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WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

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 16
WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Dr. Subhash Kumar
Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Botany CCR (PG) College, Muzaffrnagar

Chapter Content
Introduction
@ Introduction Government of India enacted the Water (Prevention
@ Water Pollutants and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 to maintain
@ Effects of Water Pollutants wholesomeness of aquatic resources. The act prescribes
@ Drinking Water Treatment Technologies various functions for the Central Pollution Control Board
@ Waste Water Treatment Technology (CPCB) at the apex level and State Pollution Control
@ Reference Boards at the state level. Water pollution in natural water
bodies can be identified and quantified on the basis of
various parameters, such as, dissolved oxygen (DO),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), coliform organisms,
pH etc. As per the water quality criteria, the DO levels in
drinking water should be = 6 mg/L and BOD levels should
be < 2 mg/L. Moreover coliforms level should not exceed 50
MPN/100 mL in water which is safe for drinking purpose. If
the water quality of any source is not complying with these
criteria, the water can not be used for drinking purpose
without undergoing complete treatment. Water pollution
can be controlled by diluting the water pollutants in a
reservoir. The various methods for the control of water
pollution can be summarized as follows: 1. The sewage
pollutants are required to be treated in sewage treatment
plants before their discharge in natural water bodies. 2.
Water pollution due to organic insecticides and pesticides
can be reduced by the use of very specific and less stable
chemicals in the manufacture of insecticides/pesticides.
Moreover, use of bio-fertilizers needs to be promoted. 3.
Oxidation ponds can be useful in removing low level of
radioactive wastes. 4. Hot water should not be disposed
directly into the river, as it adversely affects the life of
aquatic organisms.
 164

Thermal pollution can be reduced by employing techniques such as cooling, cooling ponds,
evaporative or wet cooling towers and dry cooling towers. 5. Domestic and industrial waste waters
should be treated properly in waste water treatment plants, before discharge in the natural aquatic
systems. 6. Strict implementation of legislations for water treatment should be done. 7. No solid waste
should be dumped into water bodies. 8. Dead bodies of animals/human should not be floated in water
sources. 9. Bathing, washing of clothes, and idol immersion should be strictly restricted in natural water
bodies. Factors behind high pollution of rivers are Chemicals & Effluents,Industrialisation,Failure of
regulatory agencies and implementation of laws,Garbage Dumping, Washing & Sewage, Defecation and
Cremation around river banks, Cremation etc. Direct sources of water pollution include effluent
outfalls from factories, refineries, industries etc. that emit fluids of varying quality directly into water
bodies. Indirect sources of water pollution include contaminants that enter the water supply from
soils/groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rain water. Soils and groundwaters contain the
residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and improperly disposed of
industrial wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous
emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries).

Water Pollutants
The substances which are responsible for causing water pollution are called water pollutants.Based
on source, water pollutants can be classified as follows:
1. Domestic wastes and sewage 2. Surface run-off
3. Industrial effluents 4. Thermal pollution
5. Marine pollution
Domestic Wastes and Sewage
Domestic waste and sewage is the biggest polluter of surface and ground water sources in India. This
is due to the big lacuna between the amount of sewage generation and the facilities to dispose it off. The
problem is not only the lack of facilities; rather, the non-functioning of existing facilities / treatment
plants is more critical.
Surface Run-off
The pollutants present on the surface of land, fertilizers, and pesticides added to the soils are washed
down into natural water courses during rains. The flow of fertilizer rich water into streams and lakes
gives rise to eutrophication. Excess of pesticides in water also adversely affect the aquatic life.
Industrial Effluents
Effluents generated from industries which are directly disposed off into the water streams without
any treatment are a very important cause of water pollution. Industrial wastes contain a number of toxic
chemicals such as mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As) etc. Several types of liquid
effluents having toxic chemicals, acids and bases, etc. are also added into the rivers which kills fish and
other aquatic life besides being toxic to human beings. Examples of large scale effluent addition into the
rivers are Yamuna (near Okhla, Delhi), Gomti (near Lucknow), Ganga (near Kanpur), and Hoogli (near
Kolkata) etc.
Thermal Pollution
Temperature above the normal range is called as thermal pollution or Calefaction. Thermal pollution
occurs as a result of the entry of heated water from industries and power generation plants. Various
processes involved in generating thermal pollution are
• Water for cooling condensers • Feeding boilers for steam generation
• Auxillary plant cooling • Ash handling
• Gas washing, etc.
Water Treatment Technology 165

The immediate effect of an increase in temperature is a decrease in the oxygen concentration. A

temperature rise of 10°C will double the rate of many chemical reactions and so the decay of the organic
matter, rusting of iron, and the solution rate of salts are also accelerated by calefaction. All organisms
have a range of temperature tolerance beyond which they either die or move to more congenital
conditions downstream.
Marine Pollution
Marine pollution is the pollution of the water of oceans and seas through various sources. Industrial
wastes, heavy metals, insecticides, mine trailings, urban and rural sewage, farm and forests run offs i.e.
wastes of all kinds including those which are not biodegradable and even radioactive wastes are dumped
into the sea. Sometimes, during war period, oil wells are damaged and oil flows into the sea due to which
a large number of useful aquatic life as well as birds are killed. In marine water, the most serious
pollutant is oil, particularly when afloat on sea. Point sources of marine pollution are domestic sewage
and industrial effluents. Non-point sources draining to coastal waters include surface run-off from
agricultural areas, wash out of agrochemicals, and transport of sediments due to coastal erosion or
desertification and deforestation in the hinterland.

Effects of Water Pollutants

Water pollution is very serious problem as it affects all spheres of life of human, animals, and plants.
1. Effects on human health 2. Effects on ecosystems
3. Effects on fauna 4. Economic loss
Effect on Human Health
In countries where there are scanty facilities for treating waste water, people often get exposed to
various water-borne diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, etc. In severe cases, there may be the outbreak
of diseases like Hepatitis, tuberculosis, malaria, encephalitis, filariasis etc. As per the report of World
Health Organization (WHO), approximately 3.4 million people die of water-borne diseases every year in
the world. In developed countries, even where there are better purification practices, people still suffer
from the health effects of water pollution. Excess nitrogen in drinking water also poses serious risks to
infants.
Effect on Ecosystems
Nutrient pollution from upstream of land flows down and contaminates the larger water body. It
inturns, promotes the algae growth and subsequently growth of many more water organisms takes
place. The excess growth of algae affects the fish and other aquatic organisms by absorbing and reducing
their oxygen supply. Fishes also die off due to clogging of their gills as a result of algal growth. Thus, the
aquatic ecosystems are affected very adversely disturbing all the food chains.
Effects on Fauna
Animals, both aquatic and terrestrial, are prone to risks generated from the waste water. In a classic
case of marine pollution in recent time, 16000 miles of a US coastline was affected by an oil spill. In this
case, death of many animals has been reported and there was great loss to aquatic fauna. Animals are
also affected by the solid waste thrown into the water bodies, as it harm them in many ways.
Economic Loss
It is quite obvious that increasing water pollution will lead to the excessive pressure on the existing
treatment plants as well as the establishment of new treatment plants. Fishing industry is also affected
badly as the fishes die due to depletion of oxygen. Recreational and tourism sectors are also affected
negatively as lots of money needs to be spent to clean up the water from algae blooms etc.
 166
Drinking Water Treatment
Technologies
The various methods or the techniques
which may be adopted for purifying the
public water supplies are:
Screening
Screens are generally provided in front of
the pumps or the intake works so as to
exclude large sized particles, such as debris,
animals, trees, branches, bushes etc.
Plain Sedimentation
Most of the suspended impurities
present in water do have gravity greater
than that of water. In still water, these
impurities will therefore, tend to settle down
under gravity, although in normal raw
supplies, they remain in suspension, because
of the turbulence in water. Hence, as soon as,
turbulence is slowed down by offering
storage to the water, these impurities tend to
settle down at the bottom of the tank. A plain
sedimentation tank under normal conditions
may remove as much as 70% of the
suspended impurities present in water.
Usually, water depth of 3-5 m is provided in
sedimentation tanks.
Sedimentation Aided with
Coagulation
Very fine suspended mud particles can be
removed easily by increasing their size by
changing them into flocculated particles. For
this, chemical coagulants are added to water.
The use of coagulants is generally necessary
for clarifying raw waters containing
turbidities greater than 30-50 mg/L. Some of
the common coagulants used for the water
treatment are alum (Aluminium sulphate,
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O), copperas (Ferrous
sulphate, FeSO4·7H2O), chlorinated
copperas (Ferric sulphate + ferric chloride,
Fe2(SO4)3 + FeCl3), sodium aluminate
(Na2Al2O4) etc.
Filtration
The process of passing the water through the beds of granular materials (called filters) is known as
filtration. Filtration may help in removing colour, odour, turbidity, and pathogenic bacteria from the
water. Two types of filters are commonly used for treating municipal water supplies.
Minor Methods of Disinfection
Boiling of Water
Effective method, but practically not possible to boil huge amounts
of public water supplies. Moreover, it can only kill the existing
germs but cannot take care of the future possible contaminations.
Treatment with Excess Lime
The excess lime when added to water raises the pH value of water
making it extremely alkaline. This alkalinity is detrimental to the
survival of bacteria, thus killing them partially or completely. When
the lime raises the pH of water to about 9.5, 99.9 to 100% bacteria
are removed.
Treatment with Ozone (O3)
Ozonation is a process in which water is made disinfected by using
ozone. Since O3 is an unstable molecule, it readily breaks down
into normal oxygen (O2), and releases nascent oxygen (O). The
nascent oxygen, so produced, is a powerful oxidizing agent and
removes the organic matter as well as the bacteria from the water.
Treatment with ozone is beneficial because ozonized water
becomes tasty and pleasant unlike the chlorinated water which
becomes bitter to tongue.
Treatment with Iodine (I2) and Bromine (Br2)
This method may be used for treating any small scale public
supplies for army troops, private plants, swimming pools etc.
Treatment with UV-rays
These rays are highly effective in killing all types of bacteria, thus
yield truly sterilized water. It is very costly method, needs technical
know-how, and possesses possibilities of interruption due to
failure of electricity.
Treatment with Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
This is popular for disinfecting well water supplies in villages.
Besides killing bacteria, it also helps in oxidizing the taste producing
organic matter. KMnO4, although cheap, handy, and quite useful,
yet cannot guarantee 100% removal of bacteria. It can remove
about 98% bacteria.
Treatment with Silver or Electro-katadyn Process
Metallic silver ions are introduced into the water by passing it
through a tube containing solid silver electrodes. The so introduced
silver ions have a strong germicidal action, and thus act as
disinfectant. However, the use of silver is very costly, and hence
not adopted for treating public water supplies.
Water Treatment Technology 167

These are
¡ low sand gravity filters, and Major Methods of Disinfection
¡ rapid sand gravity filters. Sand, either Major method of disinfection is treatment of water with chlorine
fine or coarse, is generally used as filter (Cl2), also known as Chlorination. Chlorination is a process in
medium. which, water is made disinfected by the action of chlorine. It is a
major method of disinfection of public water supplies. Cl2 is cheap,
The mechanisms through which the reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable, and above all, it is
filtration helps in treating water are – capable of providing residual disinfecting effects for long periods,
¡ Mechanical straining thus affording complete protection against future
¡ Flocculation and sedimentation recontamination of water in the distribution system. Various forms
in which chlorine can be applied in water treatment systems are:
¡ Biological metabolism
As free Chlorine
¡ Electrolytic changes
i. In the form of liquid chloride ion (Cl¯),
Disinfection or Sterilisation ii. As Cl2 gas
As Combined Chlorine
The filtered water which is obtained after
going through above procedures normally i. In the form of hypochlorites or bleaching powder (Ca(OCl)2),
contains some harmful disease causing ii. In the form of chloramines (NH2Cl) i.e. a mixture of ammonia and
chlorine,
bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed
in order to make the water safe for drinking. iii. In the form of chlorine dioxide gas (ClO2)
Disinfection means killing of only the Chlorine tablets are available in the market under various trade
diseases producing bacteria, where as, names, such as “Halazone tablets”. A single tablet of 0.5 g is
sufficient to disinfect about 20 litres of water.
sterilization means killing of bacteria of all
types. The chemical which is used as a
disinfectant must be able to give protection against re-contamination, thus it must have the residual
sterilising effect.
Softening
The reduction or removal of hardness from water is known as water softening. It is not essential to
soften the water in order to make the water safe for drinking purposes. The advantage of softening lies
chiefly in the reduction of soap consumption. The hardness in water can be of two types:
¡ Temporary Hardness It is also called as carbonate hardness, since it is caused by carbonates and
bicarbonates of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). It can be removed by boiling of water or by
adding lime.
¡ Permanent Hardness It is also called as the non-carbonate hardness. It is caused by the sulphate
(SO4¯ ¯), chlorides (Cl¯), and nitrates (NO3¯) of Ca and Mg.
The permissible hardness for public supplies normally ranges between 75 – 115 mg/L.
Miscellaneous Treatments
¡ Removal of colours, odours, and taste from water
The special treatments for the removal of colours, odours, and tastes are
† Aeration – application of oxygen (O2)
† Activated carbon treatment – Specially treated carbon which possesses the property of
absorbing and attracting impurities, such as gases, liquids, and finely dissolved solids.
† Treatment with copper sulphate (CuSO4·7H2O) – It helps in removing colours, tastes, and
odours from water.
† Treatment with oxidizing agents – Oxidizing agents used are KMnO4, Cl2, O3 etc.
168
¡ Removal of salt and dissolved
solids from water i.e. Desalination
Process of removing the salt content is
known as desalination. The various
methods used are
† By evaporation and distillation
† Electrodialysis method
† Reverse osmosis method
† Freezing process
† Solar distillation method
† Other methods
¡ Removal of iron (Fe) and
manganese (Mn) from water The
Fe and Mn may be present in water
either in combination with organic
matter or without such combination.
When present without combination
with organic matter, they can be easily
removed by aeration, followed by
coagulation, sedimentation, and
filtration. On the other hand, when Fe
and Mn are present in combination
with organic matter, removal becomes
difficult. In such cases, addition of
lime, Cl2, or KMnO4 is useful.
¡ Addition to and removal of
fluorides from water Fluoride (F¯)
content in water should be about 1
mg/L. To ensure this, fluorides are
either added in water (i.e.
Fluoridation) or removed from this (i.e.
Defluoridation)
¡ Arsenic contamination and its
removal The maximum permissible
limit of Arsenic (As) specified by World
Health Organization (WHO) as well as
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is
0.01 mg/L (10 ppb). If there is excess
concentration of As in water, then it
needs to be removed using any one of
the following methods:
† Coagulation – precipitation technique
by using aluminium and ferric salts
† Adsorption technique by using
activated alumina or ion exchange
resins
† Membrane technology like reverse
osmosis and electrodialysis
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
The anaerobic process is considered to be a slow process, requiring
digestors of large hydraulic retention time (HRT). Hence in recent
years, high rate anaerobic systems have been designed,
constructed to treat concentrated industrial waste waters and for
direct treatment of municipal waste waters. Application of
anaerobic treatment technology to municipal waste waters is quite
significant for a developing country like India, because of high
energy savings and low capital, operational, and maintenance
costs involved in such technologies. The various high rate
anaerobic systems, that have been devised include:
— Anaerobic contact (AC) process;
— Anaerobic filters (AF);
— Anaerobic fixed films (AFF) reactors;
— Fluidized bed (FB) reactors; and
— Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor
Among these, UASB reactor needs special mention because of its
wide scale applicability.
This reactor maintains a high concentration of biomass through the
formation of highly settleable microbial sludge aggregates. The
waste water flows upwards through a layer of very active sludge to
cause anaerobic digestion of organics of the waste water. The
sludge bed develops micro-organisms capable of flourishing in an
oxygen deficient environment. The suspended solids trapped in
the sludge bed are degraded by the anaerobic and anaerobically
working facultative bacteria, producing methane and carbon
dioxide. At the top of the reactor, three phase separation between
gas-solid-liquid takes place. The biogas produced during the
anaerobic decomposition helps in providing gentle mixing and
stirring of the biomass, thereby increasing the efficiency of
decomposition, reducing the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
and suspended solids of the waste water.
Advantages
— The capital cost investment of such a plant is about Rs. 20
lakh/MLD as compared to about Rs. 35 lakh/MLD for an
activated sludge process.
— The system requires lesser and simpler electromagnetic parts
leading to lesser operational and maintenance costs.
— Electricity consumption is quite low.
— The system enables quicker sludge digestion, as compared to
the conventional digestors.
— Biogas is produced in the system as a by-product which can be
used to produce electricity to run the system.
Disadvantages
— The system helps to lower only two parameters of waste water
i.e., BOD and suspended solids.
— It does not remove toxic pollutants like heavy metals.
— It requires larger quantity of organic matter to support microbial
growth and metabolism.
Water Treatment Technology
Waste Water Treatment
Technology
Sewage, before being discharged of either
in river streams or on land, has to be treated
so as to make it safe. The degree of treatment
required, however, depends upon the
characteristics of the source of disposal.
Sewage can be treated in different ways.
Treatment processes are often classified as
1. Preliminary treatment
2. Primary treatment
3. Secondary (or Biological) treatment
Preliminary Treatment
Preliminary treatment consists solely in
separating the floating materials (like dead
animals, tree branches, papers, pieces of
rags, wood etc.) and also heavy settleable
inorganic solids. It also helps in removing
the oils and greases etc. from sewage.
The processes used in preliminary
treatment are
¡ Screening – for removing floating
papers, rags, clothes etc.
¡ Grit chambers or Detritus tanks –
for removing grit and sand
¡ Skimming tanks – for removing oils
and greases.
Primary Treatment
Primary treatment consists in removing
large suspended organic solids. This is
usually accomplished by sedimentation in
settling basins. The organic solids, which are
separated out in the sedimentation tanks (in
primary treatment), are often stabilized by
anaerobic decomposition in a digestion tank
or are incinerated. The residue is used for
landfills or soil conditioners. The liquid
effluent from primary treatment often
contains a large amount of suspended organic
material. It also has a high biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD).
The processes used in primary treatment are
¡ Sedimentation for removing part of the organic matter from the sewage effluent as in drinking
water purification
¡ Sedimentation aided with coagulation similar to drinking water purification
169
— Some of the waste waters may contain minerals, which may
interfere with the efficiency of the anaerobic microbes.
— Pertreatment of waste water with screening and grit removal
are usually found necessary for direct anaerobic treatment.
Although there are some drawbacks, but UASB system responds
well for the treatment of high strength soluble waste waters, like
those from municipalities and industries like food processing,
edible oils, distallaries, wineries, brewries, dairies, cheese
processing, organic chemicals etc.
Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP)
Common effluent treatment plant (CETP) is the collective
treatment of effluents of various industries at a centralized facility.
This concept is similar to the concept of Municipal Corporation
treating sewage of all the individual houses. The main objective of
CETP is to reduce the treatment cost for individual units while
protecting the environment.
CETP of 35 MLD capacity at Bawana, Delhi
Advantages
— It facilitates ‘economy of scale’ in waste treatment, thereby
reducing the cost of pollution abatement for individual small
and medium scale enterprises.
— It addresses ‘lack of space’ issue.
— It has relatively better hydraulic stability.
— It facilitates small scale units, which often can not internalize the
externalities due to control of pollution.
— It eliminates multiple discharges in the area and provides
opportunity for better enforcement i.e. proper treatment and
disposal.
— It provides opportunity to improve the recycling and reuse
possibilities.
— It also facilitates better organization of treated effluent and
sludge disposal.
Disadvantages
— It operates on ‘one size fits all’ basis.
— Improper management of treatment units at common facility
— There is build-up of varied nature and scale of industries along
with the addition of industries in a haphazard manner, without
proper planning.
— There is no provision to tackle the fluctuations in the pollution
load and quantities, at individual member industries.
— No separate treatment units to deal with hazardous and toxic
effluents.
 170

Secondary (or Biological) Treatment

Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
Secondary treatment involves further
treatment of the effluent coming from the Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) is a wastewater treatment that
primary sedimentation tanks. This is completely eliminates liquid discharge from a system. ZLD
represents the ultimate cutting-edge treatment system for the
generally accomplished through biological
total elimination of wastewater effluent into neighbouring
decomposition of organic matter, which can waterways. The goal of any well designed ZLD system is to minimize
be performed either under aerobic (in the volume of wastewater that requires further treatment, process
presence of oxygen) or anaerobic (in absence wastewater in an economically feasible manner, while also
of oxygen) conditions. In these biological producing a clean stream suitable for re-use elsewhere in the
units, bacteria are used to decompose the facility.
fine organic matter to produce clearer The first step to achieve ZLD is to look for ways to limit the amount
effluent. In treatment reactors, in which the of wastewater that needs to be treated. The equipments needed to
organic matter is decomposed (oxidized) by achieve ZLD vary depending on the characteristics of the
aerobic bacteria are known as Aerobic wastewater as well as the wastewater volume. Typical waste
Biological Units, and may consists of streams in an industrial setting include wastewater rejects typically
from reverse osmosis (RO) or ion exchange, cooling tower blow
¡ Filters (intermittent sand filters and down, spent coolants, DI regenerant, metal finishing wastewaters,
trickling filters) – Sewage is kept in tank or equipment washing wastewaters, and other miscellaneous
contact with filtering medium, so that industrial wastewaters such as compressor condensate and floor
fine colloidal organic matter gets scrubber wash waters. A traditional approach to ZLD is to use some
trapped in the voids (spaces) of filter sort of filtration technology, funnel the reject waters to an
medium. evaporator, and send the evaporator concentrate to a crystallizer
¡ Aeration Tanks – Sewage received or spray dryer.
from primary sedimentation tanks is Advantages
mixed with micro-organisms (e.g. — Better management of wastewater.
bacteria) and large quantity of air, thus — Less environmental pollution.
causing precipitation of organic and — Treatment and recovery of valuable products from waste
colloidal matter. streams.
¡ Oxidation ponds and aerated — It avoids wastage and spurs recycling by conventional and far
lagoons – Oxidation ponds are used less expensive solutions.
for the oxidation of original organic
Disadvantages
matter and the production of algae
— Removal of organic and suspended dissolved solids is a
which are discharged with the effluent
prerequisite.
in the natural water bodies. It results
— High amount of energy utilization for the evaporation process.
in the net reduction in BOD,
approximately upto 90%, and coliform — Management of solid waste needs consideration due to its
potentially hazardous nature.
removal of upto 99% or so.
— Capital cost is high.
The treatment reactors in which the
organic matter is destroyed and stabilized by
anaerobic bacteria, are known as Anaerobic Biological Units, and may consists of
¡ Anaerobic Lagoons – These are deep stabilization ponds, usually operating under the action of
anaerobic bacteria (bacteria which survive only in absence of oxygen). In these ponds, complex
organic materials are broken down into short chain acids and alcohols, which are further degraded
into gases such as methane and carbon dioxide.
¡ Septic Tanks A septic tank is a kind of sedimentation tank which directly receives raw sewage
and removes about 60 - 70% of the dissolved matter from it.
Septic tanks are generally provided in areas where sewers have not been laid and for serving to the
sanitary disposal of sewage produced from isolated communities, schools, hospitals, other public
institutions etc.
Water Treatment Technology 171

¡ Imhoff tanks An Imhoff tank is an improvement over septic tank, in which the incoming sewage is
not allowed to get mixed up with the sludge produced, and the outgoing effluent is not allowed to
carry with it large amount of organic load, as in the case of septic tank.
These are very economical and do not require skilled supervision during operations. There is 60 –
65% removal of solids and 30 – 40% removal of BOD.
— Acknowledgement
The various data/information retrieved from a number of sources like IPCCC, UNSCO, WHO, Government of India website,
Wikipedia, World Bank, NABARD, Policy Papers of eminent scientists and from various institutional websites are duly
acknowledged.

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— Kausley SB, Malhotra CP, Pandit AB. Treatment and reuse of shale gas wastewater: Electrocoagulation system for enhanced
removal of organic contamination and scale causing divalent cations. Journal of Water Process Engineering. 2017;16:149-162
— Buscio V, Marín MJ, Crespi M, Gutiérrez-Bouzàn C. Reuse of textile wastewater after homogenization-decantation coupled to
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