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Lithium-ion batteries belong to the group of batteries that generate electrical energy by
converting chemical energy via redox reactions on the active materials, i.e. the negative (anode)
and a positive electrode (cathode), in one or more electrically connected electrochemical cells.
Lithium-ion batteries can be further divided into primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary
(rechargeable) batteries, depending on whether or not they are rechargeable by applying an
electric current.
In conventional lithium-ion batteries, Li+-ions are shuttled between the positive electrode (usually a
layered transition metal oxide material) and a graphite-based negative electrode according to the
“rocking chair” principle (cf. video).
The term discharge is used for the process in which the battery supplies electrical energy to an
external load. The electrolyte in this system contains additional Li+-ions to ensure rapid transport
of the ionic charge within the cell.
Separator
Current collectors
Conductive additives, Binders
Cell casing
Step 3 - Electrode
reactions
After the formation of the SEI
and CEI ⊕, further Li+ ions de-
intercalate from the positive
electrode material into the
electrolyte and migrate through
it to the negative electrode
material to be subsequently
incorporated into the latter.
Positive electrode:
Step 5 - Discharge
During discharge, the reverse
reactions are taking place. The
electrode ⊕ reactions are:
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Step 6 - Rocking chair principle
After discharge (SOC 0%), the
Li+-ions are re-stored in the
positive electrode material from
which they originally came. The
back and forth movement of Li+-
ions reminds of the movement of
a rocking chair, which is why this
principle was called the “rocking
chair principle”.
In order to optimize lithium-ion batteries with respect to the specific energy and energy density,
lifetime and safety, many efforts have been made to further expand the application possibilities of
LIBs. Especially the increasing demands for both high specific energy and energy density lithium-
ion batteries particularly for automotive applications, raise the research efforts all over the world.
The energy density and specific energy of batteries by definition is the amount of energy stored in
a given system per unit volume and per unit mass, respectively. The product of the specific
capacity and the mean discharge voltage gives the specific energy and this relation finds
expression in equation 1:
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E = C · U (1)
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According to equation 1, it appears reasonable that most of the current research focuses on new
positive electrode materials with higher operation voltages (high-voltage approach) and/or
increased specific capacity (high-capacity approach). The high-voltage cathode materials are
highly restricted by the narrow electrochemical stability window state-of-the-art carbonate-based
electrolytes (≈1.0 – 4.4 V vs. Li/Li+) and reinforce the design of intrinsically stable electrolytes or
suitable electrolyte additives to enable high-voltage lithium-ion batteries.
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