the second syllable: but august [כ: ′gΛst]
has the greater effort on the second syllable.Thus stress is a significant
factor since it is an essential part of word-shape, words easily becoming
unrecognizable if stress is wrongly placed.
b) when the words are accented on their second syllable they are
verbs: export [eks′po:t]; incense (v) [in′sens]
In English polysyllabic words accent can fall on:
- the initial syllable: attitude [ ′ætitju:d]; carpet [′ka:pit]
- any of the middle syllable: important [im′po:tənt] ; satisfactory
[sætis′fæktəri]
- the final syllable: above; eighteen [ei′ ti:n]
Disyllabic words may fall into the following four accentual patterns:
1 → ● ♪ idea, unknown, cashier
2 → • ♪ alone, behind, reform
3 → ♪ ○ profile, female, invoice
4 → ♪ • under, valley, rhythm
Generally, two-syllable words of Germanic origin carry the accent on
the initial syllable, whereas those of non-Germanic origin carry the accent
on the last syllable (Crystal, 1995).
Three syllable words have got an unpredictable accent:
1. ● • ♪: magazine, understand [,mægə′zi:n]
2. ♪ • • : quantity [′ kwontiti]
3. ♪ • ○ : appetite [′ æpitait]
4. • ♪ • : important [im′po:tənt]
Four-syllable words
1. • ♪ • • remarkable [ri′ma:kəbl]
Derivatives
There is a possible correlation between accentuation and affixation in
the sense that affixes can or cannot influence the stress pattern, e.g.
béautiful → beautifully; addréss → addre′ssee; emplóy → emplo′yee
All English prefixed words with the exception of Germanic prefixes
such as a-, be- for-, in words like around, ajar, begin, forget must have
either primary stress or some type of secondary accentuation on the
prefix, while Romanian prefixes remain unstressed (Chitoran, Parlog,
Augerot, 1985).
The rules of orthography are a set of rules which govern the spelling
of words. The spelling of concrete words is based upon one or another of
the graphical rules that exist in a language. In all European languages,
spelling systems are based upon the use of the alphabet. In all languages,
especially if the orthography (spelling) of a language dates back for many
centuries the relation between sounds and letters is sometimes very
complicated.
The same can be said about English orthography which is chiefly
based on the historical principle, the majority of words preserving their Old
English or Middle English spelling, sometimes without modifications.
The phonetic principle (one letter for one sound) is not expected to
play any role at all in the English spelling. No letter is used to represent
one sound only; most letters are used to represent several sounds each,
and many combinations of letters are sometimes used to denote the same
sounds.
The morphological principle can be traced in the following cases:
- the morpheme of the past tense is spelt (e) d, although its
pronunciation varies: [t], [d], [id] .
- the morpheme indicating the plural of nouns is spelt e (s), but it is
pronounced [s], [z], [iz], in accordance with the final sound of the singular.
- the morpheme characterizing the 3 rd person singular, Present
Simple Tense, has the same spelling and pronunciation as the plural
morpheme under the same circumstances;
- the pronunciation of the definite article is different [ðə] before
consonants; [ði] before vowels, but the spelling is the same in both cases.
- the indefinite article is always spelt a(n), although it is pronounced
[ei], in different cases.
- besides, there are other cases in which the spelling does not
change, as in: -er, -st, morphemes of the comparative and the superlative
degrees of adjectives, etc.
EXERCISES
Part 1. Vowels
The Vowel / i /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / i /, as in pit:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. This is it.
2. Miss Mills thinks it’s big.
3. Which children did it?
4. Is it his?
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / e /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Let’s get Ed a pen.
2. Many men said yes.
3. When did Susan send the letter?
4. The weather’s better in December.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / æ /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Jack can’t understand Dan.
2. That man ran after the cat.
3. Has Dad had a nap?
4. Buy that hat!
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Vowels / i, e, æ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / i, e, æ /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / o /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. The clock stopped.
2. It’s not a lot.
3. Tom got a job.
4. October is not hot.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / Λ /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. The sun comes up at seven.
2. Mother loves the summer months.
3. Does Sunday come before Monday?
4. Hasn’t Gus won enough money?
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / ə /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Call the waiter here!
2. Mother is the second among the sisters.
3. I met her a year ago.
4. The bird flew away.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Vowels / o, Λ, ə, /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / o, Λ, ə /
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / √ /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Would this be a good book?
2. He shouldn’t have stood on that foot.
3. She took the book and put it away.
4. Look at that pretty woman.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Do you have a loose tooth?
2. Whose group do you belong to?
3. I’m moving to another room this afternoon.
4. Ruth had some fruit juice in her room.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. I thought I saw Paul.
2. We ought to walk and talk together.
3. Has Mr. Hall taught law?
4. They brought all the corn.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Vowels / √, u:,כ: /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds /√, u:,כ: /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / i: /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. He sees me three evenings a week.
2. These people seem to believe me.
3. Keep these letters for me, please.
4. She needed complete rest, you see.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / α: /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Park the car in the back yard.
2. Karl and Charles are pretty far apart.
3. She dances in a bar.
4. All the yards are barred.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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The Vowel / З: /
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Were the little girls with her, sir?
2. Learn the first verbs well.
3. Don’t burn the skirt.
4. Nervous persons are worst.
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / i: α: З: /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Part 2. Diphthongs
The Glide / ai /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. I’d like to buy a nylon tie.
2. My child likes ice cream.
3. Why arrive at five to nine.
4. I’ll try to find time for Friday.
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The Glide / ei /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.
2. Eight days in April and eight in May.
3. They say it is O.K.
4. Maybe it’s late.
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The Glide / oi /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Roy’s enjoying his toys.
2. The boys are rather noisy.
3. Avoid annoying the boy.
4. This oil is not poison.
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a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / ai, ei, oi/:
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The Glide / aυ /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. I doubt that he’s downtown.
2. How much is the pound?
3. I’m proud of my house.
4. He wrote about one hour.
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The Glide / əυ /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Rose and Joan don’t know yet.
2. Oh, did Joe go home?
3. Both those cars are pretty old.
4. A moment later he was at the show.
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a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / aυ, əυ/:
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The Glide / iə /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Shakespeare’s King Lear showed here last year.
2. Keep the ear-phones nearer, dear.
3. Never fear, I’m here.
4. Dear, don’t interfere!
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The Glide / εə /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Where are the stairs?
2. Careful with the hare!
3. Don’t tear it on that chair.
4. Mary and Clare paid the fare.
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The Glide / υə /:
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Tourists should be sure to drink pure water.
2. Be sure to check your life insurance.
3. She helps the poor.
4. There were fewer Boers.
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a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds: / iə/, / εə /, / υə/:
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Part 3. Consonants
Plosives: / p, b /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /p/ and /b/:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Plosives: / t, d /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /t / and /d /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Plosives: / k, g /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /k/ and /g /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Fricatives: / f, v /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /f/ and /v /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Fricatives: / θ, ð /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between / θ/ and / ð /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Fricatives: / s,z /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between / s / and / z /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Fricatives: / ∫, ʒ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between / ∫ / and /ʒ /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Fricatives: / h /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following pairs of words which differ in having, or not having, the
sound /h/:
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a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /t ∫/ and / dʒ /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Nasals: / m, n, ŋ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following groups of words containing the contrastive sounds / m, n, ŋ
/:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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Consonants /l, r /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /l / and /r /:
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Semi-vowels: /w, j /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /w/ and /j /:
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c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
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REFERENCES