Abattoir Merged

ABATTOIR
A slaughterhouse or abattoir is a facility where animals are slaughtered for consumption as

food.
The essential principles for planning an abattoir
1. To ascertain the ultimate maximum daily kill of each class of animal and the proposed
disposal and treatment of the edible and the inedible by products.
2. To determine the actual system of operations to be undertaken bearing in mind the
local conditions it may comprise a complete meat plant or a factory abattoir.
3. To apply methods that ensure economic handling of by products including hides,
offals, glands, blood and condemned material.
4. To prevent entry of diseased meat into the food chain
5. To prevent objectionable, undesirable or aesthetically unacceptable meat from being
sold. All meat that is rejected is not necessarily diseased
6. To provide high-quality meat and meat products for the consumer.
Design of an abattoir: A major factor governing the design of modern slaughter plants is
hygiene.
1. To maintain hygiene there must be clear separation of inherently dirty and clean areas,
and the personnel who work in them. Therefore, the lairage and area up to the point of
completion of bleeding is separated from subsequent areas to segregate live animals
from carcasses and reduce to a minimum the chances of contamination of the clean
areas. For the same reason, the entry of vermin, birds and insects, especially flies,
must be prevented. Parts of the animal that are likely to be dirty, or potential sources
of contamination, such as hides, skins, pelts, feet and guts need to be removed from
the carcass dressing area as directly and quickly as possible. In poultry plants,
stunning and bleeding, and scalding and plucking, should be carried out in separate
rooms. Similarly, the evisceration of poultry must be in a separate room or at least in
an area widely separated from other areas and partitioned off from them.
2. The lairage must be large enough to enable a sufficient reservoir of animals to be held
while allowing a long enough resting period to recover from their journey from the
farm or market. It must be provided with facilities for watering, and if necessary,
1
Md. Nazim Uddin Ph.D , Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management,
Faculty of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100,
Bangladesh, Email-uddinvet@gmail.com
feeding animals and a pen with separate drainage to hold diseased or injured animals
isolated from other stock. There need to be effective removal and disposal systems for
the manure from the lairage.
3. The guts must be cleaned of their contents in rooms set aside for that purpose. There
need to be rooms for the storage of hides and pelts, horns, hooves, fat and other waste
material, and rooms for the preparation and cleaning of offal.
4. Hygienic facilities for the disposal of solid and liquid waste, and an adequate drainage
system, are required.
5. Construction of the building must be appropriate. Floors need to be impermeable and

non-slip, yet easily cleaned walls impermeable and washable. All surfaces need to be
impervious and easily cleanable with no areas that can retain dirt. Joints between
walls and floors should ideally be rounded to facilitate cleaning.
6. Equipment and fittings should be of durable, impermeable and corrosion-resistant
materials such as stainless or galvanized steel or plastic. Wood is not acceptable.
7. Ventilation is important to provide good working conditions, prevent condensation

and reduce the risks of contamination by aerosols.
8. Even lighting with a minimum brightness of 220 lux in working areas, and 540 lux
where meat inspection is carried out, is required. It is important that the light does not
distort normal colours.
9. There must be adequate lavatories and washing facilities for personal hygiene,
adequate supplies of clean, wholesome (potable) hot and cold running water and
cleaning facilities.
10. There must be adequate facilities for disinfection of knives, tools and other equipment,
and the cleaning and disinfection of vehicles delivering animals or transporting meat.
11. People working in meat plants must not be suffering from any diseases that could be
transmitted to others via the meat or equipment they handle, or have open (undressed)
cuts or abrasions. They must wear protective clothing and footwear, cover hair and
beards, and maintain personal cleanliness. Activities such as eating and smoking are
unacceptable.
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12. Sufficient and adequate refrigeration facilities must be available. Within the EU, a
Directive (64/433 EEC) specifies that all fresh meat that will be traded within the
Union must be chilled immediately and kept at a temperature of +7°C or less for
carcasses and cuts, and +3°C for offal. Frozen fresh meat must be maintained at -12°C
or less.
PLANT LOCATION AND FACILITIES
Because of noise and odor generation, slaughtering plants must not be located near urban
areas. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA, 1981) recommends that –
1. Plants be located far from areas where objectionable odors or particles are generated,
such as dumps or chemical plants. Slaughtering plants should also have accessibility;
therefore, they should be connected to streets or highways but separated from other
plants or buildings.
2. Water supply must be in good quantity because washing is a continuous operation
throughout the plant (Fig. 1). Non-potable water is a hazard and must be avoided.
Carcasses are washed after dressing, so any bacterial contamination in the water
supply will be passed to the meat substrate (Murray and Madden, 1996). Water
disposal is equally important, because the wastewater contains grease, blood, hair, and
tissue and bone particles.
3. Slope in floors is required (no less than 10 cm for each 6 m in working areas, and 15
to 20 cm for each 6 m in the coolers) to avoid accumulation of effluents (USDA,
1981). Federal or local legislation related to waste disposal varies among countries or
regions of the same country, but almost every country where a slaughtering plant is
built has its own legislation.
4. Ceilings should be no less than 3 m high or more in certain working areas, such as
those for evisceration and cleaning. They should be flat and smooth and free of
unnecessary structures (Libby, 1986).
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5. Building materials for walls, floors, drains, ceilings, and equipment are also subject to
regulations. All these materials should provide easy cleaning. In general, these
materials comprise concrete, ceramic floor tile, floor-glazed brick, glazed tiles,
smooth surface Portland cement plaster, plastic, or Portland cement plaster for
ceilings. Certain materials in particular are not acceptable, such as lead, porcelain,
wood, leather, fabrics, or any material that undergoes chemical reactions (Ockerman,
1980b). Square angles or joints where material can accumulate must be avoided.
Floors must be of any non-slippery material.
6. The size of the killing room may vary according to plant capacity, but in any case it
must have enough space for animal handling and equipment operation, with walking
areas around operative sections.
7. Adequate lighting is also necessary, either natural or artificial. In any case, 220 lux in
the working areas is necessary, 540 lux in the inspection areas, and 110 lux in the
coolers. The U.S. Department of Agriculture describes lighting necessary for each
operation and lamp placement. All lamps must have a protective shield.
8. Ceilings must be painted in white or a light color. Ventilation and refrigeration also
must be controlled for comfort as well as for reducing microbial growth. A maximum
temperature of 10°C is necessary in all working areas.
9. Hand-washing facilities and drinking fountains should be located in the working
rooms (Fig. 2). These must be pedal operated (Figs. 3 and 4). Facilities for boot
washing before walking into the working area must be supplied (Gracey, 1989).
10. Product transferred in the plant should not come in contact with the doorways; 1.50 m
doorways are necessary. There must be double-acting doors, constructed of rust-
resistant materials, with a transparent panel at eye level. All windows, doors, and
other openings must have insect and rodent barriers such as screens or seals (USDA,
1981).
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Figure 1 Water pipelines and a water-cooled saw.
Figure 2 Hand-washing facilities and a pedal-operated platform.

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Figure 3 cleaning a beef carcass from a pedal-operated platform.
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Figure 4 A pedal-operated platforms and a pig scalding tank.
Section of an abattoir
1. Lairage 10. Edible fat room

2. Slaughter hall 11. Cutting rooms
3. Emergency slaughter hall 12. Inedible area
4. Refrigeration accommodation 13. Dispatch area
5. Detained meat room 14. Changing rooms
6. Condemned meat room 15. Manure bay
7. Hide and skin store 16. Vehicle washing
8. Gut and tripe room 17. Veterinary office
9. Offal room 18. Laboratory
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Figure- Lay out of a modern abattoir
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Figure- Layout of Modern Abattoir Meat plan
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The abattoir shall have the following facilities
1. Resting places for animals before slaughter.
2. Ante-mortem inspection.
3. Carrying out humane slaughter.
4. Flaying, dressing and washing of the carcass.
5. Handling by-products.
6. Inspection of meat and disposal of meat unfit for human consumption.
7. Laboratory.
8. Staf-welfare
9. Segregation ward for sick/diseased animals.
10. Adequate water supply.
1. Stockyard: It is meant for collection and marketing of livestock in a large number. It

should be roofed to protect animals and staff. There should be facility to unload the
stock particularly from lorries. All the stock must be handled gently and quietly. As
per nature animals prefer walking up slopes rather than down steep gradients and it
should be kept in mind while designing stock yard. Stock yard should have enough
open area for vehicle turn and usually should be located opposite to the side from
where processed product I meat is despatched. Here the animals are examined by
veterinarian before sending to lairage. Unless all animals are arriving on hoof, proper
ramps for direct unloading of animals from trucks or railway wagons should be
provided and the ramps should directly Plant Layout, Design and Construction of An
Abattoir lead to ante-mortem area with office room for veterinary inspector. This area
should have water and feeding facilities. There should be separate isolation pens with
watering and feeding arrangements for (i) animals suspected to be suffering from
contagious and infectious diseases and (ii) fractious animals in order to segregate
them from the remaining animals. Suspected animals are sent to isolation pen directly
from stockyard. This area also should have water and feeding facilities.
2. Lairage: It is meant to keep two to three day’s stock for slaughter. After passing
through reception area the animals reach to the Lairage where these are rested before
slaughter. The rest is being given to restore their normal physiological condition.
Usually animals travel long distances to reach abattoir and if not rested properly the
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quality of meat is adversely affected. The lairage should be equipped with all facilities
to feel animal comfortable and for this it should be protected from heat, cold and rain.
It should be spacious enough (2.8m^2f of each large animal and 1.6m2f or small
animals) to accommodate the large animals that will be slaughtered in 2 days and
small animals for one day slaughter. Lairage should be provided with abundant water
and feed. This section should be so constructed that the animals can be kept separately
depending upon their type and class. The lairage should have adequate facilities for
ante-mortem inspection. There should also be the separate isolation pens for suspected
and fractious animals as in case of stockyard. Where separate lairages are to be
provided for livestock meant for different method of slaughter like Halal, Jhatka or
Jewish slaughter, complete visual separation shall be effected and entrances shall be
kept as far apart as possible.
3. Slaughter house hall: From Lairage, animals are transferred to slaughter hall, which is
usually situated at a distance of 10 meter from Lairage. Wherever required, separate
provisions for slaughtering, dressing and processing of small animals and also for
slaughtering of animals under different slaughter method should be made in an
abattoir. Exits to such sections should be kept as far apart as possible. It has several
sections:
a. Drive/races: Firstly, the animals reach to holding pen and then they are driven to
stunning pen through drive/races. Drive is usually a curved path with single file
accommodation and stop gate. Animals are continuously being guided by a person to
stunning pen.
b. Stunning pen: It is the area where animals are made unconscious before killing. Its
design depends on type of stunning procedure to be followed.
c. Bleeding area: Immediately after stunning, the animal has to be bled to death. This
area should possess a good gradient for collection of blood. This area should be so
located that the blood shall not be splashed on other animals being slaughtered or on
the carcass being skinned. Blood drain and collection should be immediate and proper.
The minimum diameter of the blood drain shall be 150 mm and-shall be sloped not
less than 170 mm per meter to the discharge point. The bleeding trough for large
animals shall be at least 1.5 m wide and 1.1-1.2 m for small animals and swine. It
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should be enclosed on both sides and shall have a smooth impervious surface such as
stainless steel. For small stock bleeding area, galvanized steel or aluminium grating
shall be provided. For large animals, the overhead bleeding rail should be there. A
hand wash basin and knife sterilizer should be provided in this area for the sticker to
sterilize knife.
d. Carcass dressing area: In this area a number of operations are carried out such as
removal of hide and skin, head removal, evisceration, splitting, trimming and final
wash etc. Dressing of carcass should not be done on floor. Adequate means for
immediate disposal of hides or skins should be provided. The hides and skins, should
never be spread on slaughter floor for inspection. There should be provisions for
immediate disposal of legs, horns, hooves etc. Floor wash point, adequate number of
hand wash basins with sterilizers and hot and cold water outlets should be provided in
this area sufficient space should be provided for the deboning, removal and thorough
washing of heads. If pigs are slaughtered, then the swine scalding tank and dehairing
equipment should be separated from the rest of the dressing area. The scalding tank
should be equipped with overflow facilities. For a slaughter house with higher
slaughter rate (25 or more cattle/hr or 150 or more swine/hr), a moving top
evisceration table should be provided with cold water sprays to remove blood and
extraneous material and be synchronized with the eviscerating rail. This also should
be installed together with the facilities for the systematic removal of all organs and
parts. There should be facilities such as racks or trays or equivalent means to
accommodate and maintain the identity of organs and parts detained for veterinary
diagnosis.
e. Inspection area: Before evisceration the carcass has to be examined carefully for any
pathological lesions. Once the carcass is ready for sending to the next section all its
visceral organ and the whole eviscerated carcass are reexamined carefully. Then, it is
decided whether the carcass has to be sent to chilling section or condemned meat
room or detention room, adequate facilities and space should be there for inspection
of the viscera of various types of animals slaughtered. Hand wading, tool sterilization,
floor washing and facilities for separation and disposal of condemned material should
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be provided in this area. Adequate arrangements for identification, inspection and
correlation of carcass, viscera and head should be made there.
f. Carcass washing area: A separately drained area or an area of sufficient size slopped
to a floor drain should be provided for washing of the approved carcasses with a jet of
water. This area should be well curbed
4. Cold storage: If the meat is to be consumed immediately after dressing i.e., in hot
condition, the carcass has to be sent immediately for sale and cooking. Otherwise in
all other cases carcass should be chilled soon after the postmortem inspection. As per
EEC regulation, chilling temperature for carcass should not exceed 70°C while for
offal it should be below 40°C. Chilling is practiced to set up the meat firmly and
check any microbial growth. The carcass is held in chilling room for three days and
this process is also known as ageing. All blast freezers and holding freezers should be
capable of maintaining temperature of - 25°C or lower and -18°C or lower
respectively. There should be provision for measuring relative humidity and
temperature. Chill doors should be sliding or single or double-hinged. Internal
finishing shall be durable, impervious and with good insulation and floor drainage.
All freezers should be equipped with thermographs an facilities for securing with
locks.An area in the cooler shall be provided for the chilling and storage of detained
carcasses and parts, This area Should be segregated from the remainder of the cooler
and shall be equipped with seal and lock.
5. Cutting and deboning room: Once the carcass is firmly set in chilling room, deboning
(separation of meat from bone) becomes easier and cut into pieces. The operation is
performed in controlled temperature (10-12°C) area by skilled and efficient worker.
An adequate number of knife sanitizers should be provided at strategic locations and
the area should have illumination of 220 lux.
6. Packaging and dispatch section: Adjacent to cutting and deboning room there is
packaging room where the meat chunks are packaged and after freezing they are kept
under frozen condition (-40°C) before dispatch. The dispatch area should be adequate
in space and shall allow for the orderly and efficient loading of meat into transport
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vehicle. At the time of loading, docking system is practiced whereby there is no air
movement into the dispatch area or vehicle.
7. Condemned meat room: It is directly connected with inspection area. An adequate

space, refrigeration and drainage along with supply of durable and lockable container
and weighing facilities are essential in order to arrange for sorting and holding of
materials unfit for human consumption prior to despatch. This room should be
provided with only one door located outside the building and should be provided with
lock. At the planning stage of plant due attention should be given to condemned meat
room.
8. Detained meat room: Suitable and sufficient facilities should be provided for the
isolation of the meat requiring further examination as sometime the
inspector/veterinarian may be neither in a position to discard the carcass nor to pass it
to chilling section. In such cases a detailed report from quality control laboratory and
viscera examination section is needed. Detained meat room should be located adjacent
to the main slaughter hall inspection point and also to be connected with condemned
meat room as well as chilling section and after clearance of pending decision, carcass
is accordingly sent. If carcass has to detain for longer time there must be facility for
chilling. Enclosure and lock should be provided
9. Control laboratory: This is meant for detailed examination of specimen from carcass
and their respective viscera. Microbiological test, trichinoscopic test etc are conducted
here. This area should be well equipped for detail examination of the carcass and the
organs because the final decision of acceptance or rejection of the meat and the offals
depends on the report of quality control laboratory. This area should be directly
connected with the slaughter hall.
Accessories Sections of an Abattoir
a. Besides these main components of an abattoir, plant should have following

accessories sections:
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b. Blood collection: It is underground to bleeding area and may be divided into two-
edible blood collection section and inedible one. Blood has got nutritional as well as
commercial importance and it cannot be allowed in waste as in traditional slaughter
system.
c. Hide and skin store: Along with other by products, hide and skin need to be stored
before dispatch. Their safe storage and primary processing needs a separate section.
d. Gut and tripe room: A separate room and hanging space should be provided for
emptying and cleaning of stomach and intestine and this room should have a separate
exit. In this area, there may also be a provision for the preparation of casing, tripe and
edible fat.
e. Red offal room: Many of visceral organs have commercial as well as food value.
Among these liver, lungs, heart, kidney etc. are the organs which should be trimmed
and then placed in a chill or freezing room depending on ultimate system of disposal.
The temperature of offal room particularly those to be used as food should not exceed
3°C. This room should be divided into edible and inedible sections for further
processing. These sections should be preferably separated from the slaughter floor
except for one or two connecting doorways with self-closing doors.
f. Rendering plant: This section deals with extraction of fat from carcass parts,
condemned carcass/diseased one by applying high temperature processing. The
materials left after fat extraction may be used for animal feed-fertilizer. The whole
section of rendering plant may be divided into edible fat section and inedible fat
section.
g. Inedible area: All materials unfit for human consumption with exception of hides and
skins should be kept in the section away from edible areas called inedible area.
h. Equipment wash: An equipment wash section must be designed to avoid buggies, bins
and washing of equipment at improper places. The one-way system of passing in
equipment, wash section ensures the entry of dirty equipment's entry from one side
and exit of only clean equipment's from other side.
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i. Manure bay: A large amount of dung from lairage, emptying of rumen and intestine
need a separate section to deal with this huge mass to avoid problem of flies etc.
Floors and walls of this area should be impervious, easily washable, properly drained
and can be easily disinfected. The floor should be at lower level than other floors in the
slaughter-house.
j. Veterinary office and laboratory: This section should have essential facilities and
equipment's to carry out inspection work.
k. Vehicle washing: There should be separate sections for cleaning of meat transport and
animal transport vehicles.
l. Facilities for personnel: The abattoir building should have well located toilet rooms
sufficiently away from slaughter walls, separate hall with lockers and shower facilities,
changing room, adequate facilities for drinking water, washing, canteen and first aid
at convenient location, parking areas and security arrangements etc. as per number of
staffs. We will read these facilities in detail in the next unit.
m. Effluent treatment plant: This is the section, which deals with treatment of waste
before their safe disposal in environment.
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Meat, Hides, Skins and Wool Technology
Meat Borne Diseases and their Prevention
Meat Borne-Diseases: Diseases caused by the consumption and ingestion of infected

meat contaminated by Pathogenic Bacteria and their toxins, Viruses and Parasites
OR the diseases transmitted through the infected meat of Animals and Poultry.
Contaminations of Meat
 At the Farm or In Field
 At Slaughter House
 At Processing Transportation
 At Retail Shop
 At home (storage & cooking)
Classification of meat Borne- Diseases
Bacterial Diseases Parasitic Viral Diseases Prion Diseases
Disease
Salmonellosis Toxoplasmosis Noro viruses Bovine
Escherichia coli infection Giardiasis Hapatitis A Spongiform
Listeriosis Trichinosis Encephalopathy
Campylobacteriosis Tapeworm (BSE)
Yersinia enterocolitica infection infestation e.g. Scrapie (OSE)
Clostridium perfringens Taenia saginata
intoxication Taenia solium
Staphylococcus aureus Diphyllobothrium latum
Mycobacterium
Paratuberculosis
Clostridium botulinum
Brucella
Corynebacterium
Foodborne organisms associated with beef

Escherichia coli can colonize in the intestines of animals, which could contaminate
muscle meat at slaughter. E. coli O157:H7 is a rare strain that produces large
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Md. Nazim Uddin, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management,
quantities of a potent toxin that forms in and causes severe damage to the lining of
the intestine. The disease produced by it is called Hemorrhagic Colitis and is
characterized by bloody diarrhea. E. coli O157:H7 is easily destroyed by thorough
cooking.
Salmonella may be found in the intestinal tracts of livestock, poultry, dogs, cats, and
other warm-blooded animals. There are about 2,000 Salmonella bacterial species.
Freezing doesn't kill this microorganism, but it is destroyed by thorough
cooking. Salmonella must be eaten to cause illness. They cannot enter the body
through a skin cut. Cross-contamination can occur if raw meat or its juices contact
cooked food or foods that will be eaten raw, such as salad.
Staphylococcus aureus can be carried on human hands, nasal passages, or throats.
Most foodborne illness outbreaks are a result of contamination from food handlers
and production of a heat-stable toxin in the food. Sanitary food handling and proper
cooking and refrigerating should prevent staphylococcal foodborne illness.
Listeria monocytogenes is destroyed by cooking, but a cooked product can be
recontaminated by poor handling practices and poor sanitation. FSIS has a zero
tolerance for Listeria monocytogenes in cooked and ready-to-eat products such as
beef franks or lunchmeat. Observe handling information such as "Keep
Refrigerated" and "Use-By" dates on labels.
Foodborne organisms associated with pork
Today's pork can be safely enjoyed when cooked to an internal temperature of 145
°F as measured with a food thermometer before removing meat from the heat source.
For safety and quality, allow meat to rest for at least three minutes before carving or
consuming. For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook meat
to higher temperatures.
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Some other foodborne micro-organisms that can be found in pork, as well as other
meats and poultry, are Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus,
Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria monocytogenes. People can become infected
with these bacteria by consuming raw or undercooked pork, or from the cross-
contamination of food contact surfaces, such as countertops, cutting boards, utensils.
These bacteria are all destroyed by proper handling and thorough cooking.
Chitterlings (made of large intestine of swine) can be contaminated with the bacteria
Yersinia enterocolitica, which can cause a diarrheal illness called "yersiniosis."
Foodborne organisms associated with raw chicken

Salmonella Enteritidis may be found in the intestinal tracts of livestock, poultry,
dogs, cats, and other warm-blooded animals. This strain is only 1 of about 2,000
kinds of Salmonella bacteria; it is often associated with poultry and shell eggs. FSIS
requires poultry establishments to meet Salmonella performance standards as a
means of verifying that production systems are effective in controlling
contamination by this pathogenic organism. Agency inspection personnel
conduct Salmonella testing in poultry establishments to verify compliance with
the Salmonella standard.
Staphylococcus aureus can be carried on human hands, in nasal passages, or in

throats. The bacteria are found in foods made by hand and then improperly
refrigerated, such as chicken salad.
Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common causes of diarrheal illness in
humans. Preventing cross-contamination and using proper cooking methods reduces
infection by this bacterium. As with Salmonella, FSIS requires poultry
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establishments to meet Campylobacter performance standards and conduct in-plant

testing to verify compliance.
Listeria monocytogenes was recognized as causing human foodborne illness in
1981. It is destroyed by cooking, but a cooked product can be contaminated by
improper handling or poor sanitary practices in food preparation and storage areas.
The risk from L. monocytogenes can increase when it has the opportunity to grow
on a food product in storage, so take care to observe “keep refrigerated” and “use-
by” dates on labels. FSIS requires establishments producing ready-to-eat (RTE)
poultry products, such as deli meats and hot dogs, to maintain a system of controls
that destroy or suppress the growth of the organism. FSIS verifies that controls are
in place and effective at controlling the organism.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a type of bacteria that normally live in the intestines of
animals and humans. There are hundreds of different kinds, or strains, of E.
coli some of which can be harmful, but most are not. Animal meats may become
contaminated with this bacterium during the slaughter process.
The presence of E.coli, although an indicator organism for fecal matter, does not
mean the product is, in fact, contaminated by feces. E.coli that is present in feathers,
or environmental contaminants, like dust, can also contaminate a poultry carcass. As
part of poultry inspection procedures, FSIS enforces a “zero tolerance” standard for
visible fecal material on poultry carcasses. It also requires slaughter establishments
to perform microbiological testing for generic E.coli on carcasses to verify that
slaughter processes are under control for the prevention and removal of fecal
contamination. Safe food handling and proper cooking will help keep you and your
family safe from foodborne bacteria. Follow the four food safety steps
a) Clean: Wash hands and surfaces often.
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b) Separate: Separate raw meats and poultry from other foods.

c) Cook: Cook all poultry to an internal temperature of 165 °F (73.9 °C).
d) Chill: Refrigerate promptly.
Prevention of Food-Borne Illness at Home and in Institutions

The World Health Organization has issued ten guidelines for developing culture-
specific food-safety education:
1. Choose foods processed for safety, such as pasteurized dairy products and
juices, or meat and poultry treated with ionizing radiation.
2. Cook food thoroughly—cook roasts to 145°F, ground beef to 160°F, and
poultry to 180°F. Cook eggs until yolks and whites are firm. Use a meat
thermometer.
3. Eat cooked foods immediately—food-borne organisms reproduce rapidly as
food cools to room temperature.
4. Store cooked foods carefully—cooked foods should be held below 40°F or
above 140°F.
5. Reheat cooked foods thoroughly—reheat all cooked foods to 165°F.
6. Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods—contact surfaces include
cutting boards, utensils, and hands.
7. Wash hands repeatedly. Washing hands with warm water and soap before
handing foods, after every interruption, and between handling raw and cooked
foods is the most effective way to prevent food-borne illness.
8. Keep all kitchen surfaces meticulously clean—every food scrap, crumb, or
dirty spot is a potential reservoir for organisms.
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9. Protect foods from pests. Insects, rodents, and other animals frequently carry
organisms that can cause food-borne illness.
10.Use safe water. If there is any doubt of the safety of the water supply, boil
water before drinking it, using it in food preparation, or making ice.
The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system is used by institutions
to anticipate and prevent food safety violations before they occur. HACCP
flowcharts allow food managers to identify the critical control points, which are
operations (practice, preparation step, or procedure) in the production of a food, and
to make corrections as needed to prevent or eliminate hazards, or reduce them to
acceptable levels. HACCP recipes provide detailed guidelines to food-service
workers, and records assist health department personnel as they perform routine
inspections of a facility.
Diseases Associated with Meat
There are several diseases well known to both the industry and the general public
that are directly related to all the domestic meat species of beef, pork, lamb, and
poultry. These include:
• E. coli from ground beef
• BSE (bovine spongiform encephalitis) from beef cattle
• Trichinosis from pork
• Salmonella from poultry
• Scrapie from lamb and mutton
In addition, the meat and food industry are vulnerable to a variety of other infectious
diseases that can manifest in food processing areas due mainly to poor personal
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hygiene and processing sanitation practices, which in turn can develop the growth
of bacteria, viruses, moulds, and yeasts. These can then set the stage for:
• Foodborne infection, such as salmonella or trichinosis, caused by ingesting food
that is contaminated with bacteria, parasites, and viruses
• Foodborne intoxication, either bacterial, such as E. coli, or chemical, where food
has been contaminated with toxic chemicals, such as cleaning compounds or
pesticides. Two particularly dangerous foodborne bacteria that can cause serious
illness require special attention:
• Clostridium botulinum, which can develop in vacuum-packaged and canned foods
• Listeria monocytogenes, which occurs due to poor cleaning of machines, dirty
floors, and drains. Following is a brief overview of the major risks – in terms of
bacteria and illnesses – associated with meat and the meat industry. Some of the
bacteria are known to originate from meat; others can and do develop in food
processing areas through unhygienic practices.
BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy): commonly known as mad cow disease,
a fatal brain-degenerative disease (encephalopathy) in cattle that causes a spongy
degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, about
two-and-a-half to eight years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of
four to five years. All breeds are equally susceptible. The disease can be easily
transmitted to humans who eat food contaminated by the brain, spinal cord, or
digestive tract of infected carcasses. In humans, it is known as the variant
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and as of June 2014 it had killed 177 people in the
United Kingdom and 52 elsewhere. Controls on high-risk offal (internal organs)
were introduced in 1989. The cause was cattle, which are normally herbivores, being
fed the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), which
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Caused the infectious agent to spread. Outbreaks of BSE in Canada severely crippled
Canadian beef exports, which have only recently been restored. Under Canadian law,
it is now illegal to feed cattle MBM. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency
(CFIA) strictly controls the slaughter of all beef animals over the age of 30 months.
Safeguards:
• Due to the severity of the disease, the following prevention measures have been
implemented at the harvesting point, which has eliminated any possible transmission
of the disease to the public. All possible infected parts of these animals are removed
at the harvesting plant, kept separate from all other animal waste, and destroyed to
safeguard the food supply. The parts removed include the skull, tonsils, and a thick
slice of the central backbone including the spinal column from the base of the skull
to the pelvis, and two sections of the small intestines.
Clostridium botulinum: an anaerobic microorganism (it grows without air) which
forms spores that exist over a wide range of temperatures. The organism itself does
not cause illness, but the toxin it produces is one of the most deadly known to
humankind. The spores can survive in frozen, raw, and precooked food. Although it
is not a frequent cause of illness, it is considered the most serious to deal with in the
food industry. This nasty organism is found in the intestines of humans and animals
and in soil and streams. The major source of botulinum is swollen and damaged
canned products and/or air-tight packages such as vacuum-sealed products with low
acid foods such as beans, fish, and meats.
Safeguards:
• Understand that the spores of the organism are very heat resistant and can survive
boiling temperatures.
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• During any food packaging process, ensure product is heated to a core temperature
of 82°C (180°F) for 20 minutes to kill any toxins.
Clostridium perfringens: an anaerobic organism that produces heat-resistant spores.
It also grows in the danger zone of 4°C to 60°C (40°F to 140°F) and may double in
numbers in 10 minutes. This bacterium is found in intestinal tracts of humans and
animals, in sewage, and in manure, and it is considered widespread. Insects and
rodents can also become contaminated. Unwashed hands and dirty clothing are
major sources and carriers of the disease. The main food sources affected by C.
perfringens are foods high in proteins such as fresh meat of all types, deli items, and
cooked meats like stews and gravies that have cooled too slowly.
Safeguards:
• Only proper hot holding of cooked foods (above 60°C or 140°F) or rapid cooling
in shallow trays to below 4°C (40°F) can prevent this disease from taking hold.
• Heat product above 74°C (165°F) to kill most non-heat-resistant strains. coli: A
bacterium found naturally in the intestines of humans or other animals. The strain
common to the meat and food industry is E. coli 0157:H7. E. coli does not cause a
disease and is not considered parasitic because its source of food is the body waste
in the intestinal tract. However, should E. coli gain access to the kidneys, bladder,
Or other internal organs, it can become parasitic and produce infections that can turn
fatal. E. coli outbreaks associated with domestic animals (mainly beef) have strained
the meat industry when it has been discovered in ground meat supplies. In addition,
E. coli has occurred in milk, cheese, and related foods as well as in plants and plant
products irrigated with contaminated groundwater supplies.
Safeguards:
• Understand that E. coli cannot be destroyed by freezing.
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• Cook products such as ground meat to a core temperature of 71°C (160°F) to kill
E. coli.
• Follow and enforce good personal hygiene (hand washing) after using the toilet.
• Follow industry safeguards to prevent contamination during the harvesting of
animals, especially during the removal of the hide, which is often covered in fecal
matter. (One large harvesting plant in Alberta has a state-of-the-art hide wash to help
eliminate contamination prior to removal of the hide.)
• Take the preventive measure, which should now be a common practice, of carefully
trimming meat surfaces on sub-primals that are near the aitch bone portion of the
pelvis and anal canal. These areas are located on the hip and sirloin, especially on
the hindquarters of beef carcasses and pork and lamb legs.
Listeria monocytogenes: Listeria is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage,
plants, foods made from milk, and processed foods such as hot dogs and deli meats.
It can also be found in uncooked meat and vegetables and fruit such as apples and
cantaloupes. Animals can also be carriers. Contamination may occur after cooking
and before packaging. Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially
lethal foodborne infection. Listeria can grow in temperatures from 4°C to 37°C
(40°F to 96°F), which is human body temperature. The bacterium is known to cause
meningitis, a potentially fatal disease.
Safeguards:
• Implement thorough cleaning practices especially for equipment used to slice or
needle meats (tenderize).
This includes fully disassembling equipment, then scrubbing, rinsing, sanitizing, and
air drying.
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• Keep all floors and drains thoroughly cleaned; these areas are often overlooked and
are known to be breeding grounds for listeria.
• Institute a deep-cleaning plan for any processing area as part of a sanitation
program. This involves committing to extensive cleaning of the whole work area
several times throughout the working year, including cleaning floors, walls, and
drains and the complete disassembly of all equipment.
Scrapie: a fatal disease that affects the central nervous system of sheep and goats.
Scrapie is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE). It is similar to BSE,
but it is not caused by the animal’s feed. While the exact cause of scrapie is still
unknown, the disease is associated with the presence of an abnormal form of a
protein called a prion. According to Health Canada, there is no known link between
scrapie and human health. However, the CFIA does have a control program in place.
The disease seems to present itself differently in different countries. Wasting and
debility (weakness) appear to be more prominent clinical features in North America,
while pruritus (intense itching) remains the most noted clinical feature in Europe.
Scrapie is spread from an infected female to her offspring at birth, or to other animals
exposed to the birth environment, through fluid and tissue from the placenta.
Safeguards:
• Scrapie is not known to be transmissible to humans, so any measures in place are
to safeguard the health of sheep stocks.
Salmonella: Foodborne bacteria with 1,300 types known. One of the most severe
infections caused by salmonella is typhoid fever. The main sources and carriers of
salmonella in the food industry are most poultry, eggs and cracked eggs, shellfish,
raw milk, and service workers with unwashed hands. People and animals may be
carriers without showing any symptoms.
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Safeguards:
• Cook products to an internal temperature over 60°C (140°F) for 12 minutes to kill
salmonella.
Staphylococcus: an aerobic organism (needs air to grow) that causes food
poisoning by releasing toxins into food. It does not form spores. However, it may
survive for months in the soil and in a frozen state in food. The most common carrier
is the human body, particularly through skin abrasions, wounds, infected sinuses,
pimples, etc. Raw poultry is also known to be a carrier. Food poisoning usually
occurs when already cooked or easy-to-eat food is re-contaminated with
staphylococcus. In the food service industry, susceptible products are those high in
Protein, such as custards, cream-filled bakery goods, sauces, meat and meat products
(especially chopped meats), chicken salads, and cheeses. Staphylococcus can grow
to enormous numbers on meat without producing changes in colour, odour, or taste
if the infected product has not been stored in the safe temperature zones below 4°C
(40°F) or above 60°C (140°F).
Safeguards:
• Wash hands frequently, especially after using the toilet and when coughing and
sneezing.
• Always keep foods stored in the safe temperature zones below 4°C (40°F) or above
60°C (140°F).
Trichinosis: a disease caused by Trichinella (parasitic nematodes, intestinal worms,
and roundworms) that initially enter the body when meat containing the Trichinella
cysts (roundworm larvae) is eaten. For humans, undercooked or raw pork and raw
dry cured pork products, such as pork salami, have been most commonly responsible
for transmitting the Trichinella parasites. Trichinosis is a foodborne infection and is
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not contagious from one human to another unless infected human muscle is eaten.
However, almost all carnivores (meat eaters) or omnivores (meat and plant eaters),
such as bears, can both become infected and, if eaten, can transmit the disease to
other carnivores and omnivores. For example, undercooked or raw bear meat can
contain living Trichinella cysts. Therefore, if humans, dogs, pigs, rats, or mice eat
the meat, they can become infected. In rare instances, larvae in cattle feed can infect
cattle. There are six species that are known to infect humans. Today, trichinosis has
been virtually eradicated in Canada due to well managed controls in the Canadian
hog industry.
Note: Commercially raised pork in Canada is at low risk of this disease, and it is
common now for pork to be cooked to medium instead of well done. Doing so is
safe provided the core temperature of 60°C (140°F) is held for at least one minute.
Pork can also be cooked as low as a core temperature of 54.4°C (130°F) and held at
that temperature for 30 minutes.
Safeguards:
• Eliminate the risk of infection through proper cooking of meat.
• Cook all wild game meat, pork, and horse meat to an internal temperature of at
least 71°C (160°F).
• Understand that curing (salting), drying, smoking, or microwaving the meat does
not consistently kill infective larvae.
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3
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Processed meat product
What is processed meat product?
Processed meat products are defined as those products in which properties of fresh meat have
been modified using one or more procedures, such as grinding or chopping, addition of
seasonings, alteration of color, or heat treatment.
These modifications contribute to preservation, convenience, appearance, palatability, variety,
and safety giving consumers a wide choice of meat products.
The typical processed meat products include items such as cured ham, bacon, corned beef,
restructured steaks, restructured roasts, marinated or precooked cuts, and a variety of
luncheon meats and sausages.
Sausages are comminuted seasoned meat products that also may be cured, smoked, shaped
and heat processed. Or, Sausages may be defined as a food consisting of a mixture of minced
or chopped meat and cereal for binding purposes, seasoned and spiced with sage, pepper and
other substances, and stuffed into casings. The origin of this popular form of meat food is
difficult to trace but certainly it is over two thousand years. Sausage can trace its ancestry to
the Latin word salsus, which means salted or literally, meat preserved by salting. Though
sausages originated in the western world, these products acquired universal popularity due to
variety and convenience to the consumers. Sausages are economical since; these are generally
prepared from cheaper cuts of meat and by-products of meat industry.
Classification of sausages
Classification Characteristics Example
Fresh sausages Fresh meats (chiefly pork); uncured, Fresh pork sausage,
comminuted, seasoned and usually stuffed Bratwurst
into casings; must be cooked fully before
serving
Dry, semidry, or Cured meats; fermented air-dried, may be Summer sausage,
fermented sausages smoked before drying; served cold. Cervelat, dry salami,
Genoa salami,
Pepperoni, Lebanon
bologna, Cappicola.
Cooked , not Cured or uncured meats; comminuted, Liver sausage,
smoked sausages seasoned, stuffed into casings, cooked Summer sausage,
and sometimes smoked; usually served Braunschweiger,
cold. Liver cheese.
Cooked, Cured meats; comminuted, seasoned, Frankfurters, Bologna,
smoked sausages stuffed into casings, smoked and fully Cotto salami.
cooked; do not require further cooking,
but some are heated for serving.
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Uncooked, Fresh meats; cured or uncured, stuffed, Smoked, country-style

smoked sausages smoked, but not cooked; must be fully pork sausage,
cooked before serving. Mettwurst, Kielbasa.
Cooked meat Specially prepared meat products; cured luncheon meats and
specialties or uncured meats, cooked but rarely Loaves, Sandwich
smoked, often made in loaves, but spreads, Jellied
generally sold in sliced, packaged form; products, Head
usually served cold. cheese, Scrapple,
Containers
• Casings serve the purpose of providing a container or the sausage material during the
subsequent cooking and smoking procedures.
• Casings can be classified as one of the general types.
• Natural,
• Artificial, and
• Reconstituted collagen.
Sausage Ingredient
Raw materials
• Excellent sausages can be made from various fresh trimmings and cuts that might
ordinarily be underutilised.
• Materials such as cheek, jowl, head meat, pork fat and trimmings, which are seldom
used freshly, make palatable sausages and are as good for this purpose as are any
other cuts of meat.
• Other cuts from low quality carcasses may also be used.
• Only clean fresh or cured meats free from bones, tendons, and joints should be used.
• The skin should be removed from the pork.
• Meat by-products such as heart, liver, kidney, tongue and tripe obtained from beef,
calves, sheep and hogs are used in many sausages.
Water
• Water is the most important non-meat ingredient and it should be permitted up to 3%

for fresh sausages, luncheon meats and meat loaves.
• The final cooked sausage product should not exceed four times the protein content
plus 10%.
Protein
• During preparation of sausage batters or emulsion, meat proteins serve two functions:
• To encapsulate or emulsify fat, and
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• To bind water.
• If either of these is not accomplished properly, the sausage will be unstable and
subject to breakdown during cooking.
• The fraction of muscle that contains salt-soluble myofibrillar (contractile) proteins is
more important than the sarcoplasmic fraction, which contains water-soluble proteins.
• Approximately 55% of total muscle protein is myofibrillar, composed largely of
myosin and actin.
• During the onset of rigor, myosin and actin are complexed to form actomyosin.
• The dissociated proteins are more extractable and have a greater ability to swell and
bind water.
• After the onset of rigor the swelling and extractability are influenced mainly by
temperature and ultimate pH.
• The presence of excessive collagen in most sausage is undesirable and it is usually
desirable for finished sausages to have no more than 25% of the total protein as
collagen.
Fat
• Fat contributes greatly to palatability of sausages, but it is also the source of many
processing problems.
• Tenderness and juiciness of cooked sausages are affected by their fat content.
• Fat is added to emulsions or batters primarily through inclusion of beef and pork
trimmings in formulations.
• Since the pork fats are softer and melt at lower temperatures, they are easier to
comminute than beef fats.
• During comminution, beef fats require higher temperatures than pork fats.
• Cooked sausages such as frankfurters, bologna and similar comminuted sausage
products are limited by U.S. government regulation to a maximum of 30% fat.
Non-meat ingredients
Salt
• Salt is the most critical ingredient in sausage manufacturing.

• Without salt sausages cannot be made.
• Salt has 3 primary functions - preservation, flavour enhancement and protein
extraction to create the product to bind.
• Most sausages have 2-3 % of added salt.
Sugar
• A variety of sugars are commonly used ranging from sucrose (cane or beet sugar
C12H22O11) to dextrose (corn sugar C6H12O6), corn syrup, corn syrup solids, sorbitol
are also used in later group.
• Sugars are used mostly as flavouring agents to counteract the salt flavour intensity
and to provide food for microbial fermentation in fermented sausages.
• Most sugars, except sorbitol increase the browning of meat during cooking.
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• Dextrose is usually added at the 0.5 to 1 per cent level (of the meat weight) for
fermented sausages.
Spices and flavourings
• Spices are dried aromatic vegetable substances.

• The term may be applied to all dried plant products, which include herbs, aromatic
seeds and dehydrated vegetables.
• Spices are liable to certain variations in flavour, strength and quality.
• Allspice, ginger, nutmeg and pepper are products of tropical plants.
• They may represent the root, bark, bud, flower or fruit.
• Spices are used either whole or in one of the following processed forms: (1) ground,
(2) essential oils, or (3) oleoresins.
• The latter two must be classified as flavourings.
• Most spices are used in processed form.
• Whole peppercorns used in certain dry sausages are an example of a whole spice.
• Flavourings are spice extractives: essential oils or oleoresins.
• Extractives have the advantages of elimination of colour specks, freedom from
bacteria, reduced shipping costs and less storage area.
• Herbs are leaves of plants grown in both temperate and tropical zones and are
relatively low in total oil content while true spices are relatively high.
• Marjoram, sage and thyme are examples of herbs.
• Aromatic seeds are derived from plants cultivated in both temperate and tropical areas.
• Anise, coriander, dill and mustard are examples of aromatic seeds.
• Vegetables are used in the dehydrated form. Examples are garlic and onions.
• Seasonings and flavourings are included in sausage emulsions or batters to add
flavour to the product.
• Examples of seasonings and flavourings are
• Monosodium glutamate and nucleotides – enhance flavour.
• Hydrolyzed plant proteins contribute a characteristic meaty flavour.
• Black pepper, cloves, ginger, mace, rosemary, sage and thyme possess antioxidant
properties.
• Other flavour additives include smoke flavouring which is usually added as an oil or
water solution of natural smoke and vinegar used in products like sulze or some
pickled sausages. Both of these have definite bacteriostatic properties.
Extenders and binders
• These are called as nonmeat materials and also are less frequently referred to as fillers,
emulsifiers or stabilizers.
• They are added to basic meat formulations for one or more of the following reasons:
• To improve emulsion stability
• To improve cooking yields
• To improve slicing characteristics
• To improve flavour, and
• To reduce formulation costs.
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• The use level is generally restricted to 3.5% with exception of soy protein isolate,
which carries a 2% limit.
• Many extenders have an effect on colour, flavour and texture.
• Milk products are well accepted due to their positive flavour contribution.
• Nonfat dried milk, dried wheys, modified wheys and partially delactosed wheys are
also available.
• Cereal extenders are mainly starch, bind water and impart a bland flavour.
• Soy proteins include grits or flour (50% protein), concentrate (79% protein) and
isolate (90% protein).
• They may be available in a textured as well as a powder or ground form.
• Soy isolate is a good binder, functioning much like meat protein in an emulsion or
batter.
• Among other extenders are mustard flour and deheated ground mustard, which may
be used at levels up to 1%.
• Yeast proteins represent another group of extenders as do milk protein hydrolysates.
• Many of these can be classified as flavourings.
• Gelatin, while not specifically an extender, is used as a binder for some loaf type
products.
• Gelatin varies in gel strength and clarity according to Bloom number.
• Fillers such as starch, cereals and wheat flour and corn meal are used occasionally to
lower the cost and the shrinkage and to bind to the product.
Nitrite and Nitrate
• Sodium nitrite (NaNO2) or potassium nitrite (KNO2) is added directly to sausage batter.
• Nitrite has four functions in cured meat and sausage products
• To develop the characteristic pink colour
• To provide bacteriostatic properties
• To improve the flavour
• To serve as a powerful antioxidant
• The bacteriostatic properties of nitrite are extremely important in the thermally
processed, vacuum packaged products.
• Without nitrite the organism Cl.botulinum will jeopardize the safety of these products,
the bacteria that causes botulism.
• Nitrite prevents the outgrowth of Cl.botulinum spores and subsequently the production
of toxins.
• About 400 ppm of nitrite in the finished product is considered necessary for the
formation of the cured colour.
Ascorbates and Erythrobates
• Ascorbates and Erythrobates are strong reducing agents that accelerate the conversion
of metmyoglobin to myoglobin and nitric oxide.
• The vitamin ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) derivatives are also known as cure accelerators,
since they hasten the curing reaction.
• The use level is 7/8 oz per 100 lb of meat (approximately 550 ppm).
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Antioxidants
• Antioxidants are added to the fresh and dry sausages to retard the development of
oxidative rancidity.
• Oxidative rancidity develops in the unsaturated (double) carbon-carbon bonds in fatty
acids present in meats.
• Salt, light, heating and freezing and traces of certain metals also increase oxidative
rancidity.
• Grinding and chopping of meat for sausage production exposes more of the
membrane fatty acids to oxidation.
• The most common antioxidant compounds used are BHA (Butylated hydroxy anisole),
BHT (Butylated hydroxy toluene) and propyl gallate. They are added at 0.01 to 0.02%
of fat content.
Phosphates
• Phosphates are added to improve the water binding capacity of meat and solubilize
proteins and act as antioxidants and help protect and stabilize the flavour and colour
of finished product.
• Through the use of phosphates, processors can attain a longer product shelf life and
improve smokehouse yield.
• Phosphates are approved at a level not to exceed 0.5% in the finished product.
• The following phosphates are approved – Di-sodium phosphate, Sodium
metaphosphate, Monosodium phosphate, Sodium poly phosphate, Sodium
triphosphste, Sodium pyrophosphate, Dipotassium phosphate and Potassium
pyrophosphate.
Anti-microbial agents
• In general these are not permitted in sausage products.

• But they are allowed as a surface application on dry sausage to retard mold growth.
• A 3.5% solution of propyl paraben or a 2.5% solution of potassium sorbate may be
used for this purpose.
• Usually these are applied as a drip.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
• Monosodium glutamate is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, which is one of the
common, naturally occurring, non-essential amino acids found in protein.
• MSG brings out food tastes without contributing any noticeable odour or taste.
Sodium lactate
• Sodium lactate is the sodium salt of lactic acid.

• It naturally occurs in animals and humans.
• Sodium lactate improves product stability and improves shelf life because of its
bacteriostatic effect. It is a colorless syrupy liquid.
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PACKAGING
 Packaging is the technique of using the most appropriate containers
and components to protect, carry, identify and merchandise any
product.
 It constitutes a vital link between the processor and consumer for the
safe delivery of the product through the various stages of processing,
storage, transport, distribution and marketing.
 The primary function of a meat package is to present the product to
the consumer in the most attractive manner possible and at the same
time protect the product from physical damage, microbial
deterioration and chemical changes.
Functional requirements of packaging
Packaging, in the meat industry serves the following functions,

a. Containment
b. Protection
c. Preservation
d. Apportionment–the function of reducing industrial output (i.e., Dressed
Carcass) to an appropriate size for further processing or consumer use
e. Unitization–the function in which primary packages are consolidated foe
shipment. Primary packages are unitized into secondary packages, for
example placement inside a cardboard carton. The secondary packages in
turn are unitized into a tertiary package; for example a stretch wrapped
pallet that may, in turn form a quaternary package – a shipping container or
truckload. Unitization allows optimization of materials handling by
minimizing the number of discrete packages that need to be handled. On
delivery the process is reversed from distributor to consumer so the latter is
presented with a primary package (fortunately) and not a truck load.
f. Convenience–Microwaveable packs and meat based whole meals.
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g. Communication–A package must protect what it sells and sell what it
protects.
Packaging requirements of meat
Requirements for packaging materials
Packaging films utilized in packaging of meat must possess the following

characteristics:
a. flexibility
b. mechanical strength
c. light weight
d. odourless
e. hygienic (clean and toxicologically harmless)
f. easy recycling
g. resistance to hot and cold temperatures
h. resistance to oil and fats
i. good barrier properties against gases
j. sealing capability
k. low-cost
Barrier against gases
 Good barrier properties against oxygen and evaporation are the critical to
ensure the maintenance of colour of meat, prevent development of oxidative
rancidity; and shrinkage losses and drying, respectively especially in case of
processed meats.
 However, oxygen permeability is acceptable and rather a necessity in the
case fresh ready-to-sell meat portions in self-service outlets where the
oxygen permeability is required to maintain bloom.
Barrier against light-
 Prolonged exposure of meat and meat products to natural and artificial light
hastens undesirable color changes, oxidation and rancidity as light provides
the energy for these processes.
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 But, transparent packaging films aid the presentation of the product in an
attractive manner as the packaged product is visible.
 But they do not provide protection against light impact.
 Such films are laminated with aluminium to counter the adverse effects of
light, while maintaining the attractiveness of the product.
Sealing capability
 Some packaging materials are required to have good thermoplastic

properties.
 They are heat sealable, which means that two of these films, put closely in
contact to each other under slight pressure and with simultaneous high
temperature application, will melt or seal together along the heated area,
resulting in hermetically closed plastic pouches or bags.
Modern packaging materials and package forms
Packaging materials and forms may be classified as

Rigid packaging materials and forms, Semi- rigid Packaging materials and
forms, Flexible Packaging materials and Flexible Packaging forms as
detailed below.
1. Rigid packaging materials and package forms
• Glass containers
• Metal cans
• Composite containers
• Aerosol containers
• Rigid plastic packages
2. Semi-rigid packaging materials and package forms

• Aluminium containers
• Set-up paper board boxes
• Folding paper board cartons
3. Flexible packaging materials

• Paper-the basic papers used consists of bonds, tissue, litho, krafts,
glassines, parchment and grease proof.
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• Films-cellophane, cellulose acetate, polyethylene (HDPE & LDPE),
Polypropylene, polyamide, polyester, polyvinyl chloride,
polyvinylidene chloride, polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohols
• New films-amylase films (edible), Ionomers like surlyn A, Ethylene
vinyl acetate copolymers, polypropylene copolymers, co extruded
structured films, aluminium foils and steel foil.
4. Flexible package forms
• Wrappers
• Preformed bags or envelopes
• Pouches
• Collapsible tubes
Types of Packaging
• Practically all films used for meat packaging derive from synthetic “plastic”
materials.
• Even cellulose, formerly widely used in the form of transparent films is no
longer put into much use to pack meat.
• The most common synthetic materials used for meat packaging are:
Polyethylene (PE) (oxygen + , water vapour -)
Polypropylene (PP) (oxygen + , water vapour -)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) (soft) (oxygen + , water vapour -)
Polyester (PET) (oxygen ± , water vapour -)
Polyamide (PA) (oxygen - , water vapour +)
+ : relatively permeable, -: relatively impermeable
• Both Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) and Ethylene vinyl alcohol

(EVOH)
• Foils made from the above synthetic materials are selected based on their
different properties related to oxygen and water vapour.
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• Packaging films may be conveniently classified into
• Single-layer films or
• Multi-layer films
Single-layer films
• Single-layer films are commonly used in the wrapping of meat

pieces, processed meat products, bone-in or boneless meat cuts or even
entire carcasses.
• These films are usually self-adhesive, i.e. they cling together -“cling film”-
in the overlapping areas.
• Hence they offer good protection from external contamination and to some
extent from evaporation, but do not protect from oxygen ingress, as they are
not hermetically closed or sealed packages.
• Foils with good self-adhesive properties are polyethylene, polyamide,
polyvinylidene chloride and polypropylene.
• Single-layer films are used for freezer storage.
• Single-layer films are stretched tightly around the meat surface prior
to freezing tor frozen storage of meat blocks, meat cuts or smaller portions
of meat or meat products.
• Since the film is in tight contact with the product’s surface it prevents
evaporative losses, commonly encountered freezer storage of unpacked
products.
• The tight contact between the product’s surface and the film also prevents
ice formation and freezer burn is liable to develop at non-contact spots
• Suitable cold resistant films for freezer storage are polyamide and
polyethylene.
• Yet another specific utility for single-layer films is the wrapping of chilled
meat portions for self-service outlets (supermarkets, etc.).
• The product to be packed is placed in a hygienic cellulose or plastic tray and
tightly wrapped with single-layer plastic film. The ends of the foil are
overwrapped at the bottom side of the tray, where they firmly cling together.
• Films to be used should have low water vapour permeability to avoid
the drying out of the meat during storage, but must possess high oxygen
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permeability so as to ensure the meat retains its bloom owing to the
formation of oxymyoglobin.
• Suitable single-layer films for fresh meat packaging are polyethylene or soft
polyvinylidene chloride.
Multi-layer films
• The plastic films used in meat packaging are permeable either to moisture or
oxygen.
• Ideally for packaging of meat a combination of oxygen and moisture
impermeability is required.
• Hence multi-layer films have been developed in which the film on the outer
layer has good mechanical strength and is impermeable to oxygen and the
inner most layer is impermeable to water vapour and must possess good
sealant properties too.
• The multiple layers may just have two layers or more layers too.
• A very efficient combination is polyamide and poly ethylene.
• The outer layer, polyamide is relatively oxygen proof but permeable to some
extent to water vapour.
• Poly ethylene has exactly the opposite properties, it is water vapour proof
but permeable to oxygen.
• The combination of both renders such a multi-layer film impermeable to
both oxygen and water vapour evaporation.
• Moreover, the poly ethylene used as the inside layer has good thermoplastic
properties and is therefore well suited for heat sealing.
• Sealant layers consist mostly of polyethylene or ionomer. Outside layers
may be polyamide, polyester or polypropylene (PP).
• Barrier layers for oxygen are made of Polyvinylidenchloride or materials
with similar properties.
6
Packaging of Meat and Meat Products
Packaging materials used for fresh meat
• Trays-made of polystyrene
• Transparent films-cellophane, LDPE (most commonly used for fresh meat ),
PVC
• Shrink films-PVC, cellophane, rubber hydrochloride, polypropylene,
irradiated PE and PVDC are used in shrink wrapping of meat.
Advanced and emerging systems of packaging of meat and meat products
1. Vacuum packaging
• It is the placing of 'primal or sub primal cuts of meat into plastic bags or
pouches and extracting air from them by means of a nozzle type
vacuumizing machine or a vacuumizing chamber.
• The bags are then sealed to effect closure with either metal clips or heat-
impulse sealing of the sides of the bags.
• The most commonly used film for fresh meat vacuum packages is PVDC.
2. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
• It is a technology where in foods are packaged in high barrier packages in

which air has been replaced with an artificial (modified) atmosphere.
• Commonly used gases are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
• For red meats, high-oxygen MAP systems utilize atmospheres containing
approximately 20% to 30% carbon dioxide, 60% to 80% oxygen, and up to
20% nitrogen. The elevated oxygen concentration enhances the bright red
meat color and the elevated carbon dioxide concentration inhibits the growth
of aerobic spoilage microorganisms. High oxygen concentrations in display
packs enhance meat color by increasing the thickness of the oxymyoglobin
surface layer. At the same time the metmyoglobin layer lies deeper in the
meat.
• The time taken for that layer to reach the surface is increased, so display life
is extended. Unlike overwrapped trays, high oxygen display packs use a film
7
with high gas barrier properties, to prevent the gases equilibrating with the
ambient atmosphere. The modified atmosphere display packs consist of
deep high barrier trays that are gas flushed before an upper high barrier film
or lid is sealed in place. However, the pack atmosphere tends to change
during display because the oxygen is lost to respiration and carbon dioxide
is highly soluble in meat.
• The absorption of carbon dioxide can lead to pack collapse. The pack
atmosphere remains reasonably stable and the pack shape is maintained
when the ratio of pack volume to meat volume exceeds approximately 3 to 1.
The use of high oxygen with high carbon dioxide effectively doubles the
color stability and time to spoilage over that achieved using ambient
atmosphere overwrapped packs
• High-oxygen MAP, which provides a chilled product life of only 5 to 10
days, is not suitable for prolonged storage of meat. Its suitability for
display packaging is determined as much by commercial merchandising
strategies as by the preservative capability of the packaging.
• The excessive space occupied by deep tray packs, compared to net weight of
meat sold, tends to restrict MAP packaging to high value products catering
to the upper end of the market. As discussed previously, the rate of
discoloration is inversely related to temperature, so the importance of
display cabinet temperature management cannot be over emphasized.
\
3. Mother bag concept in MAP
• These are the simplest two-phase packaging systems, consisting of retail-

ready packs inside an outer preservative pack. The retail-ready packs may be
overwrapped trays or lidded packs. In both cases, retail films must be highly
gas permeable, first, to allow the meat contact with the carbon dioxide
preservative atmosphere and later, on removal from the mother pack, to
allow atmospheric oxygen to bloom the meat.
• While a simple outer bag could be used to contain the carbon dioxide
atmosphere, the inner packs would be free to move within the pack. Such
movement could damage both inner and outer packs. Consequently, most
proprietary mother pack systems employ a semi-rigid outer container to
protect and restrain the inner packs.
8
Spoilage of meat
Meat is a nutritious, protein-rich food which is highly perishable and has a short shelf-life
unless preservation methods are used. It is the first-choice source of animal protein for many
people all over the world. Consumption of meat is continuously increasing worldwide.
Although consumption of meat is increasing worldwide the significant portion of meat and
meat products are spoiled every year. The significant portion of this loss is due to microbial
spoilage (Heinz and Haut zinger, 2007).
The transformation of animals into meat involves several operations: (a) handling and
loading of animals on the farm, (b) transporting animals to slaughterhouses, (c) off-loading
and holding of animals and (d) slaughtering of animals. Poor operational techniques and
facilities in any of these operations will result in unnecessary suffering and injuries to animals
which can lead to reduced meat quality and spoilage of meat (Chambers and Grandin, 2001).
Therefore, prevention of contamination after slaughtering, during meat cutting and processing
is essential (FAO, 1991). Storage time can be extended through hygienic slaughtering and
clean handling of the carcass (FAO, 1990).
Different technical operations are involved in slaughtering: (a) stunning, (b) bleeding, (c)
skinning (d) evisceration and (e) carcass splitting. Inadequacy at one stage will result in a
rigorous negative impact on the product and/or process in the following stage (FAO, 1991).
In addition to the hygiene and storage temperature, the acidity of the meat and the structure of
the muscular tissue also affect the rate of meat spoilage. For example, liver will spoil faster
than the firm muscular tissue of beef (Berkel et al., 2004). After few hours of slaughtering of
animals, muscles become firm and rigid, a condition known as rigor mortis. The process of
rigor mortis depends on the stress induced on the animals during the slaughtering process
(Miller et al., 2002). Raw meat quality is reported to be severely affected by the stress
conditions during slaughtering process and the slaughtering methods (Miller et al., 2002;
Chambers and Grandin, 2001).
Fat, protein, minerals, carbohydrate and water are the constituents of meat (Heinz and
Hautzinger, 2007). The quality of meat and meat products degrade as a result of digestive
enzymes, microbial spoilage and fat oxidation). Lipid oxidation, protein degradation and the
loss of other valuable molecules are the consequence of meat spoilage process. Proteins and
lipids can break down resulting in the production of new compounds causing changes in meat
flavor, tenderness, juiciness, odor and texture.
CAUSES OF MEAT SPOILAGE
Pre-slaughter handling of livestock and post slaughter handling of meat play an important
part in deterioration of meat quality. The glycogen content of animal muscles is reduced
1
when the animal is exposed to pre-slaughter stress which changes the pH of the meat, to
higher or lower levels, depending on the production level of lactic acid (Miller, 2002;
Chambers and Grandin, 2001; Rahman, 1999a). Lactic acid is produced due to the
breakdown of glycogen content of animal muscles via an anaerobic glycolytic pathway as
shown in Fig. 1 (Rahman, 1999a). Higher levels of pH (6.4-6.8) result in Dark, Firm and Dry
(DFD) meat. Long term stress causes DFD meat which has a shorter shelf life (Miller, 2002;
Chambers and Grandin, 2001). Sever short term stress results in a Pale, Soft and Exudative
(PSE) meat. PSE meat has a pH lower than normal ultimate value of 6.2 which is responsible
for the breakdown of proteins, providing a favorable medium for the growth of bacteria
(Miller, 2002; Chambers and Grandin, 2001; Rahman, 1999a). Figure 2 shows the texture
and color of the DFD, PSE and normal meat. There are three main mechanisms for meat
and meat products spoilage after slaughtering and processing and storage: (a) microbial
spoilage, (b) lipid oxidation and (c) autolytic enzymatic spoilage.
2
3
Microbial spoilage
Meat and meat products provide excellent growth media for a variety of micro flora (bacteria,
yeasts and molds) some of which are pathogens (Jay et al., 2005). The intestinal tract and the
skin of the animal are the main sources of these microorganisms. The composition of micro
flora in meat depends on various factors: (a) pre-slaughter husbandry practices (free range Vs
intensive rearing), (b) age of the animal at the time of slaughtering, (c) handling during
slaughtering, evisceration and processing, (d) temperature controls during slaughtering,
processing and distribution (e) preservation methods, (f) type of packaging and (g) handling
and storage by consumer (Cerveny et al., 2009).
The most common genera of bacteria found in meat before spoilage is Staphylococcus,
Bacillus, Campylobacter, Clostridium, Listeria, Salmonella etc. Mold species found in meat
include Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Penicillium and Mucor while yeasts species include
Candida spp and Cryptococcus sp (Garcia-Lopez et al., 1998). The storage conditions affect
the type of microbes found in meat and meat products. The favorable pH for the growth of
spoilage bacteria for meat is in the range of 5.5-7.0. Slime formation, structural components
degradation, off odors and appearance change were found in meat as a result of microbial
growth within this pH range (Russell et al., 1996).
Lipid Oxidation
Autoxidation of lipids is natural processes which affect fatty acids and lead to oxidative
deterioration of meat and off-flavours development (Simitzis and Deligeorgis, 2010). After
slaughtering of animals, the fatty acids in tissues undergo oxidation when the blood
circulation stops and metabolic processes are blocked (Linares et al., 2007). Oxidation of
lipids in meat depends on several factors including: fatty acid composition, the level of the
antioxidant vitamin E and pro-oxidants such as the free iron presence in muscles. Poly
saturated fatty acids are more susceptible to lipid oxidation. Hydro peroxides are produced
due to the lipid oxidation of highly unsaturated fatty acid fractions of membrane
phospholipids, which are susceptible to further oxidation/ decomposition (Enser, 2001). Their
breakage produce oxygenated compounds such as aldehydes and ketones. These secondary
products can cause loss of color and nutritive value due to sever effects on lipids, pigments,
proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins (Simitzis and Deligeorgis, 2010). In meat, lipid
hydrolysis can take place enzymatically or non-enzymatic ally. The enzymatic hydrolysis of
fats is termed lipolysis or fat deterioration and is governed by specific enzymes such as
lipases, esterase and phospholipase. Lipolytic enzymes could either be endogenous of the
food product (such as milk) or derived from psychrotrophic microorganisms (Ghaly et al.,
2010). Lipases enzymes are present in the skin, blood and tissue of animals. During lipolysis,
lipases split the glycerides forming free fatty acids which are responsible for common off-
flavour, frequently referred to as rancidity (FAO, 1986). The main enzymes involved in
4
meat lipid hydrolysis are phospholipase A1 and phospholipase A2 (Toldra, 2006). The
non-enzymatic hydrolysis is caused by heme proteins such as hemoglobin, myoglobin and
cytochrome which are susceptible to oxidation and produce hydroperoxides (Kanner, 1994.)
Autolytic enzymatic Spoilage
Enzymatic actions are natural process in the muscle cells of the animals after they have been
slaughtered and are the leading cause of meat deterioration. The enzymes have the ability to
combine chemically with other organic compounds and work as catalysts for chemical
reactions that finally end up in meat self-deterioration. In the autolysis process, the complex
compounds (carbohydrates, fats and protein) of the tissues are broken down into simpler ones
resulting in softening and greenish discoloration of the meat. These autolysis changes
include proteolysis and fat hydrolysis which are prerequisite for microbial decomposition.
Excessive autolysis is termed “souring. Postmortem breakdown of polypeptides are the
result of tissue proteases and is responsible for flavor and is textural changes in meat (Toldra
and Flores, 2000). The enzymes calpains, cathepsins and amino peptidases are found to be
responsible for the post mortem autolysis of meat through digestion of the z- line proteins of
the myofibril (O’Halloran et al., 1997). Among these enzymes, calpains has been described
as a preliminary contributor to the proteolytic tenderization process of meat. Proteolytic
enzymes are active at low temperatures (5°C) which lead to deterioration of meat quality due
to growth of microbes and biogenic amines production (Kuwahara and Osako, 2003).
5
PRESERVATION OF MEAT
Meat preservation became necessary for transporting meat for long distances without spoiling
of texture, colour and nutritional value after the development and rapid growth of super
markets (Nychas et al., 2008). The aims of preservation methods are: (a) to inhibit the
microbial spoilage and (b) to minimize the oxidation and enzymatic spoilage.
Traditional methods of meat preservation such as drying, smoking, brining,
fermentation, refrigeration and canning have been replaced by new preservation
techniques such as chemical, bio preservative and nonthermal techniques (Zhou et al.,
2010). Current meat preservation methods are broadly categorized into three methods (a)
controlling temperature (b) controlling water activity (c) use of chemical or bio
preservatives (Zhou et al., 2010). A combination of these preservation techniques can be
used to diminish the process of spoilage (Bagamboula et al., 2004).
1. Low temperature methods
The basic aim of cooling techniques is to slow or limit the spoilage rate as temperature below
the optimal range can inhibit the microbial growth (Cassens, 1994). Low temperature
methods of storage are used in three levels: (a) chilling (b) freezing and (c) super chilling. All
these levels help to inhibit or completely stop bacterial growth (Zhou et al., 2010). However,
the growth of psychrophilic group of bacteria, yeasts and molds is not prevented by all levels
of refrigeration (Neumeyer et al., 1997) and both enzymatic and non-enzymatic changes will
continue at a much slower rate (Berkel et al. 2004).
a). Chilling
Chilling is employed at slaughtering plants immediately after slaughtering and during

transport and storage. It is necessary to reduce the temperature of carcass immediately after
evisceration to 4°C within 4 h of slaughtering (USDC, 1995). Chilling is critical for meat
hygiene, safety, shelf life, appearance and nutritional quality (Zhou et al., 2010). Chilling also
helps to prevent denaturing of proteins which may lead to bacterial attack as they are more
susceptible to denaturated protein than native protein. On the other hand, cold-shortening
and toughening may result from ultra-rapid chilling of pre-rigour meat (Ockerman and
Basu, 2004). It is employed by two methods: immersion chilling, in which the product is
immersed in chilled (0- 4°C) water and air chilling in which the carcasses are misted with
water in a room with circulating chilled air (Carroll and Alvarado, 2008). Carcass surface
temperature is reduced at faster rate by air chilling which improves carcass drying and
minimizes microbial spoilage (Ocker man and Basu, 2004). The microbial quality of the air-
chilled product is better than that of a water-chilled product (Barbut, 2002). The air-chilled
carcasses lost 0.68% of their post slaughter weight in storage prior to cutting but lost no
6
more during cutting or post cutting storage. On other hand water chilled carcasses absorbed
11.7% moisture in the chillers, of which 4.72% is lost within 24 h of intact carcass storage,
0.98% is lost during cutting and 2.10% is lost during storage resulting in 3.9% net water
retention (Young and Smith ,2004).
b) Freezing
Freezing is an excellent method of keeping the original characteristics of fresh meat. Meat
contains about 50- 75% by weight water, depending on the species, and the process of
freezing converts most of water into ice (Heinz and Hautzinger, 2007). Meat freezing
phenomenon is fast and almost 75% of tissue fluid freezes at -5°C. The freezing rate is
increased with decreases in temperature, almost 98% of water freezes at -20°C and
complete crystal formation occurs at - 65°C (Rosmini et al., 2004). However, more than 10%
of muscle bound water (chemically bound to specific sites such as carbonyl and amino group
of proteins and hydrogen bonding) will not freeze. Freezing rate (slow and fast) affects the
quality of frozen meat significantly. Fast freezing produce better quality meat than slow
freezing (Garthwaite, 1997).
The preservation capacity of frozen meat is limited because the physical, chemical or
biochemical reactions that take place in animal tissues after slaughtering do not stop
absolutely after cold treatment (Rosmini et al., 2004). Microbial growth stops at -12°C and
total inhibition of the cellular metabolism in animal tissues occurs below - 18°C (Perez-
Chabela and Mateo- Oyague, 2004). Complete quality changes of meat can be prevented at a
temperature of-55°C (Hansen et al., 2004). However, enzymatic reactions, oxidative
rancidity and ice crystallization will still play an important part in spoilage (Zhao et al.,
2010). During freezing, about 60% of the viable microbial population dies but the
remaining population gradually increases during frozen storage (Rahman, 1999b). Pathogenic
microorganisms are commonly isolated from thawed frozen meat (Perez-Chabela and
Mateo- Oyague, 2004). The shelf-life of vacuum-packaged fresh beef is approximately 35-45
days; longer shelf-life of 70-80 days is possible with refrigeration of 0-2.3°C. Vacuum
packaged frozen, whole-muscle beef has a recommended shelf-life of 12 months (Delmore,
2009). Low (-18°C) and constant storage temperature substantially increase the shelf life of
meat. Shelf life of red meat stored at 15°C-30°C normally ranges from 6 months to 24
months (Perez-Chabela and Mateo Oyague, 2004).
c) Super chilling
Super chilling is a different concept than refrigeration and freezing and it has the potential to
reduce storage and transport costs (Reynolds, 2007). Super-chilling refers to the
temperature zone below its initial freezing point (1- 2°C) but where ice crystals are not
generated. In this process, instead of adding external ice to the food product, part of the
internal water is frozen and works as a refrigeration reservoir, ensuring its refrigeration
7
during distribution and transportation (Bahuaud et al., 2008). The main advantage of this
method of preservation over traditional methods is that it increases the shelf life of meat for
up to 4 times. Although most microbial activities are stopped or inhibited, chemical and
physical changes may progress and in some cases are even accelerate (Magnussen et al.,
2008).
2. Controlled Water Activity Methods
Microbiological safety of food is directly influenced by the water activity (aw). The term
water activity (aw) refers to water which support the growth of microorganisms. It represents
the ratio of the water vapour pressure of the food to the water vapour pressure of pure water
under the same conditions (Ghaly et al., 2010). Water activity in meat products is equivalent
to the relative humidity of air in equilibrium with the product (Comaposada et al., 2000).
Most fresh meats, fruits and vegetables fall into moist food category, have a water activity
more than 0.85 and require refrigeration or another barrier to control the growth of pathogens
(Smith and Stratton 2006). Each microorganism has minimum, optimum and maximum water
activities. Micro-organisms generally grow best between aW values of 0.980-0.995 and
growth ceases at aW<0.900. Yeasts and molds can grow at a low aW of 0.6. However,
growth of pathogens is prevented at aW of 0.85 (Ghaly et al., 2010). In processed and cured
meats, the growth of gram negative bacteria (that can tolerate an aW of 0.94-0.97) can be
suppressed with reducing water activity (Dillon, 1996). Water activity in meat is controlled
by drying, refrigeration, adding chemicals or a combination of these methods. Sodium
chloride and sugar are used to control water activity as free water binds up in their presence
which results in an osmotic imbalance and finally inhibition of cell growth (Ray, 2004).
2.1.Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride (NaCl) in growth media or foods can be a source of osmotic stress by
decreasing water activity.Salt-sensitive microorganisms, such as Pseudomonas spp. do not
grow in meat when the water activity (aW) is reduced from 0.99 to 0.97 with the addition of 4%
sodium chloride. However, salt tolerant microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria and
yeasts could grow at that level of water activity (Doyle, 1999).
2.2.Sugars
Sugars have the capabilities to bind with moisture and reduce water activity in foods.
Dextrose, sucrose, brown sugar, corn syrup, lactose, honey, molasses and starches are
generally used in dried meat processing as a source of sugars or carbohydrates to enhance
flavor, reduce harshness of salt and lower water activity (USDA, 2005).
3. Chemical Methods
A). Chemical Methods for Controlling Microbial Spoilage

8
Energy intensive freezing operations are the greatest way to preserve carcass, meat and meat
products for a longer time which inhibits bacterial growth, but not the psychrophiles and the
spores. Most of these survive freezing and grow during thawing (Neumeyer et al., 1997).
Traditional methods for preservation of meat by salting and picking are well accepted
procedures. Other chemicals have been used as food additives for preservation of meat but
every country has drawn its rules and regulations and established limits for the purpose of
prevention of harmful effects to human (Cassens, 1994).
Antimicrobial preservatives are substances which are used to extend the shelf life of meat by
reducing microbial proliferation during slaughtering, transportation, processing and storage.
Growth of bacteria and spoilage of meat is depending on the species of bacteria, nutrients
availability, pH, temperature, moisture and gaseous atmosphere (Cerveny et al., 2009).
Antimicrobial compounds added during processing should not be used as a substitute for poor
processing conditions or to cover up an already spoiled product (Ray, 2004). They offer a
good protection for meat in combination with refrigeration. Common antimicrobial
compounds include: Chlorides, Nitrites, Sulfides and Organic acids (Chipley, 2005).
a) Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride has a long history of use in food preservation in sufficiently high
Concentrations. It inhibits microbial growth by increasing osmotic pressure as well as
decreasing the water activity in the microenvironment. The combination of sodium chloride
with other antimicrobial agents may have an impact on the overall inhibitory effect. A
combination of NaCl and sodium lactate is more effective than lactates alone in delaying the
onset of meat spoilage and its effects on its color and fat stability (Tan and Shelef, 2002). The
use of sodium chloride in combination with sodium lactate reduces the microbial growth,
maintain the chemical quality and extend the shelf life of ground beef during refrigerated
storage (Sallam and Samejima, 2004).
b) Nitrites
The nitrites used in meat preservation industry are always in the form of salts such as sodium
nitrite or potassium nitrite. Nitrites provide stabilized red meat color, cured meat flavor and
rancidity retardation (Jay, 2005). Nitrite salts are effective in controlling color, lipid oxidation
and odor in addition to controlling the anaerobic bacteria (Sindelar and Houser2009). Nitrites
affect the growth of microorganisms in food through several reactions including: (a) reacting
with alpha amino groups of the amino acids at low pH levels, (b) blocking sulfhydryl groups
which interferes with sulfur nutrition of the organism, (c) reacting with iron-containing
compounds which restricts the use of iron by bacteria, and (d) interfering with membrane
permeability which limits the transport across cells ( Ray, 2004).
c) Sulphites
9
As antimicrobial agent, sodium sulfite is efficient against aerobic Gram-negative bacilli,
molds and yeasts in meat and meat products (Ray, 2004). The antimicrobial activity is the
result of the un dissociated sulfurous acid which enters the cell and reacts with thiol groups of
proteins, enzymes and cofactors. Yeast cells are attacked by sulfite because sulfite reacts with
cellular Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and blocks the cystine disulfide linkages (Davidson
et al., 2005).
d) Lactic acid
Lactic acid is shown antimicrobial activities against many pathogenic organisms such as
Clostridium botulinum because of its abilities to reduce pH level, exert feedback inhibition
and interferes with proton transfer across cell membranes .The salt of lactic acid (lactate) is
used in the meat industry as an antimicrobial agent (Doores, 2005). The use of lactic acid
bacteria as inoculums is a newly developed approach for food preservation. Lactic acid
bacteria are effective in inhabiting undesirable microorganisms in food by producing a wide
range of substances (such as lactic acid, acetic acids and hydrogen peroxide,) which inhabit
the growth of other microorganisms (Matamoros et al. 2009).
e) Ascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), sodium ascorbate and D-isoascorbate (erythorbate) have been
used as meat preservatives. Their antioxidant properties can oxidize reactive oxygen species
producing water. Ascorbic acid has been shown to enhance antimicrobial activity of sulfites
and nitrites (Mirvish et al., 1972; Baird- Parker and Baillie, 1974; Raevuori, 1975). The
enhanced activities include both the antioxidant properties and thesequestering of iron
(Tompkin et al., 2007).
f) Benzoic acid
Benzoic acid and sodium benzoate are used as preservatives in the meat industry. The
undissociated molecule of benzoic acid is responsible for its antibacterial activity (Krebs et al.
1983; Warth, 1991; Brul and Coote, 1999; Hazan et al. 2004; Feiner, 2006). The benzoic acid
is generally used to inhibit yeasts and fungi rather than bacteria (Chipley, 2005; Feiner, 2006).
The benzoic acid stays in their unassociated states under low pH (2.5-5.0) conditions which is
the form that readily crosses the cell membrane. Once entered the cytosol, the acids
dissociates because of neutral pH environment. The dissociated molecules (anion and cations)
cannot diffuse back across the membrane and accumulated in the cytosol. The acidification of
the cytosol and the depletion of ATP will cause physiological malfunction and finally
inhibition of microbial growth (Krebs et al. 1983; Warth, 1991; Brul and Coote, 1999; Hazan
et al. 2004; Feiner, 2006).
g) Sorbic acid
10
Sorbic acid (2, 4-hexadienoic) and its salts are widely used throughout the world as meat
preservatives for inhibiting bacteria and fungi (Feiner, 2006). A concentration of 0.3%
sorbates in food is high enough to inhibit the microorganisms. The sorbic acid has an
inhibitory mechanism via depression of internal pH. Sorbates can interfere with the bacterial
spore germination, inhibit the activity of several enzyme systems and interfere with substrate
and electron transport mechanisms (Davidson et al., 2005).
h) Lactoferrin
Lactoferrin (LF) is a well-known natural antimicrobial protein that belongs to tranferrin

family which can be isolated from various exocrine secretions and other humans and animals
tissues (Levay and Viljoen, 1995; Naidu, 2000; Naidu, 2002; Farnaud and Evans, 2003). LF
is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial which is active against bacteria, fungi, virus and protozoa
(Davison et al., 2005; Elbarbary et al., 2010). LF shows a high affinity to iron and retains its
bound to iron under acidic conditions (Farnaud and Evans, 2003; Davison et al., 2005).
B) Chemical Methods for Controlling Oxidative Spoilage
Freeze storage cannot prevent oxidative spoilage and microbial/enzymatic spoilage (Jay et al.,
2005). Thus,chemical preservation methods are quite beneficial in combination with
refrigeration in order to optimize stability, product quality while maintain freshness and
nutritional value (Cassens, 1994). Thorough understanding of lipid oxidation and its
inhibition is necessary to prevent the development of rancidity, off flavor and discoloration in
meat. Antioxidants can be classified as primary or long term antioxidants and secondary or
processing antioxidants. Primary antioxidants include phenolic compounds while the
secondary antioxidants include phosphates (Andre et al., 2010). Among the widely used lipid
oxidation inhibitory additives in meat are: phenolic antioxidants (primary antioxidants) and
phosphates (secondary antioxidants).
a) Phenolic antioxidants
Derivatives of phenol such as Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) and Proply Gallates (PG) are
referred to as synthetic phenolic antioxidants. Their use is extensive with the intention to
delay, retard or prevent the negative effects of lipid per oxidation by scavenging chain-
carrying peroxyl radicals or diminishing the formation of initiating lipid primary radicals
(chain- breaking) and secondary radicals (preventive antioxidants) ( Simitzis and Deligeorgis,
2010).
b) Phosphates
Among the antioxidants in food additives, a phosphate is one of the first investigated for their
potential antioxidant activities in meat products (Trout and Dale 1990). A range of
functionalities is provided by phosphates to enhance meat, poultry and sea food products.
11
Functionalities of phosphate salts vary with the type of phosphate salt or combination of them.
Phosphates critical functions include: (a) optimizing the water binding capacity of the muscle
proteins by influencing pH, (b) interacting with muscle fibers for improved emulsification of
fats, (c) maintaining the stability of the protein-fat-water system, (d) chelating divalent
cations and retard rancidity which increase shelf life and (e) binding iron into the system and
reducing oxidation (ICLPP, 2006).
C) Chemical Methods for Controlling Autolytic Enzymatic Spoilage
Autolysis is a term used to describe a series of postmortem chemical changes in the tissues of
animals after death due to the presence of the enzymes (lipolytic, amylolytic and proteolytic)
responsible for the metabolic process during the life of animals which are responsible for
degradation of fats, carbohydrates and proteins after the death of animal. Lypolytic enzymes
are responsible for the fat deterioration or lypolysis (oxidation) while amylolytic enzymes are
responsible for the change of glycogen to lactic acid. The enzymatic activities of calpain,
cathepsins and aminopeptidases enzymes are affected by pH and temperature. The membrane
of the lysosomes becomes leaky as the pH of the meat decreases post mortem and the
enzymes are released (O’Halloran et al., 1997). Moderate rates of postmortem pH decline
(from 6.9-6.2after 3 h) allows for greater postmortem protein degradation and increased
tenderization while rapid rates (from 6.9-5.8 in 3 h) and slow rates (from 6.9-6.6 in 3 h)
produce less tender meat. Curing salts and acids have been used to inhibit the activity of such
autolytic enzymes and prevent or slows degradation and spoilage (Maddock et al., 2005).
12
Shelf life of meat and meat product
Definition of Shelf life-The shelf-life of a product is the period of time during which the food
retains its qualitative characteristics. The shelf-life of meat and meat products is the period of
time during which storage is possible and food retains its qualitative characteristics until the
arrival of spoilage phenomena. The shelf-life of products is strongly linked to their
deterioration, creating a borderline between an acceptable and an unacceptable bacterial
concentration, which determines off-odours, off-flavours and an undesirable appearance.
Table- Factors affecting the shelf-life of meat A
Intrinsic factor
Species, breed, age and feeding of the animal origin
Initial microbiota
Chemical properties (pH, aw, redox potential, peroxide value)
Product composition
Antimicrobial components
Bio preservation systems (bacteriocinogenic LAB cultures and/or their bacteriocin)
Extrinsic factor
Quality management system
Packaging system
Temperature control
Processing conditions and hygiene
Storage types
Relative humidity
Atmospheric gas composition and ratio
A
Based on (McDonald and Sun, 1999; Dave and Ghaly, 2011; Cenci-Goga, 2012; Kalschne
et al., 2014).
Micro-organisms need energy for their metabolism, essential substances which they cannot
synthesize and components for the constitution of cells; all these necessary elements are
collected from the surrounding food environment and their presence allow the effective
survival of foodborne strains during the lag phase (Cenci- Goga, 2012).
In general, meat is rich in protein, lipids, minerals and vitamins, but poor in carbohydrates;
this composition provides an opportunity for some species instead of others with different
nutrient requirements. After microbial death, intracellular enzymes can catalyse some food
nutrients to simpler forms, which can be exploited by other species. All food substances
which do not occur naturally or are environmental contaminants are generally regarded as
added.
1
Antimicrobial agents are added to prevent bacterial contamination of food, thus avoiding
spoilage and poisoning processes caused by pathogens or their toxins (Cenci-Goga et al.,
1996).The relatively recent increase in the interest in green consumerism has actually
encouraged a renewal of scientific interest in natural approaches, such as the addition of
bioprotective cultures and natural antimicrobial compounds (essential oils, enzymes,
bacteriocins) to meat products, in order to delay the growth of spoilage micro-organisms
without interfering with the typical characteristics of the product (Burt, 2004). Plant-derived
essential oils (EOs) are aromatic, oily liquids, obtained from plant materials (flowers, buds,
seeds, leaves, twigs, bark, herbs, wood, fruits and roots) which have shown remarkable
antimicrobial activity against spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in meat and meat
products. Essential oils originating from oregano, thyme, basil, marjoram, lemongrass, ginger
and clove were investigated in vitro (Barbosa et al., 2009) and on meat products (Burt, 2004;
Fratianni et al., 2010) and found capable of affecting the growth and metabolic activity of
foodborne microbiota (Skandamis and Nychas, 2001). Bacteriocins are microbial heat-stable
peptides, active towards other bacteria (Gálvez et al., 2007); they are added as bio
preservatives to improve the microbial stability and safety of chill-stored fresh and cooked
meat (Samelis et al., 2006). In the EU, nisin (E234), a polypeptide produced by Lactococcus
lactis, and natamycin (E235), produced by Streptomyces natalensis, are currently the only
commercially available bacteriocins (Ercolini et al., 2010; Doulgeraki et al., 2012).
pH
Meat pH also affects the selection of bacte ria; each species has an optimum and a range of
pH for growth. During post slaughtering, muscle pH, normally decreases to 5.4-5.8, while pH
is >6 in meat coming from stressed animals (defined as dark, firm, dry meat) and in cooked
meat products, such as sliced ham (Aymerich et al., 2002). The presence of adipose tissue
and a high pH in meat determines a more rapid spoilage process due to a more rapid bacterial
growth and consumption of nutrient (Ray and Bhunia, 2013).
Redox potential
The oxidation-reduction potential is a function of the pH, gaseous atmosphere and presence
of reductants. It measures the potential difference, in a system generated by a coupled
reaction, in which one substance is oxidized and a second substance is reduced
simultaneously, in electrical units of millvolts (mV). The redox potential of a food is related
to its chemical composition, processing treatments and storage. Raw meat has an Eh (i.e.,
redox potential) of -200 mV, ground raw meat has an Eh of +225 mV and cooked meat a
range of +90mV to -50mV (Cenci-Goga, 2012).
Water activity (aw) is the measure of the amount of water in a food which is available for
the growth of micro-organisms, including pathogens. It identifies the water available for
carrying out enzymatic reactions, synthesizes cellular materials and takes part in other
biochemical reactions. Raw meat has aw values of 0.98-0.99 and cooked meat approximately
0.94; those values allow the growth of most microorganisms (Aymerich et al., 2002).
2
Packaging and gaseous atmosphere
Packaging conditions and the gaseous composition of the atmosphere surrounding the meat
greatly influence the composition of spoilage flora (Borch et al., 1996; Sechi et al., 2014;
Rossaint et al., 2015). Aerobic storage conditions promote, above all, the growth of
Pseudomonads (Rossaint et al., 2015). Packaging of meat under vacuum or CO2 modified
atmosphere has resulted in extended shelf-life compared to traditional packaging conditions
(Yost and Nattress, 2002). Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) meats are affected by
dynamics changes of headspace gases (headspace being the space in the package between the
inside of the lid and the top of the food): CO2 concentration changes during storage in
relation with meat absorption or evolution of CO2, depending on initial headspace CO2,
temperature, packaging configuration and meat characteristics. CO2 would be adsorbed by
the muscle and fat tissue until saturation and its absorption determines a decrease in
headspace volume in MAP until packages collapse (Zhao et al., 1995; Ercolini et al., 2006).
Among Enterobacteriaceae, Serratia spp. is the most common genus isolated from MAP meat
(Doulgeraki et al., 2012).
Storage temperature
Storage temperature affects the duration of the lag phase, the maximum specific growth rate
and the final cell number (Doulgeraki et al., 2012). Lower refrigeration temperatures
decrease bacterial growth and modify the composition of the microbiota present on meat: At
chill temperature-Lower refrigeration temperatures decrease bacterial growth and modify the
composition of the microbiota present on meat: psychrotrophic bacteria could grow, either
Gram-positive, such as LAB, or Gram-negative, such as Pseudomonas spp. (Doulgeraki et al.,
2012), at chill temperature. In MAP and vacuum packed meat products, the dominance of
lactic acid bacteria is also maintained under refrigerated conditions. However, the growth rate
is affected: Carnobacterium spp. Prevails in a vacuum at -1.5°C, whereas homo fermentative
Lactobacillus spp. dominate at 4°C and 7°C (Ray and Bhunia, 2013). Among the
Enterobacteriaceae, Hafnia alvei dominates at 4°C, and S. liquefaciens predominates at 1.5°C
(Borch et al., 1996). Psychrophilic Clostridium spp. could be detected in vacuum-packed,
chilled meat (Doulgeraki et al., 2012). Storage temperatures above 10°C are not unusual and
a shift in microbial populations can be observed. Temperature abuse determines the growth of
Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas spp. and Acinetobacter spp (Koutsoumanis et al., 2006).
From these considerations, it is evident how important an accurate management of
time/temperature can be to control not only pathogen growth and toxin formation, but also
spoilage micro-organisms. Unwanted bacteria growth and toxin formation as a result of the
time/temperature abuse of food products can cause consumer illness. Temperature abuse
occurs when the product is allowed to remain a sufficient length of time at temperatures
favourable to pathogen growth resulting in unsafe levels of pathogens or their toxins in the
product (Cenci-Goga et al., 2005; Leonard, 2011; Cenci-Goga et al., 2014).
3
Alterations associated with spoilage
The characteristics of meat deteriorations depend on the availability of variable substrates:

glucose, lactic acid, nitrogenous compounds and free amino acids present in meat, as the
principal precursors of microbial metabolites responsible for spoilage (Nychas et al., 2008).
Off odours and off flavours
The volatilome, the volatile fraction of the microbial catabolites, includes: sulphur
compounds, ketones, aldehydes, organic acids, volatile fatty acids, ethyl esters, alcohols,
ammonia and other metabolites. Depending on their olfactory thresholds and the interaction
between the volatile and non-volatile compounds, these molecules will affect the sensory
quality of both fresh and cooked meat (Casaburi et al., 2015). From aerobically stored meat,
it is not infrequent to appreciate undesirable odours as putrid, cheesy, sulphuric, sweet and
fruity (Borch et al., 1996). Off-odours are perceptible to consumers when the total bacterial
count is between 107CFU gr-1 and 107.5CFU gr-1. Pseudomonas spp. and B. thermosphacta
predominantly contribute to foul odours as a result of their metabolism (Nychas et al., 2008).
When superficial contamination is nearly 108CFU gr–1, the carbohydrates are depleted and
Pseudomonaceae in association with psychrotrophic Gram-negatives, such as Moraxella spp.,
Alcaligenes spp, Aeromonas spp, Serratia spp., Pantoea spp., start using amino acids as
sources of energy. Nauseating odours are associated with free amino acids and nitrogen
compounds (NH3, indole, and tryptophan). B. thermosphacta aerobic metabolism of glucose
produces a foul-smelling odour, such as acetoin and acetic acid (Koutsoumanis et al., 2006).
Sulphur-containing compounds determine sulphuric odours, originating from hydrogen
sulphide formed by Enterobacteriaceae and dimethyl sulphide by Pseudomonas spp. Cheesy
odours are determined by acetoin/diacetyl and 3-methylbutanol formations produced by
Enterobacteriaceae, B. thermosphacta and homofermentative Lactobacillus spp. (Casaburi et
al., 2015). The off-odour from vacuum and MA-packed meat is less intense and is
represented by a sour, acid aroma as a result of the spoilage caused by lactic acid bacteria,
associated with the production of lactic- and acetic-acid during the logarithmic and stationary
growth phase. The CO2 and O2 content affects the rate of consumption of glucose by B.
thermosphacta. As a consequence, anaerobic metabolism produces less intense odours than
aerobic metabolism, so the use of a low concentration of oxygen on modified atmosphere
packaging is better for maintaining acceptable qualities (Pin et al., 2002). Shewanella spp.
produces malodorant compounds, such as H2S in vacuum packaged meat (Gram et al., 2002;
Doulgeraki et al., 2012).
Colour alteration
The presence of bacterial patina on the surface of meat products is appreciable when the
microbiotas are between 107.5-108CFU cm-2. Hydrogen sulphide, produced by L. sakei, H.
alvei, S. putrefaciens, converts the muscle pigment to green sulphomyoglobin and its
appearance is a consequence of glucose consumption. Sulphomyoglobin is not formed in
anaerobic atmospheres (Borch et al., 1996). Leuconostoc spp. and Leuconostoc-like
4
microorganisms, such as Weissella viridescens, may cause meat products to turn green, due to
the formation of hydrogen peroxide, which oxidizes nitrosomyochromogen as the
consequence of the exposure of meat to O2 (Dušková et al., 2013). S. putrefaciens may
determine green discolouration in vacuum-packed meat (Doulgeraki et al., 2012). In addition,
among the factors affecting light-induced oxidative discoloration of cooked meat during the
storage, the headspace volume directly influences the total amount of O2 available for the
oxidation (Robertson, 2012).
Gas production
Clostridium spp. is responsible for the production of a large amount of gases (H2 and CO2):
vacuum-packed meat could be affected by blown pack spoilage, characterized by deformation
of the pack due to the accumulation of a large amount of gases, putrid odours, the presence of
exudates, extensive proteolysis, changes in pH and colour. This type of deterioration can
occur in chilled, vacuum-packed meat, caused by psychrophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria.
Not only Clostridium spp. is responsible for blown pack (Yang et al., 2014), but LAB also
play an important role in the production of the volatile, organic compounds found in the
package headspace of spoiled meat (Hernandez-Macedo et al., 2012). CO2 concentration
during the storage of packages is attributed to metabolic by-products of the
heterofermentative lactobacilli and leuconostocs. It usually determines off-odours as well.
5
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WOOL AND KERATIN
Chemically wool is chiefly keratin, which is also the primary constituents of hoofs,
horns, nails, hairs and feathers. Keratin is a mixture of nitrogen and sulphur
compounds and amino acids. A typical chemical break down of wool is as follows:
Chemical composition of wool fibre Chemical composition of keratin

Items Percentage (%) Items Percentage (%)
Keratin 33 Carbon 50
Dirt 26 Hydrogen 12
Suint 28 Oxygen 10
Fat 12 Nitrogen 25
Mineral Matter 1 Sulpher 3
Total 100 Total 100
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL OF DESHI SHEEP
a) Coarse fibers
b) Heterotypical
c) Kempy fiber present (20% app.)
d) Crimpyness is very less
e) Color is not ideal
f) Less elastic
g) Moisture absorbing capacity is very poor
h) Medulated type
i) Luster is poor
j) Less softness
k) Staple length (3″-5″)
l) Yield- 1kg/year.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOL FIBRES: Physical properties of wool
fibres are given below
a. Colour: The colour of wool fibre could be white, near white, brown and black
b. Tensile strength: The tensile strength of wool in dry condition is 1-1.7 and 0.8-
1.6 in wet condition
1
Md. Nazim Uddin, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management,
Faculty of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-
3100, Bangladesh, Mobile- +8801730449873, Email- nazimsau@gmail.com
c. Elongation at break: Standard elongation is 25-35% and 25-50 wet condition
d. Elasticity recovery: Good
e. Specific gravity: Specific gravity is 1.3-1.32
f. Moisture regain (MR %): Standard moisture regain is 16-18%.
g. Resiliency: Excellent
h. Luster: Luster of coarse fibre is higher than the fine fibre.
i. Effect of heat: Heat affects the wool fibre greatly. Wool becomes weak for heat.
It softness when heated or treated with boiling water for long time. At 130ºC it
decomposes and chars at 300ºC. Wool does not continue to burn when it is
remove from flame.
j. Effect of sunlight: The main chemical components (keratin) of wool
decomposes under the action of sunlight. The sulphur in wool is converted into
H2SO4. The fibres become discoloured and developed a harsh feel.
k. Stored: No problem
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOL FIBRES: Wool is a protein fibre and it
has some chemical properties. The Chemical properties of wool fibres are given below
a. Effect of acids: Wool is attached by hot concentrated sulphuric acid and

decomposes completely. It is generally resistant to mineral acids to all strength
even at high temperature through nitric acids tend to cause damage by
oxidation. Dilute acids are used for removing cotton from mixtures of two
fibres, sulphuric acid is used to remove vegetable matter in carbonizing process.
b. Effects of alkalis: The chemical nature of wool is keratin that is particularly

sensitive to alkaline substances. Wool will dissolve in caustic soda solutions
that would have little effects on cotton. Strong alkaline effect on wool fibre
weak alkaline does not affect wool fibre.
c. Effect of organic solvent: Wool does not affect in organic solvents.
d. Effect of insects: Wool affected by insects.
e. Effect of microorganism: It affected by mildew it it remains wet for long time.
f. Dyeing ability: Wool fibre could be dyed by basic dye, direct dye and acid dye.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WOOL AND HAIR

2
Character Wool Hair
Form Wool present in the staple form in the Hair present in individual form
body. in the body
Surface Surface is serrated. Completely smooth.
Crimp Wool is crimpy. Lack of crimp.
Waviness Wavy appearance. Lack of waviness.
Elasticity An excellent degree of elasticity. Lack of elasticity.
How to produce quality wool?
Observance of the following wool production and handling practices will result in
marketing a higher quality product
 Producing superior fleeces through:
a. Feeding properly.
b. Protecting the on-the- back fleece from foreign materials, and
c. Tagging sheep at intervals.
 Using a scour able branding material, where branding or identifying is

necessary.
 Shearing in a clean place.
 Using skilled shearers.
 Packing properly.
 Shipping in clean trucks or cars, and keeping the wool bags dry.
Mohair: The long lusters fleece covering of Angora goat is known as mohair.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOHAIR WOOL FABRIC
1. It is lustrous.
2. It is silky and luxurious.
3. It is strong and durable.
4. It is lightweight.
5. It is elastic up to 30%.
6. It is a good insulator. It provides warmth during the winter and keep the body
cool in summers.
7. It is resistant to wrinkle, soiling, stretching and sagging.
8. It is easily blend able.
3
9. It is non-crushable.
10. It drapes well.
11. It absorbs dye completely and indelibly.
12. It does not burn easily unless exposed to a direct flame.
13. It absorbs and releases moisture easily, hence moving perspiration away from
the skin.
14. It does not felt or shrink, hence it is easy to wash.
Uses of Mohair Wool Fabric
1. Mohair has tremendous versatility. Its lightweight, the lustrous quality and
silkiness has made it good for lightweight suiting, fabric for stoles and scarves.
2. The warmth quality and durability makes good use as blankets and upholstery.
It is also used as Linings, pile fabrics, braids, dress materials, felt hats, shawls
and sweaters.
3. The softness and non-itchy quality of the fabric has made it a good option for
babywear and kids sets.
4. It is also used for carpets and interior textiles.
STEPS TO COMMERCIAL FIBRE PROCESSING IN INDUSTRY
1. Scouring
 The removal of all impurities from grease wool.
 Use water, detergent, and sometimes a mild alkali.
2. Carbonizing
 Wool containing excessive amounts of vegetable material is carbonized using
an aqueous acid treatment followed by heating which converts the cellulose
base defect into carbon.
 Neutralization and re-scouring complete the process.
3. Drying
 The amount of water held by the wool is reduce to below 15%.
 Moisture in wool is removed by hot, dry air blown through the wool prior to
being exhausted from the dryer.
4. Carding
4
 Number of cylinders and rollers of equal width but variable in diameter and
covered with short wires.
 Carding disentangles and separates scoured wool fibres.
5. Gilling (pin-drafting, drawing, blending)

 A blending and drawing operation that is applied to card sliver before combing.
 The contact with pins and rollers opens and straightens the wool fibres.
6. Rectilinear Combing
 Removing vegetable matter and short, tangled fibres from wool.
 Arranging fibres in parallel configuration, forming a continuous, twist less rope
of combed sliver.
7. Top Finishing
 Further blending fibres into a uniform weight and thickness per unit of length
and winding into a ball known as top.
 Fourteen to 18 combed slivers are combined and drafted in an auto-leveller-
controlled gill box.
8. Spinning, Roving, Winding, and Twisting

 Final drawing to the desired yearn count or thickness.
 Includes insertion of a predetermined amount and direction of twist.
 Delivery of yarn to appropriate package.
9. Weaving
 Interlacing of two sets of yarn to form fabric.
 A modern loom performs several sequential functions, such as required weaving
type and colour combinations.
10. Knitting
 Interlacing of yarn in a series of connected loops by needles to form a fabric.
 Hand knitting yarns have less strength than those from machine knitting.
11. Finishing
 Anything that happens to a wool fabric after leaving the loom until it is ready
for the cutter.
 Characterized as mechanical, aqueous, drying, and chemical.
Scouring
Carbonizing
Drying
Carding
Gilling
Combing
Top Finishing
Spinning Roving Winding Twisting
Weaving
Knitting
Finishing Fabric
Fig: Steps of commercial fibre processing

6
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOOL FIBER
The growth of a wool fibre or hair is a dynamic process which involves cell
proliferation and migration, together with the biosynthesis of the complex mixture of
proteins forming the fibre and inner root sheath. Most of the wool follicles that
produce the mature fleece are already present before the birth of the lamb. Follicles
first begin to appear when the foetus is 2 months old- birth takes place at 5 months.
The skin of lamb consists of a dermis and an epidermis is formed by the constant
growing & dividing of a very active layer of cells, called the basal layer. There is a
continuous wear on the outermost layer of epidermis, which is replaced by cells
derived from the basal layer. This basal layer is also important for the formation of
wool follicle. At certain positions of the skin the basal layer thickens and begins to
grow down into the dermis to form a sort of plug of cell tissue. This plug will
ultimately from the wool follicle with its accessory structures. Two outgrowths appear
at the same side of the plug when it grows downwards; (a) a sebaceous gland and (b) a
thin saclike or slightly coiled sweat gland (Fig 1).
The lower end of the plug gradually becomes bulbous. The base of the bulb then
becomes turned in and grows upward to form a dome like structure of actively
dividing cells, called the papilla, which is well supplied with the small blood vessels
(Fig. 1). It will be noted that the basal layer is continuous over the dome of the papilla
and in this region its cells are actively dividing. The cells thus divided off gradually
elongate and form the wool fibre itself; that is the cuticle and cortex. The tip of the
growing fibre is pushed upward through the follicle plug by the pressure of new cells
being formed continuously from the dome of the papilla. The cells of the sebaceous
gland multiply and extend into the neck of the follicle. Here they break down, leaving
a cavity or passage that is reached by the tip of the young growing fibre. The fibre tip
becomes slightly bent over at the top and then breaks through the skin surface.
Fig. 1. Stages in the development of a wool follicle in the skin of lamb before birth. Vertical sections
of the skin are magnified ca. 100 X. 9
Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of a completely developed wool follicle (primary, nonmedullated) magnified ca.
150 X.
10
FACTORS AFFECTING FIBRE GROWTH RATE AND QUALITY
A. GENETIC INFLUENCES
The maximum rate at which an animal can produce wool or hair, and the range of
variation possible in several characters related to quality, are set by its genotype. There
are definite differences between breeds of sheep in the capacity to grow wool and in
various fleece characteristics. Thus, Merinos, which have a much greater follicle
density than Down and long wool breeds, grow a similar mass of wool but more than
the Down breeds. Likewise, within a breed, there is considerable variation in the rate
of wool growth between strains and individual sheep. In the Australian Merino, a
comparison of the fine, medium and strong wool strains shows an increasing clean
fleece weight associated with increased fibre diameter, staple length and body weight.
B. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

a) Effects during foetal and early post-natal life
During the period when the follicle is developing, it can be adversely
affected by an inadequate supply of nutrients. Undernutrition of the ewe during the
latter part of pregnancy, and of the lamb during the first few months of life, can
prevent or retard development of some follicles. The major effect of poor nutrition
during pregnancy is on the initiation and maturation of secondary follicles during the
latter third of pregnancy, when the nutrient demands for growth of the foetus are
greatest. The maturation of the post natal wave of secondary follicles may be delayed
by up to 6 to 12 months. Ewes were well or poorly fed during pregnancy and their
lambs were similarly treated during the first 16 weeks of post-natal life. Sheep reared
in the poor regime throughout produced 20% less wool at maturity than those reared
on the good regime throughout. It has also been observed that adult wool production
is less in sheep born and reared as twins than in single born lambs, and in sheep born
to young ewes than in the progeny of mature ewes (Corbett, 2001).
11
b)Effects during adult life- The amount and type of fibre grown by the adult animal
is markedly influenced by a variety of physiological and environmental factors.
These influences are considered following:
i) Nutrition
Variations in the supply of nutrients to the follicles can exert a
considerable influence on the rate of fibre production and the characteristics of the
fleece. The herds with higher diseases and ill health have lover production such as
growth rate, meat and wool production (Khan et al., 2010). Most sheep and goats
are kept under free-ranging conditions and the quantity and quality of feed
available to them may vary considerably throughout the year. Consequently, the
peak rate of wool growth is frequently two to three times the minimum rate for
grazing sheep (Brown and Williams, 2000; Black and Reis, 2001). There is no
general agreement on the precise form of the relationship between wool growth
and feed intake. The relative importance of energy or protein supply for wool
growth remained unresolved until the special features of ruminant digestion were
taken into account. Amino acid treatments, given post-ruminally, can adversely
affect wool growth and may also produce differential effects on length growth rate
and diameter of fibres (Reis and Panaretto, 2001).
Many of the effects of minerals appear to be due to changes in the
supply of major nutrients brought about by changes in feed intake or in the
balance of nutrients flowing from the rumen. Specific effects on fibre growth have
only been demonstrated for zinc and copper, and even some of these may be
related to changes in feed intake. Zinc deficiency in sheep causes brittle wool and
loss of crimp; extreme deficiency causes cessation of fibre growth and fleece
shedding. Copper deficiency causes depigmentation of wool in black sheep and
the steely wool syndrome. Wool growth rate is reduced by this deficiency but a
reduction in feed intake may be involved. Copper supplementation may
specifically stimulate wool growth but the evidence is meager (Purser, 2000).
Various B vitamins may impair hair growth and are important for maintaining
12
high rates of hair growth because of its role as a co-factor for enzymes involved in
the metabolism of methionine and cystine.
ii) Hormones
Fibre growth is markedly hormone dependent and experimental manipulation of

hormone status causes large changes in the rate of wool growth. The pituitary
hormones, including thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocortico-trophic hormone
(which act on target glands) and growth hormone, exert a controlling influence on
wool growth (Wallace, 2000). Removal of the pituitary gland causes wool growth
rate to decline to zero, and thyroidectomy reduces, but does not abolish wool
growth. In both situations, normal wool growth is restored by administration of
thyroxine or its active form, tri-iodothyronine. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
causes increased secretion of glucocorticoids by the adrenal gland; in sheep, high
concentrations of cortisol in plasma (30 to 50 ng/ml) are associated with
depression or complete cessation of wool growth.
iii) Physiological state
Wool production is influenced by the age and sex of animals, and by reproduction
in the ewe. Less wool is grown by young animals per unit of feed intake,
presumably due to competition for nutrients between follicles and other tissues.
Maximum fleece weights in sheep have been observed as from three to five years
of age, with variable rates of decline in wool production thereafter (Corbett, 2001).
The number of active follicles decreases with age (Corbett, 2001). Reductions in
wool growth with age could be related to changing patterns of feed intake and diet
selection. Various quality characteristics tend to deteriorate with age, and crimp
abnormalities may appear. Rams tend to produce more wool than wethers and
ewes, due mainly to their greater size and the better feeding given to rams.
iv) Exogenous chemicals
A variety of exogenous chemicals have been observed to influence fibre growth.
In sheep, the most notable effect is shedding of the fleece, but the growth of
13
substantially weakened wool can also be induced. The compounds shown to be
effective are thallium salts, cyclophosphamide, analogues of cortisol (dexa
methasone and flumethasone), and mimosine and related compounds. Most of
these compounds inhibit cell division and do not act specifically on the wool
follicle.
v)Parasites and diseases
Various microbial infections and external parasites can reduce wool production.
Infections with internal parasites can considerably reduce wool growth and
virtually, all grazing sheep are affected to some extent.
vi) Weather and photoperiod
Exposure of areas of skin to heat or cold, or experimentally induced

localized changes in skin temperature, indicate that wool growth, especially length
growth rate, is specifically retarded by low temperatures. The effects are
presumably related to reduced blood flow and hence nutrient supply. Localized
high temperatures do not influence wool growth until unphysiologically high
values are reached. In practice, wool production other than by newly-shorn sheep,
is not directly influenced by weather conditions; however it can indirectly influence
wool growth by altering feed intake. Different weather conditions of the area may
influence the water quality. Carbonates and bycarbonates in pond water show
higher values during summer season (Naeem et al., 2011) influencing the wool
composition.
14
FACTORS AFFECTING PRICE OF WOOL
1. Clean wool fiber content

Clean wool fiber content or yield denotes the amount of clean wool free of all
types of extraneous matter like dust, grease, burrs, stones and pieces of skin.
This is the most important factor which determines the price of wool in a
consignment. The price bears a direct relationship to the clean fiber content: the
higher the clean content, the higher is the price, and vice versa. In villages, the
clean content generally ranges between 50 and 60 percent; therefore, the prices
are at the lowest level in the producing areas. In the secondary markets, it
commonly varies from 60 to 70 percent, and the prices occupy an intermediate
position. In the terminal markets, the clean content usually ranges between 75
and 85 percent, and prices rule at the highest level.
2. Moisture content
Apart from the solid extraneous matter, wool contains moisture, which has a
great bearing on the clean fiber content. Being a hygroscopic substance, wool
readily absorbs moisture, and gains in weight considerably. The rate of
absorption and desportion depends upon humidity, temperature and area of
surface exposure. Usually the rate of moisture desorption exceeds the rate of
absorption until a stage of equilibrium is reached in 4-6 hours. The regain
changes resulting from exposure of wool to different humidities vary greatly,
e.g., the English Wool Industries Research Association reports that the mean
regain of scoured wool at 72° F. is 12.08, 15.51, 17.86 and 21.17 percent at
43.3, 62.3, 81.5 and 90.0 percent relative humidity respectively. The moisture
content of greasy wool is lower than that of scoured wool. An increase in
moisture content is particularly noticeable at the sea-side places having high
15
humidity and in the upcountry markets during the rainy season, when wool
absorbs excessive moisture and merchants find it difficult to dry it properly.
Under ordinary conditions in Pakistan, wool consignments contain 9-15 percent
moisture and if the moisture content is higher, wool is termed moist. As the
presence of moisture reduces the clean wool content, and may lead to the
development of mildew, caking and spoilage of fibers, it results in the lowering
of price of wool. The price cut for moisture up to about 15 percent is
proportionate to its weight; but for moisture between 16 and 25 percent, the
reduction is a little more than that warranted by the actual weight of moisture,
because the buyers allow a margin for caking and damage likely to result from
the storage of excessively moist in pressed bales, as a rule, wool containing
more than 25 percent moisture remains unsold.
3. Vegetable matter content

All wools contain a certain amount of vegetable matter like burrs, seeds, twigs,
leaves, straw and pieces of strings, which are picked up by sheep while grazing,
or get mixed up with wool while it is being prepared or transported. The
common types of vegetable matter found in wool are spiral burrs, shives, cockle
burrs, sand burrs and corn blades. The presence of such matter in wool is
undesirable, as it breaks up into innumerable small particles during subsequent
operations like carding and damages the cards and combs. These particles cause
the yarn to spin unevenly, and make it twity. They also pass into the finished
product and are known as specks, motes or burrs. As vegetable matter does not
take up the dye-stuffs, or colorless surface specks. Consequently, it becomes
essential to remove all kinds of vegetable matter from wool before it is
processed. As it is difficult and expensive to remove vegetable matter,
especially burrs, altogether from wool, burry wool always sells at a discount.
16
The amount of vegetable matter present in Pakistan’s wools generally ranges
between 1 and 3 percent.
4. Fat content
Sheep fleeces contain wool-fat, grease or wax, which is secreted by the glands
in the skin of sheep, and forms a protective coating on the surface of the fibers.
Wool fat has a very high content of cholesterol (15-16 percent), and is known
for its emollient properties. The amount of wool-fat in the fleece of sheep varies
according to breed and region; for example, it may be only 8.6 percent, in ¼
Blood Merino sheep and as high as 17.4 percent in Fine merino sheep. The
higher the fat content, the smaller the yield, greasy wools fetch lower price than
the non-greasy wools.
5. Quality: There are a number of characteristics of wool which determine its

quality and affect the price. Although these factors have been dealt with
individually in the following paragraphs, and their effect on prices.
a. Type: Clipped wool is considered the best type of wool and fetches the
highest price. Pulled wool, having damaged while being removed from dead
skins sells cheaper than clipped wool by 2-6 percent. The price of mixed
wool occupies an intermediate position, depending upon the proportion of
pulled and clipped fibers.
b. Color: White wool, being suitable for dyeing to any color, fetches the
highest price. Yellow wool, however, has to be bleached to white color first
(which is expensive), or has to be dyed into deep color, hence it sells at a
lower price. Colored wools (Light-greay, dark-grey and black) are generally
used as such for manufacturing colored and comparatively cheap types of
goods; therefore, they fetch the lowest price. Generally speaking, the price of
17
white, pale-yellow, yellow and colored wools are in the ratio of 100, 85, 80
and 56 respectively. As regards light-grey, dark-grey and black wools, their
prices are usually in the ratio of 100, 77 and 73 respectively. Ordinarily, the
price of light-grey wool is higher than that of dark-grey or black wool, which
normally have the same level of prices.
c. Staple length: As carpet manufactures prefer wools with a staple length of
over 2 inches, the prices of wools above this length don’t show appreciable
variations. All wools 2 inches long or less, however, sell at discount, which
is 5-10 percent, for a length below 2 inches and above 1 inch, 10-25 percent,
for wool less than 1 inch long. Shorts wool makes lower prices because they
have to be blended with longer wolls before they can be woven into fabrics,
and even then the goods produced are of low grades.
d. Fineness: As the finer the wool, the more superior the quality of fabrics
produced from it, fine wools are costlier than the coarse wools, while
medium wools make an intermediate price.
6. Season: Variations in the prices of wool happen in different parts of the year
due to weather conditions.
7. Locality: As in the case of other commodities, the price of wool rules at the
lowest level in the producing areas (primary markets), at an intermediate level
in towns and cities (secondary markets) and at the highest level at the exporting
ports (tertiary markets) of the country. The price rises progressively from the
primary towards tertiary markets owing to (a) better cleaning and sorting
undertaken at successive stages, (b) additional market charges, including
intermediaries profit and (c) increasing transport charges for hauling wool from
producing areas to export centers.
18
Terminology of Hides and Skins
Hides and skins are broadly defined as the external integuments of large animals,
while skins are provided by smaller animals. The best sources of hides and skins
from domesticated animals are cattle hides and sheep-goat skins. However, hides
and skins may also be obtained from other species of domesticated and non-
domesticated animals (hides from cattle, buffalo, horse, camel, elephant etc) and
(skins from sheep, goat, pig, Impala, Rabbit, mink, snake, Frog, Ostrich, shark etc)
(FAO, 1995)
Abattoir A large slaughter house

Belly The extreme left or right side of a hide removed by cutting
along a line parallel to the backbone line and at such a distance
from it as to remove about 23 percent of the total area of the
hide for the two bellies. The belly includes the front and hind
shank.
Butt That part of the hide remaining after the shoulder and bellies
has been removed. It’s very compact texture makes it
especially suitable as heavy shoe-leather.
Bend Half a butt
Blister A condition of rottenness between the inner and outer surfaces
of the hide.
Brining The soaking of hides, after flaying, in a saturated solution of
common commercial salt, prior to salting down in pile.
Brisket The part of the hide covering the breast
Butcher cuts Damage caused by careless and improper use of the knife
Bangladesh, Email-uddinvet@gmail.com.
during flaying, usually penetrating right through the hide or
skin (also called flay cuts).
Corium The derma or true skin; that part of a hide or skin which
remains after .removal of the epidermis, the hair, and flesh,
and which is converted into leather
Correct pattern A standard pattern for a flayed hide or skin, when laid out flat,
which is adopted by the trade and which enables the tanner to
obtain the maximum quantity of good leather from it.
Country hides Hides produced by farmers and country butchers, and not in
recognized abattoirs or slaughterhouses
Curing The treatment of hides and skins with common commercial
salt, or by air-drying, to render them non-putrescible, so that
they can be transported and stored until the tanner is ready to
deal with them.
Derma Also called corium or true skin. The part that is converted into
leather
Dewlap The loose hanging skin under the throat of cattle, where the
butcher (flayer) first inserts his knife when slaughtering or
flaying.
Epidermis The superficial layer of cells protecting the derma or grain
layer of a hide or skin. It dries off as scurf at its surface, and
renews itself by new growth underneath.
Fallen hide A hide which has been removed from the carcass of an animal
that has died from natural causes
Fatting The removal of unwanted fat from the flesh side of a fresh hide
or skin.
Flanks The portion of a hide or skin covering the area defined under
Belly
Flaying or The removal of a hide or skin from an animal carcass.
Skinning
Flaying knife The knife used to sever the subcutaneous tissues when
removing the hide or skin from the carcass. It has a curved
cutting edge and tip, so as to reduce damage to a minimum.
Flaying machine A mechanical hand unit, replacing the flaying knife, and
consisting of two saw-edged circular blades placed together,
moving in opposite directions, and powered by electricity or
compressed air. These machines are capable of producing
perfectly flayed hides. It is not used for flaying skins.
Flesh side The side of a hide or skin next to the body
Fleshing The removal of the loose connective tissues by which a hide or
skin is attached to the carcass
Fresh hide Also called green or raw hide. A hide or skin which has not
been treated in any way, except possibly by light salting.
Gouges Knife damage to a hide or skin during flaying, m which small
portions of the corium are scooped out.
Grain layer The top layer of the corium including the hair follicles
Ground-drying The sun-drying of hides and skins, in which they are spread on
the ground, flesh side uppermost, and either weighted down
with stones or pegged to the ground through holes around the
edges. This method of drying is unsatisfactory and is to be
condemned.
Grubby hides Hides damaged by the grub of the warble fly, with holes and
healed scars on the back portion.
Hoisting gear The mechanical device used to raise the carcass of a heavy
animal from the slaughterhouse floor to facilitate flaying and
dressing.
Humane killer A lethal weapon used for killing animals (see Captive bolt,
above).
Leather Animal hide or skin so treated as to make it permanently
resistant to decomposition when wet, and to make it supple
when dry.
Meating The removal of particles of meat from flesh side of a hide or
skin
Pattern The outline of a hide or skin when laid out flat
Pelt Skin from which hair or wool has been removed
Poor pattern An outline or contour of a hide or skin, when laid out flat,
which does not conform to the standard or correct pattern
adopted by the trade.
Ripping Opening of a hide or skin before flaying
Scores Knife damage to hides or skins during flaying by cuts that do
not' penetrate Completely ·through the skin.
Shank The portion of a hide or skin which covers a leg of an animal.
Take off The removal of a hide or skin from an animal; the flaying of an
animal
Trimming The removal of unwanted portions of a hide, skin, or piece of
leather.
True skin The corium or derma; the part of the hide or skin which is
converted into leather.
Terminology of wool science

1. Apparel wool: The term include any wool that is manufacture into cloth for
use as clothing.
2. Belly wool: The wool that grows on the belly of the sheep. It is uneven,
different in grade from the body fleece.
3. Black wool: It refers to any wool containing black fiber.
4. Blood: This term is used to indicate the degree of fineness of wool. It means
how much genetic merit transmitted into the animal from hybridization with
fine wool breed. It is expressed as half, three-eighth, quarter and low quarter.
5. Bradford system: The system of combing and spinning of wool commonly

used in the United States. The longer wool is used in this system for
manufacturing. Bradford system yarns are used to make worsted fabrics.
6. Break: Weak a certain point, but strong in above and below the weak spot
as opposed to tender which signifies generally a weak fiber.
7. Britch wool: Wool from thigh and twist region of the sheep. It is coarsest
and poorest wool on the entire fleece. It is usually manure containg and
urine stain.
8. Buck fleece: A fleece from buck or ram. The wool usually has a heavy
shrinkage due to excessive wool grease (mohair).
9. Burry wool: Wool that contains heavy vegetable matter including bars,
leaves, seeds, twigs, etc. which requires special and expensive process in
their removal that are classed as burry wool.
10. Caracul: A type of pelt produced by young lambs of caracul breed.
11. Carbonizing: The act treating wool with chemicals, usually acids to
destroy and remove the bars without too serious damage to the wool. Wool
so treated is known as carbonized wool.
12. Card: A machine with multiple rolls having teeth which is used to separate
the wool fibers by opening the locks or tufts.
13. Carding: An operation which converts loose, clean, scoured wool into
continuous untwisted strands.
14. Carpet wool: Wool from the sheep that have had no attention paid to
breeding. The wool is coarse, harsh, strong and more suitable for carpet
making than fabrics.
15. Character: It refers to the evenness, distinctiveness, and uniformity of

crimp characteristics to respective wool classes.
16. Clean content: The amount of clean scoured wool remaining after removal
of vegetable and other foreign materials and containing 12% by weight of
moisture & 1.5% by weight of ingredients removable by extraction with
alcohol.
17. Clean wool: This term usually refers to scoured wool but occasionally it is
used to describe grease wool that has a minimum amount of vegetable
matter.
18. Clips: Usually refers to the total production of wool from any given flock,
state or country.
19. Coarse wool: This term means the same “low wool”. It is generally refers
to the wool coarser than ¼ blood.
20. Clothing wool: Under 1-1.5 inches length and distinguish from combing
wool by its shorter length. Principal properties include softness, crimpiness
and felting ability.
21. Combing: An operation in the worsted system of removal of the short

fibers (noil) and foreign impurities. Long fibers are straightened out and laid
parallel.
22. Combing wool: Wools having sufficient length and strength to comb. It
must be over 2 inches.
23. Condition: In grease wool, condition refers to the amount of yolk and
foreign impurities containing in the wool.
24. Crimp: The wave effect in the wool fiber. Usually the fine wool shows the
most crimp. Uniformity of desired crimp generally indicates the superior
wool.
25. Crossbred wool: This term refers to the wool obtain from the sheep of long
wool × fine wool breeding. Usually this wool grade 3/8th or ½ blood.
26. Dead wool: Wool from dead sheep (not slaughtered).

27. Density: An index of number of wool fibers per unit area of the sheep’s
body. Fine wool breeds show greater fleece density than the coarser wool
breed.
28. Depilatory: A solution or pest usually consisting of Na 2 S, H 2 S0 4 and

ground oyster shells, which are applied to the flesh side of pelts in order to
loosen the fibers from the skin in preparation fur wool clothing process.
29. Elasticity: The ability of wool to return readily to its original length after
being stretched. Elasticity varies greatly with the character of wool. Wool
may be sound and has good character shows considerable elasticity.
30. Felting: The property of wool fibers to interlock, when rubbed together
under conditions of heat, moisture and pressure. No other fiber can compare
with wool in felting properties.
31. Fine wool: The finest breed of wool according to blood system. This term is
also used in a general way for wool from any of the merino breeds of sheep.
32. Fleece: The wool from one sheep, either as it comes from the sheep, or after
it is rolled into a bundle and tight.
33. Grade: A means of designating wool primarily according to the fineness of

fibers.
34. Grading: Classification of unopened or untyped fleeces according to

fineness, staple length, character, soundness, etc.
35. Grease wool: Wool in its natural condition as it comes from the sheep,
either sheared/clipped or pulled.
36. Hank: A standard length of yarn from a reel. A hank of worsted consists of
560 yards.
37. Kemp: A white, straight, opaque, coarse, non-felting, inelastic fiber having
a thick central medulla with hollow interspaces. It will not take a dye; hence
its presence in wool is most undesirable.
38. Lamb’s wool: Wool coming from lamb, usually less than 7 or 8 months of
age. It is soft and hence spring qualities superior to fleeces of similar quality
of older sheep.
39. Long wool: Wool from such English breeds as Lincoln, Leicester, and
Cotswold. It is large in diameter and up to 12 or 15 inches in length.
40. Luster: The natural gloss or shiny characteristics of the fleece of long wool
breeds of sheep and Angora goat.
41. Medium wool: Usually refers to half blood, 3/8th and1/4th blood.
42. Mohair: The long lustrous fleece covering of Angora goat.
43. Noil: The sort fibers that are removed from the staple wool in the combing
process. Noil is satisfactory for the manufacture of felts and woolens.
44. Pelt: The skin from a slaughtered sheep before the wool has been pulled.
45. Pulled wool: Wool pulled from skin of slaughtered sheep. The wool is
pulled from the skin after treatment of flesh side of skin with depilatory.
Pulled wool should not be confused with dead wool.
46. Purity: It refers to unsheared fleeces which are free from dark fibers, kemp,
etc.
47. Quality: It refers to the fineness of wool fiber. This may be expressed
according to the American or Bradford system.
48. Raw wool: Wool with the grease is raw wool.
49. Regain: It refers to increase in weight due to water absorb by dried scoured
wool under standard atmospheric condition.
50. Reject: Off grades thrown to one side by the wool grader; includes fleece
with excessive black fiber, kemp, dead fibers, vegetable matters, etc.
51. Scouring: A process of washing or cleaning of wool grease, soil and suint
by washing in a alkali solution.
52. Serration: The outer or epidermal scaly edges on the wool fiber which can
be seen under a microscope, usually the finer the wool the greater the
number of serrations. Serrations assist in felting and interlocking.
53. Shrinkage: The loss of weight of wool resulting from the removal of yolk
and other foreign matter in scouring of carbonizing.
54. Sorting: The process of separating a fleece into its various qualities
according to diameter, length, color, strength and other factors. This is
usually the first operation after the grease wool arrives at the mill.
55. Sound wool: Wool that has a strong staple. A wool buyer or grader test the
soundness of the wool by holding a staple at either and snapping his fingure
across the middle of it.
56. Staple: A cluster or groups of wool fibers naturally clinging together in the
fleece by the bind fibers, which are commonly transverse one or more of this
cluster.
57. Suint: Generally refers to as the perspiration of a sheep, which consists

largely of water, salt of various fatty acids and small quantities of sulphates,
phosphates and nitrogenous substances. It is soluble in water.
58. Tender: Wool that is weak in one more places along its length. Such wool
will not withstand. The tension put on it in worsted manufacturing and is
rejected and used to manufacture of woolens.
59.Top: A continuous untwisted strand for wool fibers of predetermined length
from which the short fibers (noils) have been removed in the combing
process. Top represents an intermediary stage in the manufacturing of
worsted fiber.
Classification of hides and skins and pelts
Cattle hides and skins are classified on the basis of hide weight, sex, maturity,
presence and location of brands, and methods of curing. Hides and skins are
classed as hides, kips, and skins based on weights of clean hides.
Hides come from large and mature animals. Kips are skins of immature animals,
and skins are from small animals, such as claves.
Classification of cattle hides
Origin Weight* (Kilograms) Classification

Unborn calf Slunk skin
Calf Less than 4 Light calf skin
4-7 Heavy calf skin
7-11 Kip skin
11-14 Overweight Kip skin
Cow 14-24 Light cowhide
Greater than 24 Heavy cowhide
Steer Less than 22 Extra light steer hide
22-26 Light steer hide
Greater than 26 Heavy steer hide
+
Bull 27-54 Bull hide
Source- Price and Schweigert. The Science of meat and Meat Products (W. H.
Freeman, SanFrancisco), 1971. *Net weights after manure and tare allowances are
deducted.
Branded hides are known as Colorado or Taxas hides, unbranded hides are known
as natives. When hides are removed by skilled workers in packing plants, they are
known as packer hides. Hides removed by unskilled workers are referred to as
small packer hides.
Skins and accompanying wool from sheep are known as pelts. Sheep pelts are
classified on the basis of wool length. After wool is removed, pelts are classified
as skins.
Classification of Sheep pelts
Classification Subclass number Wool length ( centimeters)

Shearlings 1 1.25-2.5
Shearlings 4 0.31
Fall clips - 2.5-3.75
Wool pelts - 3.75
Source- Price and Schweigert. The Science of meat and Meat Products (W. H.
Freeman, SanFrancisco), 1971.
Shearling is a skin from a recently sheared sheep or lamb that has been tanned and
dressed with the wool left on. It has a suede surface on one side and a clipped fur
surface on the other. Usually the suede side is worn outward. Shearling can be
made from real sheepskin or from synthetic fibers. Real shearling breathes and is
more flexible than synthetic shearling. A young sheep after its first shearing.
PRODUCTION OF HIDES
1. Killing (Slaughter)
2. Bleeding
3. Flaying (Skinning)
4. Washing
1. Slaughtering
An abattoir should be available whenever possible, and a hide drying and salt-
curing shed should be conveniently located nearby. If an abattoir is not available, a
suitable site for slaughtering should be carefully chosen, preferably on a clear,
sloping piece of ground (if possible near trees) in which is dug a ditch about 75 cm.
deep (30 inches) and 6 meters long (20 feet), to serve as a drain for the blood and
as a means of steadying the carcass of the large animal during flaying. After most
of the blood has drained out, the carcass can be hauled carefully (not dragged) to a
few feet further up the incline of the drain, to avoid fouling the hide with blood.
Hoisting of the carcass can also be effected in the field (Figure 1). It is best to
slaughter animals very early in the morning, in order to supply the meat and hide
markets for the day.
2. Bleeding
A special knife 46 to 51 cm. (18 to 20 inches) long, pointed and very sharp should
be used. Blood should not be allowed to run to waste, as it is a valuable food for
poultry, pigs and dogs. If bran or husks are mixed with the fresh blood to a paste-
like consistency, it can be spread in the sun to dry. The bleeding operation is most
important and is best done in the hoisted position facilitating the flow, leaving the
forelegs free to kick. Hides from animals which have not been properly bled have
poor keeping qualities. is still carried out on the ground. When this is done every
effort should be made to keep the hide free from blood contamination by the use of
a sloping floor and, whenever possible, running water to an adequate drain, placing
the head of the animal near a separate blood drainage pit or channel (Figure 2).
3. Flaying (Skinning)
As soon as the blood has completely drained out and bleeding has stopped, the first
flaying operation to remove the hide from the carcass starts. To ensure that the
animal is treated as humanely as possible, it is a good practice to touch its eyes to
ascertain if life is extinct, before flaying commences, which should be as soon as
possible after slaughter. If there is no reaction when the eyes of the animal are
touched that is sufficient proof that it is dead.
a. Flaying of the Head

Although it is true that the head hide has less value than other parts, it is often
wasted unnecessarily.
b. Floor Flaying (First Stage)
With a suitable ripping knife the hide is first opened in a straight line from the neck
or slaughter incision, along the middle of the dewlap and be1ly to the end of the
tail. Then each leg is opened by making an encircling cut about halfway between
the hoof and the knee joint, to exclude the dewclaws (rudimentary toes in cattle),
and following up with an incision on the inside of each leg, along with the line
shown in Figures 3 and 4. The forelegs are opened to the breastbone (see Figure 4)
and the hind legs with a curved incision to a point about midway between The hide
is then separated from the carcass by cutting from the lower part of the breast
(Figure 5) towards the neck, and then from the lower part of the breast towards the
navel, where the red meat of the sides ·becomes ·visible. The flaying of the breast
towards the neck should be carried out very carefully, in order that only the
connecting tissues are severed, and leaving as much meat and fat as possible on the
carcass. In the next phase of flaying the four legs are brought together – the left
foreleg brought towards the left hind leg, and so on, to facilitate further flaying.
The shoulders are flayed partly by pulling and partly by careful use of the knife.
The sides are flayed out, starting from the fore shank downwards, or from the
navel towards the fore shank. By stretching the hide outwards, the flaying of the
sides is facilitated, and special care should be taken that the red meat covering the
ribs remains on the carcass. The flaying of the sides continues with long regular
strokes and this operation requires experienced flayers. Inexperienced flayers
should start by flaying legs only. Flaying is continued downwards until the so-
called "red meat" ends.
Experienced flayers using the knife are adept at raising the hide with the left hand
up, and away from the knife edge, generally starting with the legs and continuing
until the hide has been removed from all four legs, both left and right bellies and a
portion of both rumps. At this stage, unless hoisting cannot be effected, no further
removal should be attempted, while the carcass is still on the floor. To attempt to
remove any part of the hide which is on the lower half of the prone carcass, i. e., by
cutting underneath, would invariably result m cuts and gouges.
c. Hoist Flaying (Second Stage)
Using a gambrel or spreader and a tail grip (see " Hide Trade Equipment and Its
Use"), both connected to the hook of the hoisting gear, the hind legs are hung, and
the gambrel raised generally about 1.5 meters (five feet) off the ground, with the
head and shoulder still touching the floor. In this position the exposed tail bones
are clamped in the jaws of the tail grip (Figure 6), and the hide is then removed
from the tail and the tail area of the rump, by grasping the switch and pulling
sharply and firmly downwards, the tail grip being clamped nearer the root of the
tail, during the latter stage of this operation. In order to complete the removal of
the hide, the carcass is now raised to its fullest extent, allowing the flayers to pull
the hide off the back to the hump, thus eliminating all chance of knife damage to
the most valuable part of the hide. From the hump and down both sides of the
shoulders and neck, the use of the knife is essential in separating the tougher and
longer subcutaneous tissues. To separate finally the hide from the carcass, the
slaughter incision should be continued in a line close to and behind the horns,
leaving the ears on the head. After complete removal, the hide is severed from the
carcass by cutting close behind the horns (Figure 7).
When animals are slaughtered using one of the stunning methods, the head-skin -
not being partially severed - can very well form part of the hide and is perhaps best
flayed while the carcass is on the floor. This eliminates delay at the end of the
flaying operation.
Flaying of "Fallen” Animals
“Fallen" hides are often of inferior quality, owjng to poor flaying, the use of
unsuitable knives, and the state of the carcass, which, not having been bled is full
of blood. Particularly the side on which the carcass lay would be poor, being
stained or discolored and liable to putrefaction due to the coagulated blood
remaining in the small capillaries of the hide. Furthermore, the subcutaneous
tissues would be harder, resulting in knife cuts, scores and gouges. In addition, the
hide is usually thin and of poor substance owing to disease or starvation.
d. Hammer Flaying
This method of flaying with a round-nosed brass or wooden mullet by "biffing" or

subjecting the hide to hammer blows to sever the subcutaneous tissues, has been
introduced in a number of areas, but with limited success due to the general apathy
shown by the flayers. This method produces faultless flaying, and was introduced
with a view to substituting knife flaying completely. Two important factors,
however, have to be taken into account. First, the hide must still be ripped, and part
of the bellies and the lower part of the legs flayed with a knife. Second, the flayer
must exert himself far more when using the hammer. Weighing up these two points,
it would seem easier to continue knife flaying where there is no supervision and
discipline, as too heavy blows with the hammer can cause disruption of the fibers
and grain surface, resulting in poor quality leather. Normally hammer flayed hides
fetch a premium, except when knife marks and cuts are apparent. A similar
technique is that of hand-fisting or pulling (Figure 8), particularly in the case of
small animals - calves, goats and sheep. The handle of the knife can also be used
very effectively for this purpose (Figure 9).
e. Mechanical Flaying
Mechanical flaying of hides with a hand operated unit, driven by electricity or

compressed air, is becoming increasingly common in large abattoirs and meat
canning factories in some parts of the world. However, it has not yet been
universally adopted. Perfectly flayed hides (Figure 10) and faultless meat surfaces
can be obtained by this method because, although the cutting blades of the machine
are dull, they are very sharp between the serrations. The machines are operated in
the same manner as a hand knife, keeping the blades flat against the hide, and
using a backward and forward motion (Figure 11). It is said that with mechanical
flaying a much less skilled man can take off a hide in half the time of a skilled
hand-flayer, and that it takes a considerably shorter time to become skilled in its
use. Although this type of machine will certainly be more suitable for countries
which are already fairly advanced industrially, it may also be of great help for less
advanced countries which produce large quantities of hides.
4. Washing
Washing should be completed as soon as possible after flaying if water is available,

and before blood coagulation sets in, either by immersing in water, or preferably
by spreading out on a large table or floor in order to clean with running water and a
scrubbing brush. The former method is suitable when the water supply is limited,
but agitation during immersion (Figure 12) is most essential, and the water should,
if possible, be changed frequently as it soon becomes dirtied with blood and dung.
Washing with running water is of course preferable. Figure 13 shows the washing
of a hide on a proper table, with a brush, while water is poured on it. The scrubbing
method is only satisfactory in large abattoirs and meat canning factories where
there is a continuous supply of water. Each hide is flooded by sprinklers or hose
pipes and well-scrubbed, both flesh and hair side.
5. Meating and Fatting ('' After-cleaning ")
The term '' after-cleaning “is used for the operations in which superfluous fat or
flesh is removed. Good flaying should not need after-cleaning, but often
superfluous fat or flesh adheres on the hide, mostly on the parts that covered the
ribs and shoulders, with fat particularly around the tail area. Whenever possible,
this operation should be avoided, as the risk of gouging, scoring and cutting is very
great. Removal of this excess matter should be carried out as soon as possible after
washing. To prevent damage in removing gross lumps, the operation should be
done on a flat smooth table (Figure 14), and not when the hide is suspended in
frames. A very sharp and curved edged knife should be used. Care should be taken
not to flesh the hide too closely. It is advisable to leave some tissue or flesh on the
hide rather than to damage the hide by trying to remove every small piece.
6. Trimming
Properly fleshed hides must be trimmed before they are dried. This means that all
sharp, irregular flaps on the edge of the hide and all excessively long shanks should
be removed. Figure 15 shows the trimming of a buffalo hide. Re-trimming is
sometimes necessary after drying, to improve the shape of the hide.
7. Other Considerations
The removal of stomach and intestines should always be done after flaying
is completed, to avoid the risk of the hide being fouled. The practice of
cutting up all the meat and heaping it on to the hide, which is spread out on
the ground, should be strongly condemned (Figure 16).
Md. Nazim Uddin, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management, Faculty of Veterinary, Animal and
Biomedical Sciences, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100, Bangladesh, Email-uddinvet@gmail.com.
Factors affecting the quality of raw hides and skins in a
tabular form
1. Pre-slaughter factors
Intrinsic attribute’s Breed, type , age, sex and nutrition

Disease condition Ringworm, small pox, hyperkeratosis,
Dermatitis, warts, Streptothirocosis
Parasites Warble fly, ticks, mites, worms and lice
Mechanical action Brands and scratches
2. Peri-slaughter factors
Mechanical action Abrasions and bruises

Improper bleeding Veininess and putrefaction
Improper ripping Small size and incorrect shape
Improper flaying Cuts and holes
3. Post-slaughter factor
Autolysis Deterioration
Physio-chemical degradation Deterioration
Microbiological effects Putrefaction
Factors affecting the defects of raw hides and skins

1. Natural factor
a) Breed
b) Age
c) Sex
d) Climate
2. Environmental factor
a) Nutrition
b) Disease
c) Management
Natural factors
a). Breed: Indo-Pak subcontinent have well develop hump and deep undulating
dewlap which are absent in temperate climate. Its presence gives hides a poor
pattern. The hide’s arte of this region has other good quality which makes it
superior from temperate skin qualities and average weight is 15 lb. They have fine
grain and compact structure and make superior quality leather.
b). Age: Age differences contribute to the inferior qualities in leather. The skins of
the young animals have fine and compact structures and tight grain patterns, while
the skins of older animals have tougher and coarser grain surface. “Old grain” is
the term used by tanners to describe the rough and calloused skin of very old
animals; in these hides wrinkles are very developed. age does not only have natural
influence on the skin but also as the animal gets older, the skin also accumulates
scars from brands, disease parasites, scratches etc(NPC,1981).
c). Sex: The female skins weight is lighter than the males and generally has higher
tensile strength. The sheep and goat skin from males are also from heavier with
coarser grain than those obtained from females.
d). Climate: The climate on which an animal is raised has an effect on the
substance of its skin and on the grain of the leather. Animals raised in warm
climate have a short hair and the leather produced has superior substance, smoother
and finer grain patterns, whereas animals raised in cooler climate or higher
altitudes grow longer wool or hair, and the leather made are of poorer substance
and coarser grain patterns. These effects of climate, especially on substance is
more pronounced on sheep and goat skins than on cattle hides (NPC, 1981).
Environmental factor
a). Nutrition: Emaciation is the thinness and friability of hides and skins derived
from animals suffering from prolonged and bitter starvation, leathers which are
produced from such hides and skins are noted for their dryness and flabbiness.
Cockles which are coarse wrinkles on shoulder portions of hides increase
considerably when animals are under fed (Lukin, 1967). Diet plays an important
role in the health of the animals and also in the quality of the raw material. Poor
nutrition causes an animal to be smaller, the skin thinner and of poorer substance,
Lack elasticity and feel dead. The effect of diet is more pronounced in goat skins
due to the fact that many goats are pastured on poor land. Thinness and lack of
plump substance resulting from poor nourishment make it necessary to set many
goatskins for manufacturing of lining leather (NPC, 1981).
b). Disease: Disease like anthrax and rinderpest without having any visible mark on
the skin adversely affect the skin substances. Other diseases that can affect the
quality of hide and skins are Eczeama, Pox, ringworm, mange, dermatitis, warts
and tumor etc.
c). Management: Cleanliness of the animal pays an important role in their health.
Well cared animals have a higher productivity compared to cared animals. Both
ecto and endo parasites affect the health animals and their skins.
Common defects of hides and skins
A. Ante-mortem defects involving human activities
a. Breeding factors
b. Barbed wire damage
c. Yoke marks
d. Goad or prod marks
e. Cutaneous injection punctures, shearing cuts
f. Horn rake
g. Dung damage
h. Branding
B. Ante-mortem defects arising from disease or other natural causes
a. Damage resulting from bacterial attack
i. Contagious acne of horses
ii. Erysipelas in swine
iii. Mycotic dermatitis
b. Damage resulting from viral attack
i. Lumpy skin disease
ii. Pox
c. Damage resulting from fungal attack- Dermatomycoses
d. Damage resulting from protozoal attack
i. Globidiosis
ii. Trypanosomiasis
e. Damage resulting from arthropod parasite attack
i. Hypoderma spp.
ii. Callitroga Spp and Chrysomia Spp.
iii. Calliphorus Spp.
iv. Ked and louse infestations
v. Tick damage
vi. Demodex Spp.
vii. Sarcoptes Scabiei
viii. Psoroptes Spp.
ix. Choriotes spp
C. Damage resulting from miscellaneous causes
i. Zinc deficiency
ii. Cenchrus biflours
D. Post-mortem defects- Damage caused following slaughter and arising from
bad handling
i. Improper bleeding
ii. Rubbed or dragged grain
iii. Flay cuts
iv. Bad pattern
v. Inadequate cooling and cleaning
vi. Inefficient fleshing and trimming
vii. Overstretching and distortion of dried hides
viii. Folding damage
ix. Curing faults
x. Damage associated with transport of hides and skins.
Description regarding damage and defect of hides and skins

Many kinds of damage reduce the value of hides and skins. The causes are several,
and some of them are described below under four main headings.
A. Damage while the animal is living

i) Scratches: Scratches are a very common type of damage caused by thorns,
barbed wire and horns. Goad punctures, generally in the buttocks, inflicted by
sharp pointed metal-tipped staves, also reduce the value of the hide
considerably.
Barbed wire damage can be prevented by the use of plain fencing wire, and
horn rakes by polling or horn tipped.
ii) Branding: The extensive use of the hot iron for branding cattle, as a means
of proving ownership. The burn normally penetrates the hide or skin and is
visible on the flesh side; it is usually placed on the rump or back of the animal
and quite often on the thigh.
Animal owners should be taught to avoid branding on the most valuable parts
on the hide. Chemical branding substances are relatively inexpensive and quite
easily applied.
iii) Mechanical damage from cattle horns: This is a common source of hide
damage amongst animals with horns. The animals are damaged usually in the
abdomen, forequarters or hindquarters. The injuries frequently are neglected,
and give rise to bacterial and parasitical infection, as a result scar tissue
formation and deterioration of the hide.
iv) ‘Thorn’ and ‘Stick grass’ lesions: ‘Thorn’ a condition which arises when
small thorns or sharp grass seeds work their way into the substance of the skin
and remain embedded there. These type of thorn and seeds cling and bury
themselves in the long hair when the animals are grazing, puncturing and
penetrating the skin. There is no practical remedy, since herds must graze.
B. Damaged caused by parasites, by fungal and virus diseases

i) Mange: Mange is a skin disease caused by parasitic mites. It is spread by
contact with infected animals or enclosures, the mite living in the hair
follicles and under the surface of the skin. During tannery process, make
empty pockets and reducing the value of the leather.
ii) Scabies: The mites multiply prolifically under the skin surface and hides
are damaged. This is totally unsuitable for the production of good quality
leather.
iii) Ticks: The form of small holes caused by blood-sucking parasites.
iv) Lice: Lesions caused by lice, scar tissue produce and damage the grain
surface by the inflammation set up where the parasites have attached
themselves.
v) Leeches: Leeches are aquatic sucking annelids which attach themselves

in numbers to the skin of animals. They make small punctures and give a
bruised appearance to the grain.
vi) Warble fly larvae: The larvae of these insects (Hypoderma bovis) attack
cattle and do very considerable damage to the hides through making a
warble hole.
vii) Ringworm: This is a common disease caused by a fungus, and is spread

by direct or indirect contact. The fungus attacks the hair and causing
circular inflammatory patches.
viii) Cow-pox: The first symptoms of cow-pox, an infectious disease, are
small inflamed spots, usually on the udder or tender parts of the skin.
ix) Hyperkeratosis or X-disease: This is a skin disease of unknown origin

whose characteristics symptoms is thickening and coarsening of the
epidermis and hair follicles, especially in the neck.
x) Rinderpest: This virus disease causes dark, scabrous discolorations, and

the hides of animals dying from it are thin and light.
xi) Trypanosomiasis: As would be expected from the progressive anaemia

and emaciation of animals dying from this disease, the hides are thin and
light.
xii) Anthrax: When cattle die suddenly for no obvious reason, anthrax must
be suspected. Flaying of an animal that has died from anthrax is never
permitted.
C. Damage following death, or during flaying, drying or salt-curing

i) Fouling with blood and dung: Blood is difficult to remove from wool or
hair, and is liable to interfere with efficient curing. Skins and hides
should not be allowed to come in contact with blood on the floor of the
slaughterhouse.
ii) Bruises: Unnecessarily hard beating of animals with sticks and ropes
when driving them to slaughter causes bruises on the meat as well as in
the hide or skin. Bruising immediately before slaughter increases the risk
of putrefaction and the grain surface may be damaged.
iii) Inadequate bleeding: If carcasses are not bled out completely at time of
slaughter, blood remains in the vessels and capillaries of the hides and
skins. If cleaning and drying are delayed, bacteria may develop more
rapidly along the blood vessels than through the substance of the hide and
skin.
iv) Rubbed and dragged grain: This damage is due to abrasion of the grain
surface, usually the result of dragging the live animal or carcass over
rough ground.
v) Flay cuts, gouge marks and scores: Attention has already been drawn
to the extensive damage, caused by the careless use of knife, and usually
by the use of knives with pointed tips, during flaying, fleshing and fating.
These defects can all be avoided.
vi) Bad pattern: A bad pattern does seriously affect the usefulness of hides
and skins for the production of commercial leather of recognized grades,
as hides and skins are not uniform in structure over the whole body and
the belly portion, for example, is much less valuable than the butt for
certain purposes.
vii) Delay in cleaning, drying, or curing: Damage through putrefaction
caused by inadequate washing, drying and curing. Good leather can never
be produced from badly cured hides and skins.
viii) Overstretching and distortion: When hides and skins are laced to a
frame for drying they should be under light tension just sufficient to
stretch them to their normal shape. If the lacing rope is too tight in one
direction only, the shape of the hide and skin will become distorted, and
its value will fall.
ix) Folding: If hides and skins are folded down the line of the backbone as
soon as they leave the drying-frames or wires, they apparently suffer little
damage.
D. Damage during storage and transport
i) Rubbing during transport: In our country many forms of transport are
used to convey hides and skins from outstations to the more important
markets. Rubbing damage caused during normal transportation by road,
rail and steamer is more or less negligible, but a certain amount of care is
required to ensure protection of bales against rubbing and tearing on the
outside surface, by adequate covering with hessian or gunny.
ii) Wetting: The importance of protection against wetting by rain and floods
cannot be overemphasized. If hides and skins are accidentally or
negligently wetted and not immediately dried out, bacterial action will set
in again as a result of the loss of salt. Such damage can be reduced
considerably by ensuring proper storage and transport.
iii) Vermin damage: Hides and skins in store attacks by gnawing rodents
can reduce good hides and skins to third, and even reject or glue-stock
quality. Precautions against this damage would include keeping stores
clean, periodical movement of stocks, and the use of poisons, traps and
cats.
iv) Insect’s damage: The most serious damage to which hides and skins are
exposed during storage and transport where excessive humidity and
heavy rains are common, is that done by insects. The most destructive of
these is of the beetle family and white ants that cause the most damage. It
is recommended that insecticides be used to counteract this danger.
Curing of hides and Skins

Definition of Curing: Curing is the temporary preservation of hides and skins
from the flaying to the processing in the tannery. Or

The action that is taken to prevent putrefaction and to bring the hides and skins into
a suitable condition for transport and storage is referred as preservation or curing.
Objectives of curing: To preserve freshly flayed hides and skins from bacterial
decomposition of skin protein and make them storable for a prolonged period.
There are main methods m general uses:
(a) Air-drying
(b) Salt-curing
(c) Pickling
Air-drying-
This method of curing is suitable at dry atmosphere condition. The skins of the
sheep and goat can be dried in 3 hours or less. There are several methods of air
drying, and a useful classification is the following:
(a) Drying on the ground
(b) Drying by suspension (Frame-drying)
(c) Drying by suspension over cords or wires (Line-drying)
(d) Tent- and parasol-drying
(a) Drying on the Ground

The method consists of placing them on the ground flesh side uppermost to dry in
the sun, as shown in Figure 1.
Advantage: In certain areas this is still the simplest and traditional way of drying
the hides and skins.
Disadvantage: This method gives very unsatisfactory results and hides cured in this
manner are liable to show the defects known as “blister,” “taint,” and “hairslip.”
When a hide or skin is spread flat on the ground, flesh side uppermost, the
moisture cannot escape from the hair side. The flesh side, being submitted to the.
sun's rays, will become hotter, and therefore stew instead of dry, resulting in
putrefaction.
(b) Drying by Suspension (Frame-drying)
The equipment used in suspension-drying consists of horizontal poles erected at a

suitable distance from the ground, 1.5 meters (5 ft.) or more, according to the size
of the hides. The poles should be in a line running east and west, and the hides
should be suspended clear of the ground, by tying the tail butt and hind shanks to
the poles with ropes, and then tying the head and fore shanks to pegs in the ground.
It is important that the lower ends of the hides do not touch the ground. The pegs
are placed on the line of the shadow thrown by the horizontal poles at midday
(Figure 2). The hide is thus stretched at an angle with the ground, flesh side
uppermost. It this manner, the hide will be freely exposed on both sides for drying.
Any rain which falls on it will run off, and as the sun's rays strike it very obliquely,
their effect will be less than if the hide were on the ground. It seems, however, that
this method is too complicated and not worth all the trouble.
(c) Drying by Suspension over Cords or Wires (Line-drying)
In areas where wood for frames is scarce, the line-drying method can be used. The
skin is suspended symmetrically along the backbone with the hair or wool hanging
down, over a cord, or wire, not thicker than one's little finger (Figure 3). The two
bellies and flanks must be prevented from touching each other, and the shanks
from folding inwards, by using pieces of stick or straws which will adhere to the
wet flesh, so that every part of the skin is freely open to the air. Drying of the skins
may be completed in three hours or more, depending on the velocity and humidity
of the air which circulates. The progress during drying of goat skins can easily be
checked by smell; if the hair side smells of goat all is well. If the skin or hide is
dried by suspension over a thick pole (Figure 4), it will putrefy along the line of the
pole (Figure 5) because a fairly wide band of the skin or hide is in close contact
with the pole, thus drying more slowly than if in contact with a thin cord or wire.
(d) Tent- and Parasol-drying

Wood not being available in the desert, and salt scarce and expensive, sun-drying
in a manner similar to that described in the previous section can be practised to
advantage as shown in Figure 6 In principle this method does not differ essentially
from drying over thin poles or wires. Another practice, "tent-drying, " consists in
supporting the backbone of the skin on a wire stretched between two posts at about
90 cm. (3 ft.) from the ground, and stretching the edges of the skin or hide by cords
to pegs in the ground along each side (Figure 7). The “parasol " or " umbrella
“method involves a single central vertical pole to support the middle of the hide,
with the edges stretched out to pegs in the ground.
Salt-curing
It is preferable at atmospheric condition where the relative humidity is 90%. In
such place the rate of drying is slow and after a day or two the damp warm skin
would begin to putrefy. Curing by salting is broadly divided into two methods:
(a) Dry-salting
(b) Wet-salting
Dry-salting with Common Commercial Salt in Dry Climates
If a fresh skin is sprinkled with common commercial dry salt, a few minutes
contact will show that the salt becomes wet and is absorbed by the water in a fresh
skin. The application of salt has two purposes; it removes water from the hide or
skin, and at the same time it delays putrefaction.
Time must be allowed for the external salt to reach the interior of the skin and still
more to reach the interior of the hide. Solid salt will completely penetrate a fresh
skin or even hide in a few hours, but in practice it is safer to allow longer. The
more salt is sprinkled on, up to a certain proportion compared to the weight of a
fresh hide or skin, the quicker will it penetrate the skin. Above this proportion salt
is wasted, and nothing is gained. For the skins of a calf, goat or sheep, tests have
shown that 40 to 50 percent of the weight of the skin is a reasonable figure. For
heavy hides, salt to about 30 to 40 percent of the weight of the hide is adequate.
In the dry-salting method suitable for dry c1imates the best way to start salting
action is to wash the flesh side of the skin with clean water, as shown in Figure 8.
The hair or wool side is not washed, as it would retain too much water and, in fact,
in certain instances washing prior to salting should not be effected at all. The next
step is as follows; the skin, after being well drained, is laid flesh up on a gently
sloping even floor on wooden slats to allow for further drainage, or on a rack, and
then spread evenly with half its weight of dry common commercial salt, with the
edges turned in slightly to prevent the salt falling off (Figure 9).
Dry-salting with Common Commercial Salt in Damp Climates

Dry-salting with common commercial salt in a climate which is continuously
humid is unlikely to be satisfactory, because, when the humidity of the air is above
75 percent; common commercial salt becomes increasingly damp until it actually
forms a solution with the water absorbed by it. Dry-salted skins, stored in a humid
climate, are thus liable to lose salt by its dripping out of the skin as a solution, and
hides and skins which have been salted in a persistently damp climate cannot
remain dry during storage.
In some areas, particularly in Bengal, this difficulty is to some extent met by using
a mixture of common commercial salt and anhydrous sodium sulphate, in the
proportion of one to five. As sodium sulphate without water of crystallization can
absorb a great amount of water, it is more suitable for curing in a damp climate.
After the above treatment the skins can be dried by one of the approved methods
without any risk of putrefaction. However, in a drier climate, common commercial
salt is better because it is a more effective preservative.
Wet-salting with Common Commercial Salt

There are several versions of this process. One of the most primitive is wet-salting
in pits, where the hides are laid flat in pits, one by one, with a layer of salt over
each. The moisture is thus drawn out of the hides, which lie in a concentrated but
frequently dirty brine. Skins are often folded together and piled up in pits, which is
a bad practice, as they quickly start to deteriorate. This method is therefore to be
strongly condemned (Figure 10). Wet-salting is better carried out in_ the same way
as dry-salting, by piling the hides and skins on a clean wooden rack so that the pile
is raised 5 to 8 cm. (2 to 3 inches) above the floor to assist drainage.
Pickling
The preparation of pickled pelts involves two main operations - dehairing the skins,
and treatment with salt and acid. Pickling is used in cases where it is convenient to
un hair or dewool sheep skins locally and then handle the pelts as a separate article.
The skins are first dewoolled by treating the flesh side with a paint consisting of a
strong solution of sodium sulphide into which slaked lime has been stirred until it
is of a creamy consistency. The paint so treated adheres to the skin, which then
swells and tightens by absorption of water; its water content rises to about 80
percent, as against 60 percent in the freshly flayed condition. After painting, the
skins are either folded down the backbone, flesh side inwards, or stacked flesk to
flesh, for 24 hours, after which the wool is pulled. After dewoolling the pelts are
washed, limed, delimed, bated and pickled. Deliming is done with a solution of
ammonium chloride or sulphate in a drum or paddle. In the pickling operation the
pelts are gently pushed ("paddled ") round and round in the pickle solution of
common commercial salt and sulphuric acid.
The paddle used here is a rectangular wooden vat with revolving blades above it,
but dipping about 30 centimeters (12 inches) below the surface.The proportion of
salt in the solution should be about 12 percent and the amount of sulphuric acid
should be so adjusted that the final liquor, when the skins,are removed, is about 0.0
I normal (centinormal) or 0.5 percent, i.e. fully acid to the test paper or indicator
Thymol Blue. Paddling should continue for at least 3 hours, and after leaving all
night, a further hour's paddling is given. The skins are then removed, drained and
packed into wooden barrels for export. These should be protected from winds or
strong draughts which increase evaporation and encourage the seepage of liquor
into the wood of the cask. Pickling, however, should be undertaken only where
adequate equipment, e.g. drums, paddles, and fleshing machines, operated by
highly qualified technicians, is available. Pickled pelts should not be stored in any
hot climate for much more than a year.
Tanning process of Hides and Skins
Tanning and leather finishing facilities generally convert raw hides and / or skins
into leather, which is then finished and used to manufacture a wide range of
products. Tanning is the process used to stabilizing the raw hide or skin into leather,
a non-putrescible product.
In general, the production processes in a tannery can be split into four main stages
including hide and skin storage, and operations involving the beam house, tanning,
post-tanning, and finishing.
1. Hide and Skin Prestorage / Storage, and Beam house Operations
Raw hides and skins are typically procured from the hide and skin markets or
directly from the abattoirs (slaughterhouses), and delivered to the tanneries or
fellmongeries (facilities that treat skins and hides, principally sheep skins, before
tanning). Hide and skin curing is often performed before transport to the tannery /
fellmongery, as necessary, to prevent putrefaction. At the tannery / fellmongery,
hides and skins are preliminary sorted, trimmed, cured, and stored.
a. Sorting and Trimming
Sorting of hides and skins is conducted according to several grades of size, weight,
quality and sex. Trimming is generally carried out during the sorting process.
b. Curing and Storing
If the raw hides and skins cannot be processed immediately, they are typically
cured to prevent putrefaction. Curing methods for long-term preservation (up to six
months) include salting, brining, (shade) drying, or dry salting. Short-term
45
Dr. Md. Nazim Uddin, PhD (S. Korea), Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Production and
Management, Faculty of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-
3100, Bangladesh, Email-nazimsau@gmail.com, Mobile- +880-1730-449873.
preservation (typically two to five days) involves cooling using crushed ice, or
refrigerated storage, in addition to biocides / antiseptics / fungicides (e.g.2-
[thiocyanatomethylthio]-1,3-benzothiazole known as TCMTB, isothiazolones,
potassium dimethyl dithiocarbamate, sodium chlorite benzalkonium chloride,
sodium fluoride, and boric acid). Some of these agents are also used during
soaking, pickling, and wet-blue preservation.
Although curing is often conducted in the abattoir or at the hide market, the
process may be repeated in the tannery for longer and more efficient storage. Hides
and skins are generally stored on pallets in ventilated or air conditioned / cooled
areas. From storage, the hides and skins are taken to the beamhouse. Processes
typically carried out in the beamhouse of a tannery include soaking, dehairing,
liming, and fleshing, whereas fellmongeries typically carry out similar processes
specific to sheep skins.
c. Soaking
Soaking is undertaken to allow hides and skins to reabsorb any lost water after
flaying, as well as to clean and remove interfibrillary material. Soaking is usually
carried out in processing vessels (e.g. mixers, drums, pits, or raceways) in two
steps, namely a dirt soak for salt and dirt removal, and a main soak. The soak bath
is often changed every 8 hours to prevent bacterial growth. Soaking additives
include surfactants, enzyme preparations, bactericides, and alkali products.
d. Dehairing and Liming of Bovine Hides
Dehairing and liming of hides is undertaken to remove hair,interfibrillary

components, and epidermis, and to open up the fiber structure. These processes are
carried out in vessels (e.g. drums, paddles [a vat with a paddlewheel agitator],
46
mixers, or pits). Dehairing involves the use of chemical and mechanical treatment,
with or without hair destruction. Elimination of keratinous material (e.g. hair, hair
roots, epidermis) and fats from the pelts involves the use of inorganic sulfides
(NaHS or Na2S) and lime treatment. Treatment with organic compounds such as
mercaptans or sodium thioglycolate in combination with strong alkali and amino
compounds is an alternative to sulfide treatment. Enzymatic preparations can be
added to enhance dehairing and they are considered a cleaner technology when
compared with the conventional dehairing-liming process.
e. Painting and Liming of Sheepskins
Painting is undertaken to break down the wool root within the sheepskins to
facilitate pulling of wool fiber from the pelt. Paint generally consists of a highly
viscous mixture of sodium sulfide and lime, applied to the flesh side of the skin
either through a spraying machine or manually and left for several hours. The wool
is then pulled from the skin, either manually or mechanically. After pulling, the
skins are limed in process vessels, similarly to bovine hides.
f. Fleshing
Fleshing is a mechanical process to scrape off the excess organic material from the
hide (e.g. connective tissue and fat). The fleshing machine consists of rollers and
rotating spiral blades that treat the pelts. Fleshing of green hides after soaking is
called ‘green-fleshing’. Fleshing performed after the liming and dehairing is
known as ‘lime-fleshing’.
2. Tanyard Operations
47
Tanyard operations transform cured hides into leather, and typically include
deliming, bating, degreasing, pickling, pretanning, tanning, draining /samming /
setting, splitting, and shaving. Deliming, bating, and pickling may also be
conducted at fellmongeries, which sell pickled skins as an intermediate product.
a. Deliming
Deliming involves the removal of residual lime from the pelts and preparing the
pelts for bating. The conventional processinvolves gradually lowering pH through
washing and addition of deliming chemicals (e.g. ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4],
ammonium chloride [NH4Cl], sodium bisulfite [NaHSO3], among others); an
increase in temperature; and, finally, the removal of residual chemicals and
degraded skin components. Alternative processes include carbon dioxide (CO2)
deliming, or the use of ammonium-free deliming agents (e.g. weak acids or esters)
which can totally or partially replace ammonium salts used for conventional
deliming. For thicker pelts, the float temperature is increased (up to 35°C), the
process duration is increased, and small amounts of deliming auxiliaries are added.
Generally, deliming is performed in processing vessels (e.g.drums, mixers, or
paddles).
b. Bating
Bating allows a partial degradation of non-collagenic proteins, achieved by

enzymatic preparations, and improves the grain of the hide and the subsequent run
and stretch of the leather. Scud (e.g. hair roots and other unwanted material) is also
removed at this stage. The quantity of enzymes used is the principal factor in
determining the final characteristics of the leather in terms of hardness (e.g. lower
48
enzyme concentrations needed) or softness (e.g. higher enzyme concentration
needed) of the finished products.
c. Degreasing
Degreasing eliminates excess grease from fatty skins (e.g. from sheep and pigs) to
prevent the formation of insoluble chromesoaps or fat spues (white fatty material
on the leather surface) at a later stage. Skin fat is difficult to remove because of the
presence of cerides and the need for a high melting temperature. Three different
methods commonly used for degreasing include degreasing in aqueous medium
with nonionic surfactant and degreasing agents; degreasing in aqueous medium
with organic solvents, nonionic surfactants, and degreasing agents; and degreasing
in an organic solvent medium.
The solvent used for degreasing (e.g. paraffin, white spirit, butyl oxitol, ethyl
oxitol, TCE, PCE, mono-chloro-benzene and perchloro- benzene) can be partially
recovered, the extraction brines recycled, and the natural grease recovered for
commercial use. The amount of surfactant required decreases with the increased
use of organic solvents.
d. Pickling
Pickling is conducted to lower the pH of the pelt before mineral tanning and some
organic tanning (e.g. chrome tanning, gluterdialdehyde tanning, vegetable tanning,
resins and synthetic tanning). Very often tanning is carried out in the pickle liquor.
Pickled pelts can be traded and contain fungicides to protect them from mold
growth during storage. Pickling floats (the aqueous liquor in which the pickling
process is performed) are typically characterized by high salt concentrations, which
49
can be reduced by using acids that lessen the water uptake of the skins (e.g. non-
swelling acids, typically aromatic sulfonic acids).
e. Wet-White Pretanning
Pretanning processes change the physical and chemical characteristics of the

leather, improving the leather quality, particularly with regard to grain tightness,
and chrome uptake, thus reducing the input of chrome. Pretanning agents include
aluminum salts, aluminum combined with polyacrylates, glutaraldehyde
derivatives, syntans (synthetic tannins typically made by treating aromatic
substances, such as cresols, phenols, and naphthalenes, with formaldehyde and
sulfuric acid), titanium oxide and salts, or colloidal silica. Zirconium is an effective
agent used to obtain white leather. Some pretanning agents can significantly raise
the shrinkage temperature of the collagen. Pretanned leather can be split and
shaved, thus avoiding chrome shaving activities and further reducing the chrome
input needed for leather production. Certain pretanning recipes may be combined
with nonchromium tanning agents to produce chromium-free leather. However,
chrome-free pretanning may not be applicable if the chrome tanning effects are
desired in the final leather product, or when the pretanning effects result in an
unacceptable coloration of the leather.
3. Tanning operation
Tanning allows stabilization of the collagen fiber through a cross-linking action.

The tanned hides and skins are tradable intermediate products (wet-blue). Tanning
agents can be categorized in three main groups namely mineral (chrome) tanning
agents; vegetable tanning agents; and alternative tanning agents (e.g. syntans,
aldehydes, and oil tanning agents). About 90 percent of leathers are tanned with
50
salts of chromium (in its trivalent form), especially chromium (III) sulfate. The
vegetable tanning process is not an alternative to the chrome tanning process, as
the two processes produce different products. Vegetable tanning produces
relatively dense, pale brown leather that tends to darken on exposure to natural
light. Vegetable tanning is frequently used to produce sole leather, belts, and other
leather goods. Unless specifically treated, however, vegetable tanned leathers have
low hydrothermal stability, limited water resistance, and are hydrophilic. Recovery
of vegetable tanning floats is generally conducted using ultrafiltration.
Tanning with organic tanning agents, using polymers or condensed plant

polyphenols with aldehydic cross-linkers, can produce mineral-free leather with
high hydrothermal stability similar to chrome-tanned leather. However, organic-
tanned leather usually is more filled (e.g. leather with interstices filled with a filler
material) and hydrophilic than chrome-tanned leather. Semi-metal tanning may
also produce chrome-free leather, with equally high hydrothermal stability. This
tanning process is carried out with a combination of metal salts, preferably but not
exclusively aluminum (III), and a plant polyphenol containing pyrogallol groups,
often in the form of hydrolysable tannins.
a. Draining, Sammying, and Setting
After tanning, leathers are drained, rinsed, and either hung up to age or unloaded
into boxes and subsequently sammed (e.g. brought to a uniformly semi-dry state,
(approximately 50% to 60% water content, necessary for certain finishing
operations, by passing it through the sammying machine or by pressing between
pressurized rollers) to reduce the moisture content before further mechanical action.
Setting (working over the grain surface of wet leather to remove excess water, to
51
eliminate wrinkles and granulations, to give the leather a good pattern and to work
out stresses so that the leather lies flat) may be carried out to stretch out the leather.
b. Splitting
The function of the splitting operation is to cut through skins / hides or leathers at a
set thickness. If the hide / skin is sufficiently thick, splitting can yield a grain split
and a flesh split that may both be processed into finished leather. Although
splitting can be performed before tanning, after tanning, or after drying, it is
usually performed after tanning.
c. Shaving
Shaving is undertaken to achieve an even thickness throughout tanned or crusted

leather. Shaving is carried out when splitting is not possible or when minor
adjustments to the thickness are required.
4. Post-Tanning Operations and finishing operations
Post-tanning operations involve neutralization and bleaching, followed by

retanning, dyeing, and fatliquoring. These processes are mostly undertaken in a
single processing vessel. Specialized operations may also be performed to add
certainproperties to the leather product (e.g. water repellence or resistance,
oleophobicity, gas permeability, flame retardancy, abrasion resistance, and anti-
electrostatic properties).
a. Neutralization
Neutralization is the process by which the tanned hides are brought to a pH

suitable for retanning, dyeing, and fatliquoring. Neutralization is performed using
52
weak alkalis (e.g. sodium or ammonium bicarbonate, formiate, or acetate). After
neutralization, leather may be dried, generating an intermediate tradable product
called white crust.
b. Bleaching
Vegetable-tanned skins and leathers with wool or hair may need to be bleached to
remove stains or to reduce the coloring before retanning and dyeing. Making the
leather color fade may be achieved using treatment with chemicals (e.g. bleaching
agents) or exposure to the sun / weather elements.
c. Retanning
The retanning process is performed to improve the leather characteristics and

the re-wetting properties (e.g. the introduction of liquid, such as water, into
hides, skins or dried leather) of the hides necessary to facilitate and optimize the
subsequent dyeing process. A wide variety of chemicals may be used for the re-
tannage of leather, including vegetable tanning extracts, syntans, aldehydes,
resins, and mineral tanning agents.
d. Dyeing
Dyeing is performed to produce colors in hides / skins. Typical dyestuffs include

water-based acid dyes. Basic and reactive dyes are less commonly used. A wide
range of dyestuff is available with different characteristics and physico-chemical
resistances (e.g. to light, PVC migration, sweat migration, among others).
e. Fat-liquoring
Fat liquoring is the process by which leathers are lubricated to achieve product-
specific characteristics and to reestablish the fat content lost in the previous
53
procedures. The oils used may be of animal or vegetable origin, or may be
synthetic products based on mineral oils. Stuffing is an old technique used mainly
for heavier vegetable-tanned leather. Sammed leathers are treated in a drum with a
mixture of molten fat. The retanned, dyed, and fatliquored leathers are then
acidified by formic acid for fixation and usually washed before being aged to allow
the fat to migrate from the surface to the inside of the pelt.
f. Drying
The objective of drying is to dry the leather while optimizing leather quality.
Drying techniques include samming, setting, centrifuging, hang drying, vacuum
drying, toggle drying ( leather dried while held under tension on frames using
toggles), paste drying (drying method used for upper leather with corrected grain),
and over drying. Samming and setting are used to reduce the moisture content
mechanically before implementing another drying technique. After drying, the
leather may be referred to as ‘crust’, which is a tradable and storable intermediate
product.
Finishing Operations
Finishing operations enhance the appearance of the leather and provide the
performance characteristics expected in the finished leather with respect to color,
gloss, feel, flex, and adhesion as well as other properties including stretch-ability ,
break, light and perspiration fastness, water vapor permeability, and water
resistance. Finishing operations can be divided into mechanical finishing processes
and surface coat applications.
54
Mechanical Finishing Processes
A wide range of mechanical finishing operations may be performed to improve the

appearance and the feel of the leather. The following list of operations includes
commonly used mechanical finishing operations, although the list is not exhaustive
and many other operations exist for special leathers:
• Conditioning (optimizing the moisture content in leathers for subsequent

operations)
• Staking (softening and stretching the leather)
• Buffing / dedusting (abrading the leather surface and removing the resulting
dust from the leather surface)
• Dry milling (mechanical softening)
• Polishing
• Plating / embossing (flattening or printing a pattern into the leather).
These operations may be conducted before, after, or in-between the application of

coatings.
Surface Coat Application
A wide range of surface coat application methods exist, including the following:
• Padding or brushing the finishing mix onto the leather surface

• Spray coating, which involves spraying the finishing material with
pressurized air in spray cabinets;
• Curtain coating, which involves passing the leather through a curtain of
finishing material;
55
• Roller coating, which involves the application of finishing mix through a
roller
• Transfer coating, which involves the transfer of a film / foil onto leather
previously treated with an adhesive.
Finishing products include polyurethanes, acrylic-based chemicals, silicon, oily

and waxy compounds, among others.
56

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Abattoir Merged

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ABATTOIR

A slaughterhouse or abattoir is a facility where animals are slaughtered for consumption as

5. Construction of the building must be appropriate. Floors need to be impermeable and

7. Ventilation is important to provide good working conditions, prevent condensation

PLANT LOCATION AND FACILITIES

Figure 2 Hand-washing facilities and a pedal-operated platform.

1. Lairage 10. Edible fat room

1. Stockyard: It is meant for collection and marketing of livestock in a large number. It

7. Condemned meat room: It is directly connected with inspection area. An adequate

Accessories Sections of an Abattoir

a. Besides these main components of an abattoir, plant should have following

Meat Borne Diseases and their Prevention

Meat Borne-Diseases: Diseases caused by the consumption and ingestion of infected

Foodborne organisms associated with beef

Foodborne organisms associated with raw chicken

Staphylococcus aureus can be carried on human hands, in nasal passages, or in

establishments to meet Campylobacter performance standards and conduct in-plant

b) Separate: Separate raw meats and poultry from other foods.

Prevention of Food-Borne Illness at Home and in Institutions

Diseases Associated with Meat

Processed meat product

What is processed meat product?

Uncooked, Fresh meats; cured or uncured, stuffed, Smoked, country-style

• Water is the most important non-meat ingredient and it should be permitted up to 3%

• Salt is the most critical ingredient in sausage manufacturing.

Spices and flavourings

• Spices are dried aromatic vegetable substances.

Extenders and binders

Nitrite and Nitrate

Ascorbates and Erythrobates

• In general these are not permitted in sausage products.

Monosodium glutamate (MSG)

• Sodium lactate is the sodium salt of lactic acid.

Functional requirements of packaging

Packaging, in the meat industry serves the following functions,

Packaging requirements of meat

Requirements for packaging materials

Packaging films utilized in packaging of meat must possess the following

Barrier against gases

Barrier against light-

 Some packaging materials are required to have good thermoplastic

Modern packaging materials and package forms

Packaging materials and forms may be classified as

2. Semi-rigid packaging materials and package forms

3. Flexible packaging materials

Polypropylene (PP) (oxygen + , water vapour -)

Polyvinylchloride (PVC) (soft) (oxygen + , water vapour -)

Polyester (PET) (oxygen ± , water vapour -)

Polyamide (PA) (oxygen - , water vapour +)

+ : relatively permeable, -: relatively impermeable

• Both Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) and Ethylene vinyl alcohol

• Single-layer films are commonly used in the wrapping of meat

Packaging materials used for fresh meat

Advanced and emerging systems of packaging of meat and meat products

2. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

• It is a technology where in foods are packaged in high barrier packages in

3. Mother bag concept in MAP

• These are the simplest two-phase packaging systems, consisting of retail-

CAUSES OF MEAT SPOILAGE

Autolytic enzymatic Spoilage

1. Low temperature methods

Chilling is employed at slaughtering plants immediately after slaughtering and during

2. Controlled Water Activity Methods