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Institute of Crop Science, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines,
a
gbgregorio@up.edu.ph; bNational Academy of Science and Technology, Philippines; cSchool of Environmental Science and
Management, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines, rcancog@up.edu.ph; dSoutheast Asian Regional Center
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of the Asian Journal of
Agriculture and Development
ABSTRACT (AJAD) 17.1
Assessing the Impact of the COVID-19
How will the COVID-19 pandemic affect the agriculture sector in Southeast Asia? Pandemic on Agricultural Production
in Southeast Asia: Toward
Clearly, any disruptions in the agricultural food systems would create supply and Transformative Change in Agricultural
Food Systems
demand shocks that would impact on the agriculture sector’s immediate and Glenn B. Gregorio and Rico Ancog
long-term economic performance and food security contribution. Overall, the Commercialization and Mission Drift
in Microfinance: Implications for Rural
COVID-19 pandemic during the first quarter of year 2020 is estimated to result in India
Kaustav K. Sarkar and Rukmini Thapa
3.11 percent or 17.03 million tons reduction in aggregate volume of agricultural
New Agricultural Innovation Systems
production in Southeast Asia due to decline in agricultural farm labor affecting and Smallholder Participation in Modern
Farm Product Markets
100.77 million individuals. This crisis could translate to 1.4 percent decrease in GDP Roy B. Murray-Prior
of the Southeast Asian region, which is equivalent to USD 3.76 billion. Ensuring Market and Welfare Impact Assessment
of the Target Price-Based Subsidy
a systemic transformation of the agricultural systems into resilient, sustainable, Program in the Chinese Cotton Market
productive, and inclusive food systems would be crucial for the future of Southeast Linmei Shang
Rapid Diffusion of Combine Harvesters
Asia. in Cambodian Rice Farming: A Business
Analysis
Kenjiro Yagura
Keywords: COVID-19, agriculture food systems, Southeast Asia, transformative Generational Local Ecological
change, impact assessment Knowledge on the Benefits
of an Agroforestry Landscape in
Mindanao, Philippines
Elson Ian Nyl E. Galang and Philip Vaughter
JEL Classification: O13, Q01, Q18 Factors Influencing Farmers’ Adoption
of Climate-Smart Agriculture in Rice
Production in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta
Luu Tien Dung
BOOK REVIEWS
Agricultural Innovation Systems in Asia:
Towards Inclusive Rural Development
| Rasheed Sulaiman V
Sustainability Certification Schemes in
the Agricultural and Natural Science
Sectors: Outcomes for Science and
the Environment
1st Edition | Wyn Ellis
80
GFSI score
Malaysia
60 Thailand
Vietnam
Philippines
Indonesia
Myanmar
40
Cambodia Lao PDR
20
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
The change in volume of production was It should be noted that the full effects of the
estimated through projected volume for 2020 with COVID-19 pandemic on the agriculture sector in
the calculation of labor productivity using 2018 SEA will be determined once its has peaked and
production volumes1 and estimated agricultural finally stopped. However, the estimates provided in
labor force in 2020 (base year 2018). The annual this study indicate the extent of the impact of the
agricultural production per worker, which is the COVID-19 pandemic,highlighting the importance
ratio of the volume of agricultural production of supporting programmatic interventions for the
to the total number of employed persons in agriculture sector both during the pandemic as
the agriculture sector, was used to estimate the well as for a long-term post-COVID scenario in
volume of agricultural production for 2020. the Southeast Asian region.
As applied in this study, the reduction in the
volume of agricultural production from 2019 to
2020 due to 1.4 percent decrease in agricultural RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
labor force was quantified and valued in terms of
its GDP equivalent. Decreased Agricultural Labor Supply
On the other hand, the change in GDP and Production
share was obtained through projected GDP with The COVID-19 pandemic creates supply
the calculation of labor productivity using data and demand shocks affecting all the relevant
on GDP share in 2019 and estimated agricultural economic sectors, particularly, agriculture. The
labor force in 2020, using the equations: extent of the effects of COVID-19 could be
better appreciated across the value chain, which
Y = [(L1 * P) − Yo]/Yo (1) shows how food flows from the farmer-producers
through the processors, distributors, retailers,
where and finally reaching the plates of the consumers.
Y = Change in volume of production due to Overall, the food supply chain shows the linkage
agricultural labor force (in percent) between supply and demand in an agricultural
L1 = Labor productivity (tons per labor capita) food system.
P = Estimated agricultural labor force in 2020 The mobility restrictions as a result of the
Yo = Volume of agricultural production in imposition of community lockdowns result in
2018 (MT) quantity reduction in farm labor that would
translate to overall reduction in agricultural
GDP = [(L2 * P) − GDPo ]/GDP]o (2) output. Reduced agricultural production is also
caused by farmers’ limited access to farm inputs
where and to markets to sell produce, which may result
GDP = Change in GDP share due to in profit losses and wastage of farm produce.
agricultural labor force In the long run, the loss of income and the
L2 = Labor productivity (USD per economic slowdown would also result in decrease
labor capita) in demand, particularly among the farmers and
P = Estimated agricultural labor force farming families without safety nets. Among
in 2020 Southeast Asian countries, agriculture remains to
GDPo= GDP share of agriculture, forestry, be a major source of direct employment, such as
and fishery in 2019 (USD) in the case of Lao PDR (62%), Myanmar (49%),
Timor-Leste (44%), and Vietnam (37%).
The restrictions caused by COVID-19
1
Agricultural production volume data across the during the first quarter of year 2020 translate to 1.4
Southeast Asian region for 2019 were still unavailable percent drop in farm labor supply as estimated by
as of this writing, hence, latest available data for this is
for 2018. Vos, Martin, and Laborde (2020). This has caused
Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development Volume 17 | Number 1 | 5
Table 1. Estimated reduction in the volume of agricultural production due to decrease in agricultural
labor force in Southeast Asia
With COVID Scenario
Estimated % Change in
Volume of Labor Reduction
Estimated Volume of Volume of
Agricultural Productivity in Volume of
ALF in 2020 Agricultural Agricultural
Production* (Tons/ Agricultural
Country Due to COVID Production Production
(Million Tons) Worker)** Production
(Million)*** (Million Due to
(Million Tons)
Tons)**** Decrease
in ALF
2018 2018 2020 2020 2020
Table 2. Estimated reduction in GDP due to decrease in agricultural labor force in Southeast Asia
With COVID Scenario With COVID Scenario
Estimated Estimated
Estimated Difference
ALF in Total Percent Increase in
GDP in GDP % Change
2020 Due Population Increase in the Number
Country (Billion (Billion in GDP
to COVID (Millions) Poverty Ratio of Population
USD)** USD)
(Million)* Due to ALF Living Below
Reduction*** USD 1.90 a Day
2020 2020 2000 2020 2020 (Millions)
Brunei 0.01 0.14 0.000 0.00% 0.43
Cambodia 2.978 4.70 –0.066 –1.39% 16.50
Indonesia 38.05 142.50 –2.022 –1.40% 266.10 2.07 5.51
Laos 2.347 3.03 –0.043 –1.39% 6.70 2.97 0.20
Malaysia 1.597 27.90 –0.402 –1.42% 32.60
Myanmar 11.901 17.16 –0.244 –1.40% 54.10 2.97 1.61
Philippines 10.343 30.26 –0.430 –1.40% 108.80 2.97 3.23
Singapore 0.0296 0.08 –0.001 –1.33% 5.71
Thailand 12.157 38.06 –0.542 –1.40% 66.56 2.36 1.57
Timor–Leste 0.237 0.41 –0.005 –1.25% 1.30 1.63 0.02
Vietnam 21.13 34.51 –0.490 –1.40% 96.48 0.96 0.93
Southeast
100.769 264.60 –3.758 –1.40% 655.28 2.24 14.68
Asia
* Computed assuming 1.4% reduction in agricultural labor force (Source: IFPRI)
** Computed using the estimated 2020 ALF and the computed labor productivity
*** Based on the estimates of IFPRI from 1.4% reduction in labor supply, except for Brunei, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Singapore, for which data are
not available
Considerable growth in the economic and the economic outlook over the medium term.
agricultural performance of the Southeast Asian As such, the OECD, on 2 March 2020, lowered
region has been observed in the immediate past its forecast of global economic growth by 0.5
years. The recorded stable increase in real GDP of percent for 2020 from 2.9 percent to 2.4 percent.
the region for 2017-2019, averaging at 5.2, was a On the other hand, the IMF (2020) projection
remarkable increase as compared to the preceding shows that the ASEAN-5 (Indonesia, Malaysia, the
years. Recent projections of the Organization Philippines,Thailand, and Vietnam) growth will be
for Economic Cooperation and Development at -0.6 percent in 2020, significantly lower from its
(OECD) (2019) likewise provide that Southeast earlier forecast of +4.8 percent. Lastly, the analysis
Asian countries would have maintained an average of ADB (2020) likewise provide that the Southeast
of 5.2 percent GDP per year in 2019-2023. Such Asian region will experience decelerated growth
trend is consistent with what is observed across at +1 percent in year 2020.
Asia where recent economic growth is found to This decrease in GDP could mean more
be remarkably higher than in all regions in recent families in SEA being pushed below the poverty
decades. However, Atkeson (2020) posits that the line (Table 2). Except for Brunei, the estimates of
ongoing public health crisis will weigh heavily this current study show that percent change in GDP
on economic activity, employment, and inflation across Southeast Asian countries due to decrease
in the near term, and poses considerable risks to in agricultural labor force as induced by the
Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development Volume 17 | Number 1 | 7
COVID-19 mobility restrictions range from 1.25 which seeks to significantly increase national
percent (Timor Leste) to 1.42 percent (Malaysia). agri-fishery output. It is complemented with
In addition, the poverty impacts of an economic another flagship agri-fishery marketing program
slowdown could range from 0.96 (Vietnam) to that aims to improve marketing linkages between
2.97 percent rise in poverty ratio in Indonesia, the urban areas and farmers. Likewise, Cambodia
Lao PDR, Myanmar, and the Philippines. Overall, has embarked on virtual extension services using
poverty impacts in SEA could reach an additional telecommunications-based services to assist
14.68 million families to live below the USD 1.90 farmers amid the social distancing regulation.
a day threshold (Table 2). Clearly, the On the other hand, Singapore has long been
COVID-19 pandemic would push back the implementing a program targeting of its
ability of some countries in SEA to further agricultural processing sector to beef up national
hit their poverty reduction targets per set in food reserves in preparation for disruptions like
their commitments for the Sustainable COVID-19, while also maintaining an open supply
Development Goals 2030. chain with its neighboring country Malaysia,
among other countries in the region.Vietnam, on
Toward Transformed Agricultural Food the other hand, has invested on digital agriculture
Systems in Southeast Asia to upgrade the connectivity between farms and
The experience with COVID-19 further markets, while also setting up rice dispensing
highlights the importance of the agriculture machines in the rural and urban areas providing
sector in ensuring the achievement of food 1.5 kg of rice per household.
security especially during times of crisis. How Other notable responses and initiatives to
food security is defined, which in turn becomes COVID-19, particularly aiding the agricultural
the basis of how agriculture programs and projects distributors, are the Philippines’ cargo land and
are designed to achieve it, now further raises food pass accreditation system, as well as the
an important aspect related to viewing bulk buying of farm produce from farmers in
agricultural systems as food systems. some localities in Malaysia, Thailand, and the
Seeing food security as a coordination Philippines. For the retailers, some regulations
problem, both the government and private sectors related to price freeze for basic commodities were
could use this experience with COVID-19 to also implemented in the Philippines, including the
rethink how food production and consumption imposition of purchase limits on selected staple
could be made more sustainable. Across foods. Common across many countries in the
the agricultural supply chain, the region are interventions targeting the consumers
COVID-19 pandemic resulted in movement that include social distancing and precautionary
restrictions for labor and transport of farm measures, household marketing shifts/schedules,
inputs and produce, increase in food prices due the boosting of e-commerce-based transactions,
to the unpredictable market, and change in and the promotion of urban gardening. Overall,
consumer patterns (Figure 2). The there have been a number of interventions
interconnections of each of the nodes of implemented by countries in SEA in response
agricultural supply chains would therefore to COVID-19. However, more focused analyses
be critical in affording a holistic and integrated would be necessary to distill lessons from these
response to ensuring food security and nutrition interventions as bases toward a more long-term
at all times, particularly during crisis. and integrated designing of the agricultural
Across the region, several innovations systems that must be more productive, resilient,
were implemented by the Southeast Asian inclusive, and sustainable.
countries supporting the farmers, processors, For SEA, the Southeast Asian Regional
distributors, retailers, and consumers (Figure Center for Graduate Study and Research in
2). Notable interventions addressing the Agriculture (SEARCA) has identified the
concerns of the farmers is the “Plant, Plant,
Plant” program of the agriculture department
of the Philippines,
Figure 2. Selected programs and initiatives in response to COVID-19 among Southeast Asian countries
8
Impacts of
COVID-19 per Movement Restriction on Transportation Increase in Food Prices Due to Change in Consumer Preference
Supply Chain With the announcement of nationwide lockdown and enhanced community quarantine in SEA countries, the
movements across cities and provinces were reduced and restricted. Unpredictable market and change in consumer With increased cases of COVID 19, consumers
Node purchasing pattern buying behavior and preferences are shifting.
Supply Chain
Nodes Farmer Processor Distributor Retailer Consumer
Plant Plant Plant Program Stockpiling, Enhanced Production, Cargo Lane and Food Pass Price Stabilization Measures Social Distancing and Other
and Source Diversification Accreditation Price freeze under declaration of a state of Precautionary Measures
A program by the Department of
Agriculture, Philippines, which seeks to Singapore has prepared months' worth The Philippine government issued a calamity due to COVID-19 in the Philippines The SEA countries implemented social
increase national agri-fishery output of stockpiles at a national level in case designated lane where agriculture, distancing ordinance of 1-2 m in all public
through intensified use of quality seeds, of a disruption in supplies from fisheries inputs, and food products are areas to prevent transmission of the virus. In
appropriate inputs, modern Malaysia. In addition, the country also transported through all forms of addition, the use of medical mask in public
technologies to increase levels of plans to diversify its source of goods conveyance across all mode of areas is strictly implemented.
productivity across all commodities and enhance local production. deliveries. Food passes accreditation is
free to facilitate access to cargo lanes.
Virtual Extension Services Provision of Farm Inputs Bulk Buying of Produce from the Purchase Limits on Staple Foods Market Shifting Schedules
Farmers
| Glenn B. Gregorio and Rico C. Ancog
Cambodia facilitates extension services Financial assistance was provided for The national police food stability task force in Numerous local government units in the
for farmers through tele-based services, Thai farmers. The assistance offered by As the farmgate prices of some Indonesia enforced limit of staple foods such as Philippines enforced shifting schedules for the
including skype calls, short messaging the government extends to factors of commodities dropped below rice, sugar, vegetable oil, etc. Similarly, the consumers in public markets as a measure to
services or SMSs, and phone calls to production, cost of living, and drought production costs in the Philippines, Department of Trade and Industry in the prevent increase in cases.
Programs and maximize social distancing. impacts. the local government executives were Philippines issued an anti hoarding and anti
Initiatives encouraged to purchase goods panic buying memorandum to avoid
directly form the farmers. This also unreasonable price increase in necessities.
in Response to Kadiwa ni Ani at Kita Digital Agriculture aims to address the challenges in E-commerce-Based Transactions
COVID-19 A flagship agri-fishery marketing The Việt Nam Digital Agriculture product transportation. With the restricted movement brought about
program use to improve marketing Association (VIDA) was launched to by community quarantines and lockdowns, an
linkages between the urban areas and upgrade the technology infrastructure, Likewise, in Malaysia and Thailand, the increase in online purchasing transactions
farmers. This program will tap the develop digital farming, connect with same initiatives were conducted. In were recorded in SEA. In Malaysia, some
private sector and the LGUs to facilitate and expand markets, identify tailored Malaysia, vegetable products were delivery companies recorded a 30 percent
transportation of good to Agri-Pinoy digital solutions for each cultivation purchased to reduce waste and losses increase in orders since the beginning of their
Centers. Under this is the Kadiwa model, attract investors, and have and were used as relief goods. In Movement Control Order or MCO
Express and Kadiwa Online to facilitate human training. Thailand, the purchased goods were
transfer of goods and for online order purchased by the army and distributed
placement. within boot camps.
Open Supply Chain Agricultural Services Programme for Rice ATM Urban Gardening
In the case of Singapore, Malaysia Innovation, Resilience, and
Extension (ASPIRE) project Rice dispensing machines were placed As food security becomes a concern, many
assured them a continuous flow of in the rural and urban areas of Vietnam people are realizing the benefits of growing
goods including food supplies. Similarly, A project of Cambodia that focused on to accommodate distribution of goods. food at home. In the Philippines, the
Singapore with six other countries stabilizing production of green leafy This dispenses 1.5 kg of rice per Department of Agriculture - Bureau of Plant
(including Myanmar) also released a vegetables and chicken eggs household. Industry or DA-BPI encourages this by
joint ministerial statement indicating distributing free vegetable seeds or seedlings
maintaining open supply chains across for planting.
these countries.
necessary elements of transformative change models, which will be critical to operationalize the
of agricultural systems into food systems as interconnectivity between and among the nodes
outlined in its 11th five-year plan (2020–2025) in the supply chain, while also highlighting the
(Figure 3). Under the banner of “Accelerating linkage between the rural farming systems and the
Transformation through Agricultural Innovation” urban consumption patterns, and vice versa.
or ATTAIN, SEARCA’s mission in the next five Listed below are the major interventions
years is to elevate the quality of life of agricultural where the AIG models could be applied to
families through sustainable livelihoods and access strengthen the role of agricultural and rural
to modern networks and innovative markets. As development in ensuring food security, particularly
a leading enabler and champion of excellence in responding to crises like COVID-19:
in agriculture and rural development in SEA,
SEARCA commits to better, bigger, and smarter 1. The likes of the COVID-19 pandemic have
outcomes and impact on the agriculture industry raised the need to support local capacity
and its stakeholders. More effective and efficient toward being self-sufficient through well-
delivery of context-relevant and valuable services planned local food production systems. While
is envisioned to reach more beneficiaries. sustaining the efforts to significantly improve
Central to SEARCA’s strategy is supporting productivity and income among rural farmers,
more academe-industry-government (AIG) urban communities could be supported on
engaging in urban agriculture initiatives they have on their plates and the quantity and
at the community and household levels. quality of farm production, which could be
Supporting more studies on how physical and capitalized on to encourage more programs and
financial technologies and social organizations budget allocation from governments, as well as
could be better wielded to make these private initiatives related to agriculture such as
initiatives work and be made more efficient farm-based small-and-medium enterprises. In
across scales is a priority. turn, there is a need for a massive promotion
2. It is paramount to provide more incentives of sustainable and responsible consumption
to support innovation studies and activities pattern that provides strong signals for
that significantly improve production, reduce agricultural products that support and
production losses, and promote value-adding observe cleaner production, environmental
activities covering both agriculture and conservation, and social inclusion. At the
related non-agriculture ventures. For SEA, individual and household levels, massive
these would particularly include support promotion of information related to healthy
activities related to development of new and diets and lifestyles, agricultural produce that
relevant crop varieties and livestock breeds; are nutritious and rich in micronutrients,
seed and livestock production and distribution food preparation and preservation techniques,
of technologies; agricultural systems as well as waste management strategies must
technologies like water management, pests be made accessible using various knowledge
and diseases management, weather and climate platforms and modalities.
forecasting, etc.; postharvest management like 5. The growing interest in agriculture needs to be
drying, processing, and storage; farm produce sustained with more targeted capacity building
transport and logistics systems; facilities activities of relevant government agencies and
supporting food quality, nutrition, and safety groups to specifically promote and generate
maintenance; and diversified farming, as well more agri-entrepreneurs. Encouraging all
as support livelihoods complementary to that sectors’ participation, particularly the youth
of major crops and livestock produced, among and women, through a number of systematic
many others. education and mentorship programs with
3. As risks and uncertainties arise related to price well-thought-out and sustained incentives
volatilities, inclement weather, and climate- and innovative training modalities and
change related hazards that characterize farm backed with social safety net systems will be
production systems, there is a need to support instrumental to sustain these efforts.
more studies and activities related to improving 6. In addition, while most of the efforts above
design of financial technologies for farmers, are targeted within a country, it would be
and to encouraging wider participation in critical that policies supporting trade in SEA
these financial systems like loans and credit must be designed to simultaneously support
systems and agricultural insurance facilities, productive and inclusive agricultural systems
among others. Policies and interventions that ensure food security in the region.
to support institutional and organizational At the current rate, more studies must be done
interventions made suitable to the cultural to ensure the balance between trade priorities
nuances of a group or community would be and food security goals particularly under the
particularly relevant for countries in SEA. tenets of the Association of Southeast Asian
4. It is high time that the general public Nations (ASEAN) Economic Cooperation. At
significantly appreciates the value of the minimum, efforts to support the collective
agriculture. Consumers are now becoming capacities of Southeast Asian countries to
more aware of the intricate link between what increase agricultural productivity must be
Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development Volume 17 | Number 1 | 11
sustained as it will benefit all ASEAN member _______. 2019a. The State of Food Security and Nutrition
countries. However, analyses toward effective in the World, Safeguarding against economic slowdowns
coordination mechanisms among countries and downturns. Rome: Food and Agriculture
to reduce trade and food insecurities both Organization.
at the national and regional levels must be _______. 2019b. FAOSTAT data. http://www.fao.org/
faostat/en/#data/
continuously pursued.
IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2020. “World
Economic Outlook, April 2020: The Great
Lockdown.” World Economic Resports. Source:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/
Issues/2020/04/14/weo-april-2020
This paper benefited from the earlier comments OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation
and suggestions of Dr. Marites M. Tiongco of De and Development). 2020. OED Interim Economic
La Salle University and Dr. Zenaida M. Sumalde Assessment, Coronavirus:The World Economy at Risk.
of University of the Philippines Los Baños.Thanks https://www.oecd.org/berlin/publikationen/
are also due to Ma. Christina Corales, Nikka Interim-Economic-Assessment-2-March-2020.
Marie Billedo, and Rebeka Paller of the Project pdf
Development and Technical Services Unit of Ravallion, M. 2016. The Economics of Poverty: History,
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SEARCA (Southeast Asia Regional Center for
Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture).
2020. “SEARCA 11th Five-Year Plan
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12
Appendix Table 1. Estimated reduction in the volume of agricultural production due to decrease in agricultural labor force
in Southeast Asia
Brunei 0.21 1.95% 0.01 0.00% 5% 0.16 15.793 0.01 0.156 –1.40% –0.002
Cambodia 8.91 2.17% 3.35 –4.77% 32% 4.88 1.580 2.98 4.705 –3.63% –0.177
Indonesia 128.48 1.83% 40.22 –1.77% 29% 0.05 0.001 38.05 0.045 –3.28% –0.002
Laos 3.62 2.12% 2.34 0.69% 62% 12.30 5.211 2.35 12.230 –0.56% –0.069
APPENDICES
Malaysia 14.98 1.88% 1.70 –1.47% 10% 132.73 80.932 1.60 129.274 –2.60% –3.454
Myanmar 24.61 0.00% 12.48 –1.32% 49% 64.47 5.302 11.90 63.096 –2.13% –1.373
Philippines 43.52 1.07% 11.57 –4.07% 23% 99.98 9.379 10.34 97.011 –2.97% –2.972
Singapore 3.47 1.00% 0.03 0.00% 1% 0.18 6.163 0.0296 0.182 –1.40% –0.003
Thailand 38.83 0.00% 12.43 –1.08% 32% 112.53 9.002 12.16 109.442 –2.74% –3.084
Timor–Leste 0.51 3.20% 0.24 0.87% 44% 0.38 1.595 0.24 0.377 –1.40% –0.005
Vietnam 56.33 0.71% 23.29 –3.53% 37% 120.67 5.492 21.13 116.056 –3.82% –4.614
Souteast Asia 323.46 1.17% 107.66 –2.31% 31% 548.33 5.272 100.77 531.295 –3.11% –17.034
Appendix Table 2. Estimated reduction in GDP due to decrease in labor supply in Southeast Asia
* Computed assuming 1.4% reduction in agricultural labor force ( Vos, Martin, and Laborde 2020)
** Computed using the estimated 2020 ALF and the computed labor productivity
*** Based on the estimates of IFPRI from 1.4% reduction in labor supply, except for Brunei, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Singapore, as data is not available
Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development Volume 17 | Number 1 |
13
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