Characterization of Adobe Blocks Pointload Assessment As A Complementary Study of Damaged Buildings and SamplesHeritage

heritage
Article
Characterization of Adobe Blocks: Point-Load Assessment as a
Complementary Study of Damaged Buildings and Samples
Adria Sanchez-Calvillo 1, * , Elia M. Alonso-Guzman 2, * , Wilfrido Martinez-Molina 2 ,
Marco A. Navarrete-Seras 2 , Jose L. Ruvalcaba-Sil 3 , Antonia Navarro-Ezquerra 4 and Alejandro Mitrani 3
1 Faculty of Architecture, Universidad Michoacana San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Morelia 58070, Mexico
2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universidad Michoacana San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Morelia 58070, Mexico;
wilfrido.martinez@umich.mx (W.M.-M.); mnavarrete@umich.mx (M.A.N.-S.)
3 Laboratorio Nacional de Ciencias para la Investigacion y la Conservacion del Patrimonio Cultural, LANCIC,
Instituto de Fisica, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico City 04510, Mexico;
sil@fisica.unam.mx (J.L.R.-S.); mitrani@fisica.unam.mx (A.M.)
4 Escola Politecnica Superior d’Edificacio, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
antonia.navarro@upc.edu
* Correspondence: 1644104g@umich.mx (A.S.-C.); elia.alonso@umich.mx (E.M.A.-G.)

Abstract: Adobe masonry is one of the oldest construction systems still in use today, Mexico has
an enormous cultural heritage with traditional adobe houses being very representative of the rural
Citation: Sanchez-Calvillo, A.; communities and their culture. The 2017 Puebla Earthquake on September 19th struck the country
Alonso-Guzman, E.M.; causing the loss, destruction, and damage of historic buildings in several Mexican states, with the
Martinez-Molina, W.; traditional earthen dwellings being the most vulnerable structures to these events. The fast abandon-
Navarrete-Seras, M.A.; Ruvalcaba-Sil, ment of the local materials and techniques entails further research regarding the characterization
J.L.; Navarro-Ezquerra, A.; Mitrani, A. of these construction systems, therefore, reconstruction efforts first require the recovery of the con-
Characterization of Adobe Blocks: struction technique. After the seismic events, adobe samples of the remaining adobe structures of
Point-Load Assessment as a Jojutla de Juarez were collected. This population was one of the most affected in all the country, and,
Complementary Study of Damaged
because of the major losses suffered, the study was conducted to determine the material properties of
Buildings and Samples. Heritage 2021,
the dwellings’ adobe shards and natural quarry clays of the region. The characterization included
4, 864–888. https://doi.org/10.3390/
destructive and non-destructive tests, mineralogical and granulometry analyses, and composition of
heritage4020047
the adobe samples of the buildings, as well as the aggregates. As a novelty, the compressive strength
Academic Editors: Nicola Masini, of the pieces was tested by two methods: the traditional compression strength test and the point-load
Andrea Macchia and test, in order to obtain the indicative values and the correlation equations between both tests. From
Fernanda Prestileo the formal analysis and the laboratory, it was observed that the adobes from Jojutla presented differ-
ent compositions which combined with the building malpractices and alterations to the traditional
Received: 18 April 2021 systems caused unpredictable behavior during the earthquake. The conduction of point-load tests
Accepted: 17 May 2021 in situ, as a part of a complete characterization methodology, could be an alternative to study the
Published: 20 May 2021 mechanical properties of patrimonial or damaged building samples before its disappearance.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Keywords: earthen architecture; adobe masonry; materials properties; materials characterization;
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
point-load test; mechanical properties; seismic affectation.
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
1. Introduction
In part due to their natural availability and great insulating properties, clays have
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
seen extended use as a construction material around the world. Even if this extensive use
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
includes several heritage structures, studies focusing on this building material are relatively
This article is an open access article
scarce. The present paper discloses a global review of the adobe material characterization,
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
specifically the case of Mexico, a country with a history of extended use of earth in its
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
cultural heritage.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
The abandonment of the traditional use of clay materials for construction in recent
4.0/). times, accompanied with the loss of the techniques employed in this type of construction,
Heritage 2021, 4, 864–888. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4020047 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage

Heritage 2021, 4 865
poses a great difficulty to any restoration work. The devastating 2017 Puebla earthquake
on September 19th caused the loss of many historical buildings in central Mexico, with
traditional earthen dwellings being the most vulnerable. The restoration process has made
evident the need to recover the traditional construction techniques employed. In the
present paper, adobe and soil samples were collected from Jojutla, Morelos, Mexico—one
of the hardest hit areas—and an in-depth study was performed to elucidate the materials
and techniques used in their manufacture.
These samples were tested with a complete methodology for material characteri-
zation using both destructive and non-destructive techniques, and including geotechni-
cal, particle size and mineralogical tests, as well as the inclusion of the point-load test
(PLT) as an innovation and alternative to calculate the mechanical resistance of earthen
construction materials.
The results presented provide interesting details of the traditional building materi-
als and systems used in the region studied, helping to understand the behavior of these
structures and the way they were built. Furthermore, the PLT displayed promising re-
sults as a means to characterize in situ the mechanical properties of earthen architecture,
providing a useful tool when working with cultural heritage and structures affected by
natural phenomena.
1.1. Earthen Architecture in Mexico

Earth is one of the oldest construction materials known; archaeological evidence
reports its use for over thousands of years, being a key factor in the development of ancient
civilizations [1]. Its continued use over several millennia resulted in a variety of local
constructive traditions and architectural earthen heritage in several regions of the world [2].
These construction systems can be found in all continents—except Antarctica—showing
relevant local variations, and being present in all types of structures, including both
residential and religious architecture [3,4]. There is evidence of vernacular and monumental
examples from Latin America, Africa, Central Europe, and the Middle East [5].
In the American continent the magnificent structures of Peru are known worldwide,
being earthen monuments very representative of the Incas [6]. The city of Chan Chan, devel-
oped from the Chimú culture, is the largest built entirely with adobe in the American conti-
nent, and the site of Caral, over 5000 years old presents a very interesting mixture of monu-
mental and residential architecture with earthen materials, including adobe and “quincha”,
a traditional construction system which combines earth and vegetative material [7].
Mexico, as well, has a wide and rich amount of earthen construction heritage, includ-
ing both archaeological and architectural structures. There is evidence of the use of earthen
systems in Pre-Hispanic cultures since their earliest periods, with several examples being
found in both small and large archaeological sites, as well as historical buildings [8]. Most
of the great pyramids, which today function as monumental touristic sites, were built with
earth and then covered with stone coatings [8].
Even after the arrival of the Spanish and the colonization, the adobe masonry and
rammed earth systems were still handed down from generation to generation, being
commonly used in the housing and monumental construction of the cities [9]. Additionally,
as the Iberian Peninsula had a widespread and old tradition of earthen architecture [10],
adobe was one of the main building materials used by the first builders that arrived in
the American continent, along with other techniques like rammed earth [11], but due
to its simplicity and availability, it was implemented in the planning of new cities and
urban centers.
Nevertheless, over the years, the earthen architecture has suffered a progressive
abandonment, being displaced by modern materials and techniques. Currently, in Mexico,
the traditional adobe buildings are closely associated with the lower social classes and are
even considered unsafe materials [12], partly because of the constant earthquakes which
the country suffers.
1.2. Characterization of Earthen Materials and the Case of the Mexican Cultural Heritage
In recent years, the literature about earthen materials has been very productive,
with an increase in the number of articles, conference proceedings, guidelines, outreach,
and training documents, with several works regarding the material characterization of
these structures.
Furthermore, the celebration of scientific events, has helped to raise the awareness
about the importance of these traditional techniques and its current situation in modern
construction. Events like TERRA World Congresses, held since 1972 in different countries
under the aegis of ICOMOS, and the Ibero-American SIACOT congress, have spread the
results from scientific studies of earthen materials.
Additionally, the work of institutions and universities is extremely valuable, including
the dissemination of knowledge by means of guidelines, technical reports, and handbooks;
intended not for specialists but the users and craftsmen who are the real target. The Earthen
Architecture Initiative of the Getty Conservation Institute has published meaningful guide-
lines about specific topics [13,14]. At the government level, during the last decades many
countries have released technical codes for raw earth construction, such as Australia, New
Zealand, Spain, France, Chile, or Peru [15].
Considering the scientific literature, some authors and institutions have gathered im-
portant information and results about these construction materials, including reviews con-
cerning hygrothermal properties, natural fibers, or building codes and standards [5,15,16].
Other works place an emphasis on the identification, documentation, and cataloguing of
cultural heritage and sites for their protection and preservation [17–22], while others focus
on the technological enhancement and development of these sustainable materials [23–25].
Regarding the material characterization, the main topic of the present paper, we can
find recent research works which have implemented various methodologies, including
techniques listed by the Getty Conservation Institute guidelines [14], and incorporate
innovative ones for the study of these materials. The Portuguese research contributions
are very interesting [26–30], with a very productive activity in the last years; moreover
we can find recent ones from North Africa [31,32], and in Latin America the works from
Peru [33,34], and Chile [23,24], are very relevant.
Additionally, the seismic vulnerability of these structures has been studied from many
perspectives, including the structural and technological aspects [34–38], as well as the
social and cultural importance to transmit the original retrofitting strategies [39,40]. In
Latin America, many countries are prone to seismic events,
On the other hand, most of the investigations have revised the earthen construction
from the perspective of the construction technology and the cultural significance of the
traditional architecture [10,11,19,20]. In Mexico, the research approach has been focused
on this last perspective, while the technical knowledge and the materials engineering has
been overlooked. We can find a vast knowledge and literature of earthen structures in the
country and its sundry regions [41], nevertheless the articles and resources about material
characterization are scarce.
Staying in Mexico, in the archaeology field, the construction systems of the Pre-
Hispanic Mexican architecture have been identified, listed, and explained in previous
research studies, creating a vast knowledge of the first earthen structures in the country.
Complex techniques like the micromorphology have been applied in the study of archaeo-
logical earthen heritage [42], while the different construction systems, like adobes, earth
mortars, and ‘bajareque’ from archaeological monuments have been characterized and the
construction techniques have been identified with advanced analytical techniques [8,43].
Nevertheless, the adobe housing has been overlooked from the material character-
ization, especially regarding mineralogical studies and non-destructive laboratory tests.
The majority of the research and academic works focused on the mechanical properties,
determined by means of destructive tests [44]. The present paper intends to display a
complete characterization of earthen materials in a Mexican case of study.
mortars, and ‘bajareque’ from archaeological monuments have been characterized and the
construction techniques have been identified with advanced analytical techniques [8,43].
Nevertheless, the adobe housing has been overlooked from the material characteri-
zation, especially regarding mineralogical studies and non-destructive laboratory tests.
The majority of the research and academic works focused on the mechanical properties,
determined by means of destructive tests [44]. The present paper intends to display a com-
plete characterization of earthen materials in a Mexican case of study.
1.3. The
1.3. The Seismic
Seismic Affectation
Affectation on on Mexican
Mexican Earthen
Earthen Architecture
Architecture
Mexico is
Mexico is aa large
largecountry
countrypronepronetotosuffer
sufferimportant
important earthquakes
earthquakes which
whichcause
causethe the
de-
struction of its structures and cultural heritage. The country is located
destruction of its structures and cultural heritage. The country is located within five within five tectonic
plates: the
tectonic Pacific
plates: thePlate, thePlate,
Pacific Norththe American plate, the plate,
North American Riverathe Plate, the Plate,
Rivera Cocos thePlate, and
Cocos
the Caribbean
Plate, Plate, causing
and the Caribbean Plate,acausing
high seismic
a high activity in the boundaries
seismic activity between
in the boundaries plates.
between
Some regions
plates. Some are reallyare
regions prone to prone
really suffer big impacts
to suffer bigfrom earthquakes
impacts and the presence
from earthquakes and the of
the Trans-Mexican
presence Volcanic Belt
of the Trans-Mexican crossingBelt
Volcanic a large territory
crossing contributes
a large territory to this high seismic
contributes to this
activity.
high seismic activity.
In September
In September 2017, 2017, two
two major
major earthquakes
earthquakes struck the country, country, having
having aa big
big impact
impact
on the
on the regions
regions and and states
states affected.
affected. (Mexico
(Mexico is is organized
organized as as aa federal
federal republic
republic composed
composed of of
32 Federal
32 Federal Entities:
Entities: 31 states and Mexico Mexico City
City as as an
an autonomous
autonomous entity.)
entity.) The
The first
first event
event
occurred on
occurred on 77 September
September with with anan epicenter
epicenter in in the
the zone
zone known
known as as Gulf
Gulf ofof Tehuantepec
Tehuantepec in in
the
the Pacific
Pacific Ocean,
Ocean, 133 133 Km
Km southeast
southeast ofof Pijijiapan
Pijijiapan in in the
the state
state ofof Chiapas;
Chiapas; andand aa magnitude
magnitude
of
of 8.2
8.2 Richter
Richter scale [45]. The affectation was strong in the southwestern part of the country,
especially
especiallyin inthe
thestates
statesofofOaxaca
Oaxacaand andChiapas.
Chiapas.The The second
second event
event occurred
occurred onon19 19
September,
Septem-
just
ber, 32
justyears
32 yearsafterafter
the the
impactful
impactful 1985 Mexico
1985 Mexico CityCityearthquake,
earthquake,which whichdevastated
devastated the the
capital
capital of thethe country.
country.The Theepicenter
epicenter was
was located
located 12 12
KmKm southeast
southeast of Axochiapan
of Axochiapan [46] [46]
(See
(See Figure
Figure 1), in1),the
in boundaries
the boundaries between
between the states
the states of Morelos
of Morelos andand Puebla,
Puebla, alsoalso causing
causing im-
important harms in the states of Tlaxcala, Mexico State, Guerrero,
portant harms in the states of Tlaxcala, Mexico State, Guerrero, and Mexico City. and Mexico City.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Seismic intensity
intensity map
map of
of the
the 2017
2017 Puebla
Puebla Earthquake.
Earthquake. (Source:
(Source: Atlas Nacional de Riesgos,
map generated
map generated by
by Earthquake
Earthquake Institute
Institute of
of the
the National
National Autonomous
AutonomousUniversity
UniversityofofMéxico).
México).
Although the
Although the impact
impact of of earthquakes
earthquakes isis immediate
immediate andand the damages are easily visible,
the population
the population tends
tends toto forget
forget the
the events
events over
over time,
time, causing
causing unawareness
unawareness ofof the
the seismic
seismic
dangerand
danger andthe
theoblivion
oblivionofofthe
the traditional
traditional retrofitting
retrofitting strategies
strategies andand techniques
techniques [35].[35].
The The
dif-
different
ferent strategies
strategies of adaptation
of adaptation to a to a rugged
rugged environment
environment and natural
and natural phenomena
phenomena gen-
generated
the “seismic
erated culture”culture”
the “seismic conceptconcept
[39]. [39].
1.4.
1.4. Case
Case Study:
Study: Jojutla
Jojutla and
and the
the Destruction
Destruction of
of Its
Its Earthen
Earthen Architecture
Architecture
The
The state of Morelos has an important seismic history, considering
state of Morelos has an important seismic history, consideringits its central
central location
location
in
in the territory of Mexico. The infamous 1985 Mexico City earthquake had catastrophic
the territory of Mexico. The infamous 1985 Mexico City earthquake had catastrophic
consequences
consequences notnot only
only in
in the
the country’s
country’s capital
capital but
but also
also in
in the
the rest
rest of
of the
the central
central part
part of
of the
the
country,
country, including the destruction of many dwellings and displacing many people from
including the destruction of many dwellings and displacing many people from
their homes. Furthermore, the 1999 Tehuacan earthquake also had a big impact in the
region, causing important damages on the historical and cultural heritage, being known
for the collapse of religious buildings. Along with these major events, the state suffered
other slight tremors in 1957, 1980, 2007, and 2008; nevertheless, all remained distant in the
collective memory of the society, and the authorities did not develop any risk management
plan to anticipate future disasters.
The 2017 earthquake was particularly pernicious to the material cultural heritage,
causing the loss of several churches and many of the oldest buildings in historic centers.
gion, causing important damages on the historical and cultural heritage, being known for
the collapse of religious buildings. Along with these major events, the state suffered other
slight tremors in 1957, 1980, 2007, and 2008; nevertheless, all remained distant in the col-
lective memory of the society, and the authorities did not develop any risk management
Heritage 2021, 4 plan to anticipate future disasters. 868
The 2017 earthquake was particularly pernicious to the material cultural heritage,
causing the loss of several churches and many of the oldest buildings in historic centers.
Regardingthe
Regarding thestate
state of Morelos,
of Morelos, the National
the National Institute
Institute of Anthropology
of Anthropology and (INAH)
and History History
(INAH) quantified the damages suffered by heritage buildings, with
quantified the damages suffered by heritage buildings, with a total of 259 constructions a total of 259 con-
structions presenting damages [47], and being the focus of the heritage
presenting damages [47], and being the focus of the heritage institutions from the entire institutions from
the entireEspecially
country. country. Especially
remarkable remarkable was the destruction
was the destruction of the
of the 16th 16th Century
Century Mexican Mexican
colo-
colonial
nial monasteries,
monasteries, which which
are are listed
listed as UNESCO
as UNESCO World
World Heritage
Heritage Sites.Research
Sites. Researchefforts
efforts
and resources
and resources werewere allocated
allocated to to study
study and
and comprehend
comprehend the the failure
failuremodes
modesand andseismic
seismic
response of these structures [48]. Besides the relevance and notoriety
response of these structures [48]. Besides the relevance and notoriety of these structures, of these structures,
religiousmonuments
religious monumentsare areananimportant
important part
part of of
thethe traditions,
traditions, culture,
culture, andand wayway of of
of life lifetheof
the local communities
local communities
Regardingthe
Regarding theresidential
residentialarchitecture
architecture andand traditional
traditional housing,
housing, the the situation
situation waswas
totally to-
tally opposite
opposite (See Figure
(See Figure 2). The
2). The reconstruction
reconstruction of the
of the dwellings
dwellings waswasdone
donewithwithindustrial
industrial
materials, mainly
materials, mainly cement
cement blocks
blocks provided
provided by by the
the authorities,
authorities, for
forthe
thewalls;
walls;and
andmetallic
metallic
sheets for the roof structures. The traditional materials, particularly adobes,
sheets for the roof structures. The traditional materials, particularly adobes, were rejected were rejected
by the majority of the population, perceived as unsafe systems and
by the majority of the population, perceived as unsafe systems and the main cause of the main cause ofthethe
structural damages.
structural damages. Although
Although the the seismic
seismic affectation
affectation was
wasprovoked
provokedby bymany
manyfactors,
factors,the the
organizations in
organizations in charge
charge diddid not
not protect
protectand
andsupport
supportthe thevernacular
vernaculararchitecture
architectureand andthe the
traditional techniques
traditional techniques [49],[49], with
withthetheimmediate
immediateconsequence
consequenceof ofthe
thedisappearance
disappearanceof ofthis
this
local culture.
local culture.
Figure2.2.Destruction
Figure Destructionofofaabuilding
buildingininJojutla
Jojutlamonths
months after
after thethe 2017
2017 Puebla
Puebla Earthquake.
Earthquake. (Image
(Image source:
source: A. Sanchez-Calvillo and E. G. Navarro-Mendoza).
A. Sanchez-Calvillo and E. G. Navarro-Mendoza).
Morelos is one of
Morelos of the
the3232total
totalstates
stateswhich
whichcomprise
comprise Mexico, being
Mexico, located
being in the
located in cen-
the
tral part of the country, bordered by the states of Puebla, Guerrero, State
central part of the country, bordered by the states of Puebla, Guerrero, State of Mexico, of Mexico, and
Mexico
and City.City.
Mexico Regarding
Regardingthe the
earthen
earthen architecture, Morelos
architecture, Moreloshashas
ananimportant
important tradition
traditionof
adobe
of buildings
adobe buildings[49], with
[49], well
with conserved
well conserved examples
examplesin the south-eastern
in the south-easternand and
north-east-
north-
eastern parts
ern parts of the
of the state.
state. Several
Several ofofthethetraditional
traditionaldwellings
dwellingshave
havetwo
two oror more centuries
centuriesof of
existence,
existence,and
andthey
theyhave
haveresisted all types
resisted of natural
all types phenomenon
of natural including
phenomenon seismic seismic
including events.
Adobe
events.constructions present apresent
Adobe constructions set of earthquake-resistant strategies, strategies,
a set of earthquake-resistant like simplelike
geometric
simple
proportions and forms, an adequate slenderness and thickness of the walls,
geometric proportions and forms, an adequate slenderness and thickness of the walls, roof roof flexible
systems, compatibility
flexible systems, betweenbetween
compatibility the materials, a good maintenance
the materials, from thefrom
a good maintenance users,
theamong
users,
others.
among The most
others. The well-preserved houses houses
most well-preserved from these
fromregions responded
these regions rather well
responded ratherto well
the
2017 Puebla earthquake [49], an inherent feature of the vernacular architecture, which has
always responded to the local environment [39]. In Figure 3b, the choropleth map of the
state can be observed, showing the municipalities with a higher preservation of earthen
constructions, and the ones where modern materials and systems have substituted adobe.
The case study Jojutla is spotted in the south-western region of the state, an area where less
traditional architecture predominates.
to the 2017 Puebla earthquake [49], an inherent feature of the vernacular architecture,
which has always responded to the local environment [39]. In Figure 3b, the choropleth
map of the state can be observed, showing the municipalities with a higher preservation
Heritage 2021, 4 of earthen constructions, and the ones where modern materials and systems have substi-
869
tuted adobe. The case study Jojutla is spotted in the south-western region of the state, an
area where less traditional architecture predominates.
(a) (b)
FigureFigure 3. Location
3. Location of Morelos
of Morelos and Jojutla.
and Jojutla. (a) Location
(a) Location ofstate
of the the state of Morelos
of Morelos within
within Mexico
Mexico (Image
(Image source:
source: Commons);
Commons);
(b) Choropleth
(b) Choropleth map ofmap of earthen
earthen construction
construction in Morelos,
in Morelos, withwith the case
the case of study
of study Jojutla
Jojutla highlighted.
highlighted. TheThe zones
zones with
with more
more
preservation of earthen structures have darker color tones; and the lighter ones correspond to the municipalities where
preservation of earthen structures have darker color tones; and the lighter ones correspond to the municipalities where
modern materials and systems have substituted adobe. (Map source: ArcMap 10.3, map elaborated by A. Sanchez-Cal-
modern materials and systems have substituted adobe. (Map source: ArcMap 10.3, map elaborated by A. Sanchez-Calvillo).
villo).
In contrast to other regions and localities of Morelos, Jojutla, showed drastic changes
In contrast to other regions and localities of Morelos, Jojutla, showed drastic changes
to the traditional buildings of Morelos. The dwellings were fairly modified over the last
to the traditional buildings of Morelos. The dwellings were fairly modified over the last
decades, integrating new interior spaces with modern industrial materials and facilities, but
decades, integrating new interior spaces with modern industrial materials and facilities,
the implementation was commonly suboptimal. The repercussions of these constructive
but the implementation was commonly suboptimal. The repercussions of these construc-
changes were also treated in a previous research from the authors, focusing on the physical
tive changes were also treated in a previous research from the authors, focusing on the
damages observed in the buildings after the earthquake [50]. The adobe buildings of Jojutla
physical damages observed in the buildings after the earthquake [50]. The adobe build-
presented changes in the morphology, original uses, and architectural plans, the addition
ings of Jojutla presented changes in the morphology, original uses, and architectural
of new floor levels and construction materials, lack of maintenance, and abandonment.
plans, the addition of new floor levels and construction materials, lack of maintenance,
The town of Jojutla showed a local seismic-regionalization, with greater damages in
and abandonment.
some particular colonies or neighbourhoods, as seen in Figure 4, displaying areas with
The town of Jojutla showed a local seismic-regionalization, with greater damages in
high and medium risk to its buildings. The high risk includes the collapse of the structures,
some particular colonies or neighbourhoods, as seen in Figure 4, displaying areas with
since Jojutla experienced major material and human losses. Two colonies of the city were
high and medium risk to its buildings. The high risk includes the collapse of the structures,
specially affected: the historic center, where most of the adobe dwellings and monuments
since Jojutla experienced major material and human losses. Two colonies of the city were
were located; and the Emiliano Zapata colony, much more recently built with the majority
specially affected: the historic center, where most of the adobe dwellings and monuments
of its constructions consisting of concrete structures.
were located; and the Emiliano Zapata colony, much more recently built with the majority
The geotechnical survey of the Emiliano Zapata colony provided some of the reasons
of its constructions consisting of concrete structures.
for the poor seismic performance of the buildings, including suboptimal resistance of the
structural systems, issues with the foundations and construction malpractices [51]. The
terrain presented a superposition of clay and silt layers and a travertine stratum formed by
disposal of calcium carbonate [51], which is not well suited for building purposes.
Additionally, the use of incompatible materials with different elasticities, the poor
connections between the structural elements, the changes in the morphology of the build-
ings, and the low mechanical properties have been reported as the main causes of the
seismic vulnerability in historic earthen constructions and historic centers around the
world [9,18,36,40,52].
Knowing the propensity of the region to seismic activity and with the experience of
past events like the 1985 Mexico City earthquake or the 1999 Puebla earthquake, it was
surprising that he municipal development plan of the city council of Jojutla, published on
May of 2016, months before the seismic events, did not include any mitigation strategies
against natural hazards like earthquakes, floods, or fires; and, more importantly, no risk
maps had been made, nor a reorganization of the city [53].
Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 7
the demolition of the buildings, which was shortly after the field trip in May 2018. There
also were two samples of quarry soils of the region taken, concretely in the extraction area
for the manufacture of adobe bricks and ceramic bricks, and an excavation in the city (See
Table 1). The region is recognized by their rice production, even the Morelos rice is a trade
Figure 4. Mapping
Figureof4.theMapping
damaged buildings in Jojutla after
of the damaged the 2017 Puebla
buildings Earthquake
in Jojutla afterbythe
the 2017
emergency brigades
Puebla (Map
mark,
source: ArcMap 10.3,and
map of course
elaborated bythey have plenty
A. Sanchez-Calvillo). of water. The superficial stratum ofEarthquake by the
the town com-
emergency brigades (Map source: ArcMap 10.3, map elaborated by A. Sanchez-Calvillo).
prises fluvial and lacustrine deposits, which held large amounts of clays [51], very sus-
ceptible The geotechnical
to volumetric changessurveywithofthe themoisture.
Emiliano Zapata colony provided some of the reasons
2. Materials and Methods
for the poor seismic performance of the buildings, including suboptimal resistance of the
Thirteen structural
samples systems, issues with
of earthen the foundations
architecture wereand construction
collected frommalpractices
the remains [51].ofThe
affected
Table 1. List terrain
of collected samples, type, date,ofand
presented clayprovenance.
buildings left in the region aofsuperposition
Jojutla after the and silt layers and a travertine stratum formed
seismic disaster of 2017. Considering that the
by disposal of calcium carbonate [51], which is not well suited for building purposes.
Sample were
structures TypeAdditionally,
Collection
severely Dateand
damaged
the use of a whole study
incompatible materials
Provenance
ofwith
the construction typologies
different elasticities, the poorwould
notM1
be feasible,
Soil all the17/07/2018
connections samples
between thewere carried
structural to the
the laboratory
Excavation
elements, in the“Ing.
in Emiliano
changes Luis Silva
Zapata
morphology colony
of Ruelas” of
the build-
theM2
Faculty of Civil
ings,
Adobe and Engineering
the of the
low mechanical
18/07/2018 Universidad
properties have been
Francisco Michoacana
Javierreported
MinaSt., San
as the Nicolas
main
Jojutla causesde
downtown of Hidalgo,
the
in Morelia, seismic vulnerability in historic earthen constructions and historic centers around the
Mexico.
M3 Adobe 18/07/2018
world [9,18,36,40,52].
Zayas Enriquez St., Jojutla downtown
M4 AdobeKnowing 18/07/2018 Zayas
the propensity of the region Enriquez
to seismic St.,and
activity Jojutla downtown
with the experience of
2.1. Sampling Adobe and Soils
M5 past events 18/07/2018
Adobe like the 1985 Mexico City earthquake
Carlos Cuagliaor the 1999
St., Puebla
Jojutlaearthquake,
downtown it was
There were 11 representative
surprising that he municipal shards of adobe
development plan of bricks collected
the city council frompublished
of Jojutla, 11 different
on tra-
M6 Adobe
May of
18/07/2018 Zayas Enriquez St., Jojutla downtown
ditional houses in2016, months before
downtown the (See
Jojutla seismic events,5).
Figure didThese
not include
samples any mitigation strategiesbefore
were collected
M7 Adobe 18/07/2018
against natural M. Cepeda
hazards like earthquakes, floods, orMedrano
fires; and,St.,moreJojutla downtown
importantly, no risk
the demolition of the buildings, which was shortly after the field trip in May 2018. There
maps had been made, nor a reorganization of the city [53].
alsoM8were Adobe
two samples 18/07/2018
of quarry soils of the J. H. Preciado
region taken,St.,concretely
Jojutla downtown in the extraction
areaM9 Adobe
for the Materials18/07/2018
manufacture
2. and of adobe bricksFrancisco
Methods and ceramic J. Bocanegra
bricks, and St.,anJojutla downtown
excavation in the city
M10
(See TableAdobe
1). TheThirteen18/07/2018
region is recognized
samples by their21 rice
of earthen architecture de Marzo
were St.,from
production,
collected Jojutla
even downtown
the Morelos
the remains rice is a
of affected
M11
trade mark,Adobe
buildings 17/07/2018
left
and of course in the region
they haveof Jojutla
plenty Zayas
after
of the Enriquez
seismic
water. The St., Jojutla
disaster downtown
of 2017. stratum
superficial Considering of that
the town
the structures were severely damaged and a whole study of the construction typologies
comprises
M12 Adobe fluvial and17/07/2018
lacustrine deposits,Ricardo which held Sanchez large St.,amounts of clays [51], very
Jojutla downtown
would not be feasible, all the samples were carried to the laboratory “Ing. Luis Silva
susceptible
M13 to volumetric
Soil changes
17/07/2018
Ruelas” of the with the moisture.
Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Clay quarry near
Universidad Jojutla San Nicolas
Michoacana
de Hidalgo, in Morelia, Mexico.
2.1. Sampling Adobe and Soils

There were 11 representative shards of adobe bricks collected from 11 different tra-
ditional houses in downtown Jojutla (See Figure 5). These samples were collected before
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Location
Location of
of the
the samples
samples within
withinthe
theurban
urbanarea.
area.(Source:
(Source:Google
GoogleMyMaps).
MyMaps).
Previous research works involving historical and archaeological heritage followed

similar strategies for the sampling, collecting both adobe pieces or shards and local soils
from clay quarries. Fratini et. al. [54], gathered information regarding the production and
manufacturing of the adobes following the artisans’ indications of the towns of Sambiasi
Table 1. List of collected samples, type, date, and provenance.
Sample Type Collection Date Provenance

M1 Soil 17/07/2018 Excavation in Emiliano Zapata colony
M2 Adobe 18/07/2018 Francisco Javier MinaSt., Jojutla downtown
M3 Adobe 18/07/2018 Zayas Enriquez St., Jojutla downtown
M5 Adobe 18/07/2018 Carlos Cuaglia St., Jojutla downtown
M7 Adobe 18/07/2018 M. Cepeda Medrano St., Jojutla downtown
M8 Adobe 18/07/2018 J. H. Preciado St., Jojutla downtown
M9 Adobe 18/07/2018 Francisco J. Bocanegra St., Jojutla downtown
M10 Adobe 18/07/2018 21 de Marzo St., Jojutla downtown
M12 Adobe 17/07/2018 Ricardo Sanchez St., Jojutla downtown
M13 Soil 17/07/2018 Clay quarry near Jojutla
Previous research works involving historical and archaeological heritage followed

similar strategies for the sampling, collecting both adobe pieces or shards and local soils
from clay quarries. Fratini et al. [54], gathered information regarding the production and
manufacturing of the adobes following the artisans’ indications of the towns of Sambiasi
and Nicastro. Mellakhaifi et al. [31], decided to study the vernacular heritage in southeast
Morocco only from the samples of unaltered soils, extrapolating the results to the earthen
traditional techniques and its properties. Regarding archaeological heritage, Pérez et al. [8],
studied the Great Pyramid of Cholula, taking samples of complete adobe bricks of the
inner construction, besides 5 soil samples corresponding to some important Pre-Hispanic
development stages of the ancient city.
Taking into account the emergency state of Jojutla de Juarez and the situation between
the inhabitants and their damaged buildings, the sample collection responded to the criteria
of taking the maximum possible amount of material before the demolition of the remaining
houses (See Figure 6). Our group also had the opportunity to talk with the owners of the
buildings and families of the town; some of the owners from collapsed buildings said
they were taking good care of their properties, even if they had collapsed, by protecting
the remaining structures from inclement weather. They let the group take the samples
from broken adobes, a family from the town even gave the group adobe samples from two
buildings more than 200 years old.
Although some of the owners from the land plots and the damaged dwellings planned
on reusing the adobe bricks preserved in good condition, most of them thought that
earthen materials are unsafe and preferred to wait for the concrete blocks provided by the
authorities. One of the main advantages of earthen architecture is that the materials can be
reused perpetually since clays are sustainable resources [21,55].
The traditional mortar plasters from the samples collected were in poor condition.
The plasters operate as the skin of the adobes and passivate them from the environmental
attack, being really important to preserve cultural heritage [8,56,57]. Usually the plasters
and adobes from historic constructions come from the same quarry but are stabilized with
different additions [46].
by protecting the remaining structures from inclement weather. They let the group take
the samples from broken adobes, a family from the town even gave the group adobe sam-
ples from two buildings more than 200 years old.
Although some of the owners from the land plots and the damaged dwellings
planned on reusing the adobe bricks preserved in good condition, most of them thought
Heritage 2021, 4 that earthen materials are unsafe and preferred to wait for the concrete blocks 872provided
by the authorities. One of the main advantages of earthen architecture is that the materials
can be reused perpetually since clays are sustainable resources [21,55].
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FigureFigure
6. Sample
6. collection. (a) Semi-complete
Sample collection. adobe bricks from
(a) Semi-complete an oldbricks
adobe demolished
frombuilding;
an old (b) Collecting samples
demolished from
building;
a building in the city centre; (c) Clay quarry for the production of adobes and ceramic bricks; (d) Excavation in the Emiliano
(b) Collecting samples from a building in the city centre; (c) Clay quarry for the production of adobes
Zapata colony. (Image source: A. Sanchez-Calvillo and E. G. Navarro-Mendoza).
and ceramic bricks; (d) Excavation in the Emiliano Zapata colony. (Image source: A. Sanchez-Calvillo
and E. G. Navarro-Mendoza).
The traditional mortar plasters from the samples collected were in poor condition.
The plasters operate as the skin of the adobes and passivate them from the environmental
2.2. Preparation of attack,
the Samples
being really important to preserve cultural heritage [8,56,57]. Usually the plasters
and
In order to performadobes from historic tests
the mechanical constructions come from
of the samples andthe samenon-destructive
some quarry but are stabilized
trials, with
different additions [46].
these had to be prepared. First, all the material was dried for one to two weeks in the oven
at a maximum temperature of 50–60 ◦ C; a higher temperature could change composition
2.2. Preparation of the Samples
of the clay materials. The samples were weighed every day until they presented a constant
In order to perform the mechanical tests of the samples and some non-destructive
weight, then, they were left cooling for 24 h.
trials, these had to be prepared. First, all the material was dried for one to two weeks in
As most of the samples were collected from badly damaged building remains, they
were in a precarious state that did not allow all of the original samples to qualify for the
compression strength test nor the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), as they didn´t have the
minimum dimensions or were extremely inconsistent. From the 11 patrimonial samples
only 6 could be eligible for the mechanical characterization trials, needing a previous
preparation, as can be seen in Figure 7. The samples were smothered and then covered with
liquid sulphur to achieve the regularity conditions to be tested with the universal machine.
For the mineralogical studies each of the samples were selected, crushed and sieved
by the sieve nº200 ASTM till obtain a powder type material for X-ray diffraction and X-ray
fluorescence analyses. The specimens were tested in the LANCIC Laboratory [The speci-
mens were tested in the National Science Laboratory for the Research and Conservation
of Cultural Heritage, of the Physics Institute of the National Autonomous University of
Mexico (LANCIC-IFUNAM)].
with liquid sulphur to achieve the regularity conditions to be tested with the universal
machine.
For the mineralogical studies each of the samples were selected, crushed and sieved
by the sieve nº200 ASTM till obtain a powder type material for X-ray diffraction and X-
ray fluorescence analyses. The specimens were tested in the LANCIC Laboratory [The
specimens were tested in the National Science Laboratory for the Research and Conserva-
tion of Cultural Heritage, of the Physics Institute of the National Autonomous University
of Mexico (LANCIC-IFUNAM)].
FigureFigure 7. Preparation
7. Preparation andofcapping
and capping the adobeofsamples
the adobe
withsamples with
sulphur for the sulphur for strength
compressive the compressive
test. (Imagestrength
source: A.
Sanchez-Calvillo).
test. (Image source: A. Sanchez-Calvillo).
2.3. Characterization
2.3.Methodology
Characterization Methodology
Four types of testsFour
weretypes of tests were
undertaken undertaken
with the adobe with
andthe adobe
soils and soils
samples: samples: non-destruc-
non-destructive
tive tests, destructive tests, geotechnical, and mineralogical analysis.
tests, destructive tests, geotechnical, and mineralogical analysis. All the samples All the samples
were were
classified by the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) to obtain the composition of
classified by the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) to obtain the composition of
the adobe bricks and the type of soils used for construction materials in the region [58].
the adobe bricks and the type of soils used for construction materials in the region [58].
The fiber percentage was also obtained, actually straw in the case of study, for each one of
the adobes.
The moisture content of the samples was determined by two methods: first, with the
moisture meter equipment Delmhorst DH-BD2100, which provides the relative humidity
and can be taken in situ; secondly, calculating the percentage between the wet weight
and the dried weight of the samples after drying them in the oven for one to two weeks.
This step is very important before fulfilling the non-destructive tests and the physico
and micro-characterization.
For Color Spectroscopy, we followed the CIE system (Acronym of Commission Inter-
nationale de l’Eclairage) [59], and using the CLRM-200 colorimeter equipment, the adobe
samples were measured, obtaining three parameters: the coordinates a* and b* (red to
green and yellow to blue axis), and the luminosity L*.
With the carved samples of the adobes it was also possible to effectuate non-destructive
tests, such as the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), calculating and correlating it with the
bulk density of the adobes. For this purpose V-Meter MK IV from James Instruments Non
Destructive Test Equipment was used; with a frequency range from 24 to 500 kHz, based
on transducers selected, and receiver sensitivity between 30 and 100 kHz.
X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) was carried out to measure the mineralogical compo-
sition of the natural soils and the adobes; clay minerals are most easily identified using
this technique rather than other physical tests. The measurements were performed using a
bench-top Thermo Scientific™ ARL™ Equinox 100 Diffractometer using a 50 W microfocus
Cu X-ray tube and a curved position sensitive detector (CPS) that measures all diffraction
peaks simultaneously (0–100◦ 2θ range).
Elemental analysis was performed using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry with
an X-ray spectrometer developed at LANCIC [60]. This system has a SDD X-ray Amptek
detector and a 75 W Mo X-ray tube. Measurements were undertaken at 45◦ X-ray detection
for 180 s with 35 kV and 0.2 mA, the spot at the surface has 1 mm diameter.
The use of scanning electron microscope (SEM) images coupled with EDS, a technique
with widespread use in cultural heritage [61], allowed us to confirm the chemical com-
position of the mineralogical phases in those soils [62]. The microphotographs and EDS
microanalyses were performed in a benchtop SEM Hitachi 3030+ to quantify their presence
in soils under low vacuum using a 18 kV electron beam. The samples were not covered
with any metallic or carbon thin film.
The mechanical strength is the most important index test in construction materials.
Adobes are patrimonial and historical masonry pieces designed to protect human beings
from the elements, and it is, therefore, essential for them to possess the mechanical behavior
required to withstand different loads. Recovering the building technology of adobes
improves the conservation and restoration of the original bricks, as well as allowing the
production of new ones that will better adhere to the original structure, preserving it
against environmental and acute attacks [37].
It was decided to apply compressive strength and PLT in order to obtain the indica-
tive values of mechanical resistance, which could be compared to other patrimonial and
vernacular study cases. For being able to perform the analysis the samples were carved till
appropriate dimensions were obtained, and later capped with melted sulphur, due to the
irregularities presented in their surface. Once prepared, they were introduced in the Tinius
Olsen Universal Test Machine to obtain their ultimate resistance to compressive strength,
(See Figure 8).
Figure8.8.Compressive
Figure Compressivestrength
strengthtesting
testingof
ofone
oneadobe
adobesample.
sample.(Image
(Imagesource:
source:A.
A.Sanchez-Calvillo).
Sanchez-Calvillo).
2.4.
2.4.Point
PointLoad
LoadTestTest
PLT
PLTallows
allowsdetermining
determining mechanical
mechanicalresistance of non-carved
resistance of non-carvedsamples of several
samples types
of several
of masonries and rocks, both: natural or artificial, being especially designed
types of masonries and rocks, both: natural or artificial, being especially designed for the for the study
of rocks
study of[63].
rocksThe [63].first
Theresearch worksworks
first research whichwhich
utilised the test
utilised theachieved to associate
test achieved the
to associate
uniaxial
the uniaxial compressive resistance with the PLT index (Is), creating the basis to applythe
compressive resistance with the PLT index (Is), creating the basis to apply the
analysis
analysisto torock
rockfragments
fragments[64], [64],and
andgeotechnical
geotechnicalapplications
applications[65].
[65].
Recent
Recentstudies
studies have
haveconcluded that the
concluded thatrelation between
the relation uniaxial uniaxial
between compressive strength
compressive
(UCS) and I is not linear for other materials like soft rocks [66], granites
strength (UCS) and IS is not linear for other materials like soft rocks [66], granites in dif-
S in different
weathering conditions
ferent weathering [67], or[67],
conditions basalt aggregates
or basalt [68]. Research
aggregates worksworks
[68]. Research in Bukit Timah,
in Bukit Ti-
Singapur,
mah, Singapur, have sampled from residual soils to non-weathered rocks, concluding the
have sampled from residual soils to non-weathered rocks, concluding that that
conversation
the conversation ratio should vary from
ratio should varythe
fromoriginal one. Nevertheless,
the original the materials
one. Nevertheless, researched
the materials re-
in this work are adobe bricks, being a first approximation to the characterization
searched in this work are adobe bricks, being a first approximation to the characterization of solid
clay fragments
of solid with thiswith
clay fragments technique.
this technique.
The
Theequipment
equipmentused usedduring
duringthethetrial
trialwas
wasdigital
digitalrock
rockstrength
strengthapparatus
apparatus100
100KNKNcapcap
by the Controls Group (See Figure 9). The best asset of this equipment is the possibility to
by the Controls Group (See Figure 9). The best asset of this equipment is the possibility to
use it in situ due to its portability; having the choice to perform the analysis both in the
field or in the laboratory.
The guidelines followed for the fulfilment of the test were the ASTM standards, and
the previous experience with the PLT procedure in the materials laboratory [69–71]. The
samples of fragments of adobes were measured and listed before the trial was performed,
Heritage 2021, 4 value of 50 mm [12]. For the specimens near to this 50 mm thickness (D), the correction
875
factor is calculated with the following equation:
𝐷𝑒
= √choice
𝐹 the (3)
( ) to perform the analysis both in the
use it in situ due to its portability; having 50
field or in the laboratory.
Figure9.
Figure 9. Adobe
Adobe sample
sample in
in the
the point-load
point-loadequipment.
equipment. (Image
(Image source:
source: A.
A. Sanchez-Calvillo).
Sanchez-Calvillo).
The guidelines
Instead, followed forfragments
when calculating the fulfilment
with of the test distant
thickness were the
ofASTM
50 mm, standards, and
the following
the previous
formula will experience
be used: with the PLT procedure in the materials laboratory [69–71]. The
samples of fragments of adobes were measured and listed before the trial was performed,
0.45
recording the values of each piece. Later,𝐹all 𝐷𝑒samples
the were compressed with the Point
= ( ) (4)
Load apparatus till cracking and reaching the failure. 50 The new fragments obtained by rup-
ture could be tested again,
The estimation onlycompressive
of the if they meet the requirements
strength of dimension
𝜎 or UCS (Uniaxial and proportion.
Compressive
The result of the analysis is a rupture load
Strength) is obtained with the following equation: value, which needs to be transformed by an
equation system explained later in this manuscript, that leads to the ultimate unconfined
uniaxial compression resistance. 𝜎 = (𝐶) 𝐼𝑠(50) = 24 𝐼𝑠(50) (5)
The
The PLT index
value 𝜎 is(Ithe
s ) without correction
main purpose factor
which theis PLT
calculated with
follows andthe
it following
is going toequation:
be com-
pared with other values of mechanical resistance obtained by other tests. Another inter-
P ∗ 1000
Is =rupture
esting aspect of the test is to observe the mode of the fragments, finding relations
(1)
De2
between the composition of adobes, their morphology, size, fibers and aggregates distri-
bution (See Figure 10).
where:
Is = Point-load index, MPa;
P = Maximum load, kN;
De = Equivalent core diameter, mm.
The resistance index value (Is ) is a non-corrected value which varies depending on
the thickness of the fragments tested. To obtain the corrected resistance index (Is(50) ) it is
necessary to multiply the first index by the correction factor:
Is(50) = F ∗ Is (2)
Depending on the size of the fragments, there will be two different correction factors.
The election between one or the other will be the proximity of each sample to the standard
value of 50 mm [12]. For the specimens near to this 50 mm thickness (D), the correction
factor is calculated with the following equation:
s
Figure 10. Fracture in adobe fragments with point-load equipment. e D
F = (Image source: A. Sanchez-Calvillo). (3)
50
Instead, when calculating fragments with thickness distant of 50 mm, the following
formula will be used: 0.45
De
F= (4)
50
Figure 9. Adobe sample in the point-load equipment. (Image source: A. Sanchez-Calvillo).
Instead, when calculating fragments with thickness distant of 50 mm, the following
formula will be used:
0.45
The estimation of the compressive strength σ or UCS 𝐷𝑒
𝐹 = ((Uniaxial
) Compressive Strength) (4)
is obtained with the following equation: 50
The estimation of the compressive strength 𝜎 or UCS (Uniaxial Compressive
σ = with
Strength) is obtained (C ) the ) = 24 Isequation:
Is(50following (50) (5)
𝜎 = (𝐶) 𝐼𝑠(50) = 24 𝐼𝑠(50) (5)
The value σ is the main purpose which the PLT follows and it is going to be compared
The value 𝜎 resistance
with other values of mechanical is the main obtained
purpose which the PLT
by other follows
tests. and itinteresting
Another is going to be com-
pared with other values of mechanical resistance obtained by other tests.
aspect of the test is to observe the rupture mode of the fragments, finding relations between Another inter-
esting aspect of the test is to observe the rupture mode of the fragments, finding relations
the composition of adobes, their morphology, size, fibers and aggregates distribution
between the composition of adobes, their morphology, size, fibers and aggregates distri-
(See Figure 10). bution (See Figure 10).
itage 2021,
itage 2021, 44 FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14
14
3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Non-Destructive Tests
Regarding
Figure the
10.10.
Figure colorimetry
Fracture
Fracturein
inadobe test, thewith
adobe fragments
fragments adobe
with samples
point-load
point-load had(Image
equipment.
equipment. a(Image
significant
source:
source: increase
A. in their
Sanchez-Calvillo).
A. Sanchez-Calvillo).
luminosity in relation to the natural clays, showing the transformation process of adding
3. Results
stabilisers and Discussion
to the construction materials. Table 2 shows the values of a* (red to green axis),
3.1. Non-Destructive
b* (yellow to green axis), and Tests L* (luminosity); we can also see the representation of the
true color of Regarding
adobes and thesoils.
colorimetry
Previous test,research
the adobe samples
works hadinaJojutla
done significant increasethe
confirmed in their
use
luminosity in relation to the natural clays, showing the transformation
of lime and lithic material, correlating the colorimetric values with the particle size process of addingand
stabilisers to the construction materials. Table 2 shows the values of a* (red to green axis),
USCS classification and microscopic techniques like XRD [62].
b* (yellow to green axis), and L* (luminosity); we can also see the representation of the true
The different additives and the addition percentage have a big influence in the aes-
color of adobes and soils. Previous research works done in Jojutla confirmed the use of
thetic perception of the
lime and lithic constructions
material, correlating made of adobe masonry
the colorimetric values with[72].
theThe stabilizers
particle size andwith
USCS a
more similar color to the selected original clays
classification and microscopic techniques like XRD [62]. have a lesser impact on the final variation.
Table 2. Colorimetric
Table 2. Colorimetric values values according
according to thetoCIE
the coordinates
CIE coordinates system.
system.
Specimens
Specimens a* a* b*b* L*
L* Color
Color
Adobes
Adobes 4.92 4.92 11.45
11.45 42.15
42.15
Soils
Soils 3.94 3.94 5.76
5.76 30.30
30.30
The average ultrasonic

The different pulseand
additives velocity (UPV)
the addition for the adobes
percentage was
have a big 634.58 in
influence m/s. UPV al-
the aesthetic
perception of the constructions made of adobe masonry [72]. The stabilizers
lows us to estimate the dynamic properties of the material, as well as internal composition with a more
similar color to the selected original clays have a lesser impact on the final
and porosity of the blocks, and if they have irregularities or construction flaws. Other variation.
The average ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) for the adobes was 634.58 m/s. UPV
research works with patrimonial earthen heritage showed larger values of UPV [73], the
allows us to estimate the dynamic properties of the material, as well as internal composition
lower values obtained in Jojutla could be directly related to the effects of the 2017 Puebla
and porosity of the blocks, and if they have irregularities or construction flaws. Other
Earthquake on the
research constructions
works and building
with patrimonial systems,showed
earthen heritage decreasing
largermost
valuesofof
the
UPVproperties
[73], the
and causing material fatigue and propagating microcracks which exfoliate pieces.
lower values obtained in Jojutla could be directly related to the effects of the 2017 Puebla
Earthquake on the constructions and building systems, decreasing most of the properties
3.2. Mineralogical
and causingAnalyses
material fatigue and propagating microcracks which exfoliate pieces.
XRD results (see Table 3) show the percentage of various minerals detected in the
samples, including calcite contents in almost every sample. As indicated in the methodol-
ogy section, M1 and M13 came from a local excavation and the clay quarry of the region;
while the rest came from damaged adobes of the historic centre of Jojutla. M1 was from a
zone where buildings collapsed, a clay stratum, and the soil was improved with lime for
foundations, because the community was building a new structure at the moment the
3.2. Mineralogical Analyses

XRD results (see Table 3) show the percentage of various minerals detected in the
samples, including calcite contents in almost every sample. As indicated in the methodol-
ogy section, M1 and M13 came from a local excavation and the clay quarry of the region;
while the rest came from damaged adobes of the historic centre of Jojutla. M1 was from
a zone where buildings collapsed, a clay stratum, and the soil was improved with lime
for foundations, because the community was building a new structure at the moment the
sample was taken; therefore, the material appeared in the XRD analysis. Instead, M13 did
not contain lime considering it was taken from a clay quarry surrounding Jojutla, before
the stabilization of the raw material for handmade ceramic bricks. M2–12, except M9 and
M11, contain lime, used to stabilize the adobes, being the most common material in all
Mexico for these purposes in earthen structures [74,75].
Table 3. XRD results on the analyzed samples.
Mineral M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13

Albite 6.90 38.00 32.80 - - 33.30 9.90 2.20 72.80 - - - 8.50
Anothite 14.50 - - 53.00 44.00 16.90 48.10 77.10 - 68.60 53.20 79.60 49.50
Calcite 25.40 10.80 8.00 1.20 5.20 1.00 16.10 3.20 - 7.90 - 2.60 -
Cordierite - - - - - 1.60 - 4.20 - 1.00 - 2.00 -
Cristobalite - - 2.60 - - - - - - 4.50 - - -
Hematite - - - 1.60 - - - - - - - - -
Illite 47.40 - - - 16.10 - 25.80 - - - 5.60 - 27.70
Kaolinite - 29.60 28.10 - 28.70 46.00 - 10.50 - - 36.70 - -
Magnetite - 1.00 2.10 1.00 - - - - - - - - -
Muscovite - 13.40 17.20 - - - - - - 9.80 - - -
Nacrite - - 5.10 40.70 - - - - 17.30 - - - -
Pargasite - - - - - - - - 0.20 - - 13.40 10.80
Pyrophyllite - - - - - - - - 5.60 - - - -
Quartz 5.80 7.10 4.00 2.50 6.00 1.20 - 2.80 4.10 8.20 4.50 2.40 3.50
The presence of kaolinite con also be observed in significant proportions for six of the
samples. Kaolinites have low shrink-swell capacity, which makes them better for building
purposes, being a great choice for the production of adobes.
3.3. Elemental Analyses

XRF results average 5 measurements. The region of Jojutla is located on an agricultural
place, mainly producing sugar cane, rice, corn, and sorghum, then the XRF could detect
some aggregates which are imperative for farming purposes. The soils contained the
elements indicated in Figure 11a,b, to have a better display according to the intensity. The
vertical axis of the graphic refers to intensity and in the horizontal axis we find the different
elements. Sometimes the intensity of certain elements is very low and it is difficult to
identify the element, but anyway they were present in the samples.
XRF results average 5 measurements. The region of Jojutla is located on an agricul-
tural place, mainly producing sugar cane, rice, corn, and sorghum, then the XRF could
detect some aggregates which are imperative for farming purposes. The soils contained
the elements indicated in Figure 11a,b, to have a better display according to the intensity.
Heritage 2021, 4 The vertical axis of the graphic refers to intensity and in the horizontal axis we find the
878
different elements. Sometimes the intensity of certain elements is very low and it is diffi-
cult to identify the element, but anyway they were present in the samples.
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. XRF results
results of
of the
the analyzed
analyzed samples,
samples, in
in intensity
intensity by
by element.
element. (a)
(a) Higher
Higher concentration
concentration elements;
elements; (b)
(b) lower
lower
concentration elements.
3.4. SEM-EDS
microphotographs and EDS microanalyses
The microphotographs microanalyses were
were performed
performed inin an Environmental
Environmental
presence in
SEM to quantify their presence in soils.
soils. The samples were analysed
analysed under
under low low vacuum
vacuum
film. We
and were not covered with a metallic thin film. We also
also got
got mapping
mapping ofof some
some elements
elements to
to
qualify their distribution and compare between them. Figure 12 shows the BSE (Backscat-
tered electron) high
high quality
qualityimages,
images,which
whichalsoalsoconfirm
confirmthe
thepresence
presence ofof lithic
lithic materials
materials in
in the adobes.
the adobes.
3.4. SEM-EDS
The microphotographs and EDS microanalyses were performed in an Environmental
SEM to quantify their presence in soils. The samples were analysed under low vacuum
Heritage 2021, 4 and were not covered with a metallic thin film. We also got mapping of some elements to 879
qualify their distribution and compare between them. Figure 12 shows the BSE (Backscat-
tered electron) high quality images, which also confirm the presence of lithic materials in
the adobes.
(a) (b)
Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW (c) (d) 18
Figure 12. BSE images of selected samples. (a) M1; (b) M4; (c) M9; (d) M12.
Figure 12. BSE images of selected samples. (a) M1; (b) M4; (c) M9; (d) M12.
3.5.
TableSieve Analysis
5. USCS and USCS of
classification Classification
the specimens.
3.5. Sieve Analysis and
TheUSCS
adobes Classification
had an average bulk density of 1279.06 kg/m3. Table 4 presents the meas-
Sample LL % PL % IP % USCS Classification
The adobesured
hadmoisture content bulk
an average percentage for theof
density samples
1279.06 while Table 35.indicates
kg/m Table 4thepresents
classificationthe mea-
M1samples 79.13
of all the 25.89 the adobes
tested, including 53.25 and the CH Clay ofby
soils of the region, high
theplasticity
Unified
sured moisture content M2 percentage
Soil Classification 35.05 for
System
the
22.96samples
(USCS); 12.09while
while Figure
Table 5 indicates
CLthe results
13 shows Clay
of theof
the plasticity
low classification
plasticity index
of all the samplesandtested, including
M3 limit
liquid 27.07
and the17.78
the positionadobes and
9.27
of each one thespecimens
of the soils
CL ofwhich the Clay
region,
wereofsubdued
low byplasticity
the Unified
to the
Soil Classification System
mechanical (USCS);
M4 analysis; 32.36 while
Figure 14 Figure
also
16.12 shows 13the
16.24 shows the results
granulometric
CL curvesofofthe
Clay plasticity
alllow
of the samples, index
plasticity
and liquid limitdifferentiating
andM5 the33.62
the position soils and the
of each adobes by
26.09 one 7.53of their
the graphical
ML representation.
specimens which were M1Siltand M13,
subdued to
the two soil samples from the clay material quarry were classified as high plasticity clays,
the mechanical analysis; M6 Figure 38.70
14 also 26.26
shows 12.45granulometric
the OL Organicof
curves silt/Organic
all the clay
samples,
while the adobes vary from clays of low plasticity to mods. The low plasticity was proba-
differentiating the
bly due M7
soils and
to the 36.65adobes
the
stabilization 23.88
with by their
other 12.76graphical
materials, CL representation.
for example, lime Clay of lowby
was found plasticity
M1XRD andin M13,
M8
some specimens. 21.65 19.01 2.64 ML Silt
the two soil samples from the clay material quarry were classified as high plasticity clays,
M9 22.12 19.91 2.21 ML Silt
while the adobesTable
vary from clays
4. Moisture contentof low plasticity to mods. The low plasticity was probably
M11 31.95 percentage.
24.14 7.81 OL Organic silt/Organic clay
due to the stabilization M12 with other materials,
Sample 25.25 Wet22.17
for example,
Weight (g)3.08 DriedML lime was Moisture
Weight (g)
foundSilt by (%)
XRD in
some specimens. M13M1 70.21 25.65
2652.10 44.56 CH
2206.51 Clay of high 20.19plasticity
M2 1913.34 1859.93 2.87
M3 1523.20 1471.36 3.52
M4 1281.86 1261.25 1.63
M5 1397.40 1309.49 6.71
M6 1481.30 1443.48 2.62
M7 683.00 664.31 2.81
M8 972.92 959.78 1.37
M9 1389.50 1361.08 2.09
M10 195.55 192.54 1.56
M11 1106.30 1052.42 5.12
M12 2194.30 2054.93 6.78
M13 1713.20 1402.10 22.19
Adobes average - - 3.37
Soils average - - 21.19
Figuregraphic
Figure 13. Plasticity 13. Plasticity
andgraphic and position
position of the adobes
of the adobes and and
soilsoil samples.
samples.
The percentage of fine grained soils (clays and silts) of the adobes was in a range
between 15% and 40%, coinciding with the indicative values of adobe production foud in
the literature [76]. The graphic matches perfectly with the granulometric curves found in
historical adobe bricks in Peru; where the samples were extracted from colonial buildings
with two or three stories in the cities of Lima, Cusco, and Ica [33].
The soil and grain size classification of the adobes showed insufficient or absent
Table 4. Moisture content percentage.
Sample Wet Weight (g) Dried Weight (g) Moisture (%)

M1 2652.10 2206.51 20.19
M2 1913.34 1859.93 2.87
M3 1523.20 1471.36 3.52
M4 1281.86 1261.25 1.63
M5 1397.40 1309.49 6.71
M6 1481.30 1443.48 2.62
M7 683.00 664.31 2.81
M8 972.92 959.78 1.37
M9 1389.50 1361.08 2.09
M10 195.55 192.54 1.56
M11 1106.30 1052.42 5.12
M12 2194.30 2054.93 6.78
M13 1713.20 1402.10 22.19
Adobes average - - 3.37
Soils average - - 21.19
Table 5. USCS classification of the specimens.
Sample LL % PL % IP % USCS Classification

M1 79.13 25.89 53.25 CH Clay of high plasticity
M2 35.05 22.96 12.09 CL Clay of low plasticity
M5 33.62 26.09 7.53 ML Silt
M6 38.70 26.26 12.45 OL Organic silt/Organic clay
M8 21.65 19.01 2.64 ML Silt
M9 22.12 19.91 2.21 ML Silt
M11 31.95 24.14 7.81 OL Organic silt/Organic clay
M12 25.25 22.17 3.08 ML Silt
M13 70.21 25.65 44.56 CH Clay of high plasticity
The percentage of fine grained soils (clays and silts) of the adobes was in a range
between 15% and 40%, coinciding with the indicative values of adobe production foud in
the literature [76]. The graphic matches perfectly with the granulometric curves found in
historical adobe bricks in Peru; where the samples were extracted from colonial buildings
with two or three stories in the cities of Lima, Cusco, and Ica [33].
The soil and grain size classification of the adobes showed insufficient or absent
amounts of fibers, however there were no significant proportions of gravel or lithic material
in the pieces. Figure 13 shows how the healthy clays of the soil samples are in a very differ-
ent zone of the graphic than the adobe samples. To diminish the plasticity of the adobes
from high to low there could have been some type of stabilization with local materials, for
the age of the adobes it could be lime, as it was confirmed with the XRD analyses.
Heritage 2021, 4 farming in the region there were plenty of different straws. Soils are Vertisol and881
Kastano-
zem at almost 70%. In Jojutla, the medium precipitation is around 1000 mm/year, and soils
are mainly clay/silt packed rocks, strata, varying from 1–5 m.
Figure 14. Granulometric

Figurecurves of the adobes
14. Granulometric andofsoils.
curves the adobes and soils.
The SieveTable 6. Fibre

analyses percentage
also resultsto
permitted (only adobe samples).
separate and classify the mineral grains and
vegetal fibers in the Sample
adobes. It calculated the percentage Fibre of straw, the
Percentage (%only fiber used in this
Weight)
case, from the weight (See
M2 Table 6). Some of the adobes did not have
0.38 any straw (samples M3
and M5) or an insignificant
M3 percentage (sample M9) or other fibers
0.00 as reinforcement or as a
strategy to diminish shrinkage
M4 and improve the mechanical performance
0.68 [77], a situation
which contributes to the M5 lower mechanical values obtained. Because
0.00 of rice farming in the
region there were plenty M6 of different straws. Soils are Vertisol1.33 and Kastanozem at almost
70%. In Jojutla, the medium
M7 precipitation is around 1000 mm/year,
1.84 and soils are mainly
clay/silt packed rocks,M8 strata, varying from 1–5 m. 1.00
M9 0.06
Table 6. Fibre percentage results (only adobe samples).
M10 0.77
M11
Sample 0.27
Fibre Percentage (% Weight)
M12
M2 0.230.38
M3
3.6. Mechanical Properties 0.00
M4 the destructive tests, specifically the compressive
From 0.68 strength, the mechanical re-
sistanceM5
varies between 5 and 13 kg/cm2, with 7.26 kg/cm 2 being the average of the adobe
0.00
bricks. These values obtained with the UCS and the PLT are lower than values from other
M6 1.33
researches which have similar characteristic cases in México [44,49]. The adobe blocks of
Jojutla M7
presented low performance, probably due to the1.84 inefficient manufacture and the
absenceM8of fiber material or other stabilizers or previous micro-cracking.
1.00 Nevertheless, the
proportion of the fibers does not seem to have a direct relation with the compressive me-
chanicalM9resistance, as samples M5 and M9 that had the0.06 lowest amount of straw reached
some of the highest values during the test.
M10 0.77
The
M11PLT allowed quantifying the strength in some 0.27 of the samples after the compres-
sive strength test. Because those fragments of lower dimensions can be tested again with
M12 0.23
3.6. Mechanical Properties

From the destructive tests, specifically the compressive strength, the mechanical
resistance varies between 5 and 13 kg/cm2 , with 7.26 kg/cm2 being the average of the
adobe bricks. These values obtained with the UCS and the PLT are lower than values from
other researches which have similar characteristic cases in México [44,49]. The adobe blocks
of Jojutla presented low performance, probably due to the inefficient manufacture and
the absence of fiber material or other stabilizers or previous micro-cracking. Nevertheless,

the equipment, it resulted in more specimens to study. The values obtained were more
variable, with 4.52 kg/cm2 being the average of all the adobes, lower than the compression
strength results. The ratio between compressive strength and PLT values was 1.72:1 (See
Table 7), something
the proportion of thecomprehensible
fibers does notconsidering
seem to have that the PLT
a direct is designed
relation forcompressive
with the the analysis
of different types of rocks.
mechanical resistance, as samples M5 and M9 that had the lowest amount of straw reached
some of the highest values during the test.
TableThe
7. Comparative
PLT allowedofquantifying
compressivethe
strength and in
strength point-load
some of values results.after the compressive
the samples
strength
Sampletest. BecauseUCS
those(Kg/cm
fragments
2) of lower dimensions
PLT σ (Kg/cm can2) be tested again with the
UCS/PLT
equipment, it resulted in more specimens to study. The values obtained were more variable,
M2 5.97 3.66 1.63
with 4.52 kg/cm2 being the average of all the adobes, lower than the compression strength
M4 9.35 3.64 2.57
results. The ratio between compressive strength and PLT values was 1.72:1 (See Table 7),
M5 comprehensible12.33
something 5.78
considering that the PLT is designed 2.13
for the analysis of different
M9
types of rocks. 5.08 4.69 1.08
M11 9.13 3.91 2.34
7. Comparative of compressive
Table M12 7.09 strength and point-load2.52
values results. 2.81
Average
Sample 7.26
UCS (Kg/cm2 ) 4.52 2 )
PLT σ (Kg/cm 1.72
UCS/PLT
M2 5.97 3.66 1.63
The compressive strength and PLT values were compared (see Figure 15) in a graphic
to observeM4 the correlation between 9.35 the two tests. Considering
3.64 2.57 strength
the compressive
values areM5 slightly higher, most12.33 of the samples showed 5.78a lineal reciprocity,2.13
while some
showed deviation,
M9 near the 1.72:1 ratio
5.08 calculated for both
4.69 tests interrelation.1.08
In Figure
M11
16, it is possible to
9.13
find the coefficient of
3.91
determination and the second-
2.34
degree polynomial which correlates the two variables. The coefficient of determination or
M12 7.09 2.52 2.81
R2 has a value of 0.8723 and represents the proportion of the variance between the two
Average 7.26 4.52
variables (PLT and compressive strength). Additionally, all the samples are inserted into 1.72
the confidence limits for a confidence level of 95%
compressive
The coefficient ofstrength and PLT
determination R2values were
indicates compared
how (see Figure
well a model 15) in athe
can predict graphic
data.
to observe
The higher the correlation between the two tests. Considering the compressive
value of R , the better the model will be at predicting [78]. This value of R2
2 strength
values
will are slightly
always higher,
be in a range most of0 the
between andsamples showed
1, then the resultsa of
lineal
PLT reciprocity, while some
test had acceptable and
showedvalues
reliable deviation, near the 1.72:1
of mechanical ratio calculated for both tests interrelation.
resistance.
Figure 15.
Figure Correlation between
15. Correlation between the
the compressive
compressive strength
strength and
and the
the point-load
point-load tests.
tests.
In Figure 16, it is possible to find the coefficient of determination and the second-
degree polynomial which correlates the two variables. The coefficient of determination or
R2 has a value of 0.8723 and represents the proportion of the variance between the two
variables (PLT and compressive strength). Additionally, all the samples are inserted into
the confidence limits for a confidence level of 95%
Figure 16.
16. Correlation
Correlation equation and its
its variability
variability using:
using: (Image source:
source: Elaborated by Marco A.
A. Navarrete-Seras
Navarrete-Seras with
with
MATLAB R2017b).
MATLAB R2017b).
The coefficient of determination R2 indicates how well a model can predict the data.
4. Conclusions
The higher the value of R2 , the better the model will be at predicting [78]. This value of R2
When seismic affectations occur on adobe vernacular housing, the owners and in-
will always be in a range between 0 and 1, then the results of PLT test had acceptable and
habitants cannot wait until they are re-built, as earthquakes have a big impact on the so-
reliable values of mechanical resistance.
ciety because of the great destruction they cause. To preserve mental health, the demoli-
tion processes begin as soon as possible, to allow the immediate reconstruction of the
4. Conclusions
housing and infrastructures. Before the total loss of the heritage it is necessary to design a
When seismic affectations occur on adobe vernacular housing, the owners and inhab-
way to test the shards of pieces before they will be carried out of the places or before they
itants cannot wait until they are re-built, as earthquakes have a big impact on the society
will be reused to protect the buildings. The study of traditional Mexican adobe buildings
because of the great destruction they cause. To preserve mental health, the demolition pro-
from the perspective of material characterization needs to be improved with more com-
cesses begin as soon as possible, to allow the immediate reconstruction of the housing and
plete evaluations and a more extensive use of non-destructive tests which could be con-
infrastructures. Before the total loss of the heritage it is necessary to design a way to test the
ducted
shards ofinpieces
situ. before they will be carried out of the places or before they will be reused to
These in situ tests
protect the buildings. The could
study of contain the PLT,
traditional Mexican the adobe
UPV, buildings
and spatial fromevaluation with
the perspective
drones. Thecharacterization
of material PLT could feed needs mathematical models with
to be improved and equations
more complete to predict and calculate
evaluations and a
the performance under loads, hazards, and promotes
more extensive use of non-destructive tests which could be conducted in situ. the design of conservation and res-
toration works
These without
in situ the necessity
tests could contain of thecarrying
PLT, theout UPV, plenty of samples,
and spatial which with
evaluation coulddrones.
break
down during the travel to laboratories, choosing the
The PLT could feed mathematical models and equations to predict and calculate thecomplete samples to research the
materials and techniques employed in the buildings. If PLT studies
performance under loads, hazards, and promotes the design of conservation and restoration are accompanied with
densities
works it could
without thebenecessity
possible of to carrying
get a lot ofoutinformation to plan awhich
plenty of samples, way to characterize
could break downclay
materials.
during the travel to laboratories, choosing the complete samples to research the materials
Various researchers
and techniques employedhave in the studied the relationship
buildings. If PLT studies between UCS and PLT
are accompanied for densities
with different
types of rocks, but there is no study applied in adobes. Therefore,
it could be possible to get a lot of information to plan a way to characterize clay materials. in this research work,
the PLT was used to obtain the relationship with UCS and point
Various researchers have studied the relationship between UCS and PLT for different load index by means of
atypes
correlation
of rocks, equation.
but there ASTM
is no D5731-16
study appliedspecifies that specimens
in adobes. Therefore, in the form
in this of rock work,
research cores,
blocks,
the PLTorwas irregular
used to shards
obtain with
the arelationship
test diameter of 30
with UCSto 85and mm can load
point be tested
index [63].
by Conse-
means
quently, irregular
of a correlation shards were
equation. ASTM used, which allows
D5731-16 specifies a non-cost and fastin
that specimens test
thetoform
estimate the
of rock
UCS
cores,compared
blocks, ortoirregular
sampling, transportation
shards with a testand preparation
diameter of 30 ofto regular
85 mm cubescan beintested
the labor-
[63].
atory. In addition,
Consequently, this test
irregular shardscan were
be performed
used, which in the fielda or
allows the laboratory.
non-cost and fast test to estimate
Evencompared
the UCS though the to PLT was not
sampling, designed for and
transportation adobes but for sandstone
preparation of regularrockscubes[63],
in the
ratio we found
laboratory. was 1.72:1,
In addition, thisnear
testtocan
ratios found for local
be performed in the stones in Michoacan,
field or the laboratory. Mexico (ratio
= 2:1)Even
[71]. though
The ratio thefound
PLT was is the first
not approximation
designed for adobes of abutratio
for between
sandstone mechanical
rocks [63],tests
the
ratiocompressive
for we found was 1.72:1,
strength innear to ratios
adobes, similarfound for local
to other stones ininMichoacan,
comparisons research worksMexicoof
(ratio
earthen = 2:1) [71]. The
materials [32].ratio foundofisthe
Because theconvenient
first approximation
in situ of of thea test
ratiocapability,
between mechanical
further ex-
tests for compressive
perimentation will be strength
requiredin adobes,
with othersimilar to other
study cases comparisons
in future research. in research works
of earthen materials [32]. Because of the convenient in situ of the test capability, further
experimentation will be required with other study cases in future research.
The point load test is justified since an acceptable coefficient of determination R2

of 0.8723 was obtained, and a correlation equation is proposed to estimate the uniaxial
compressive strength for the adobe bricks under study. Therefore, this test could be used
in other study cases and monuments where adobe bricks could be tested in situ.
Regarding the results obtained, both compressive strength and PLT showed low values
of mechanical resistance, particularly comparing them to the previous studies in traditional
buildings of the state of Morelos. Nevertheless, these low values did not justify the bad
seismic behavior of the dwellings, which were very vulnerable due to multiple factors,
like the lack of reinforcements and confinement of the structures, the incompatibility
between the construction materials or the poor maintenance of the buildings, among others.
Additionally, the social-economic necessity of dividing the land into minor spaces due to
the growth of the families and the necessity to inherit the properties to the descendants
caused alteration to the houses and the impossibility to continue using the traditional
thickness of adobe. In the case study, all these conditions converged, resulting into the
loss of most of its architectural heritage and infrastructure. The adobe walls did not
present any reinforcement, being this method unknown by the local population, who
preferred to substitute the traditional materials for modern ones representing for them a
better social status.
In addition to the mechanical tests, the rest of the methodology to study patrimonial
adobes has proven to be effective and it is possible to correlate the mineralogical studies
with the non-destructive analysis and the sieve analysis. The results of the granulometric
curves could be correlated to the standard values for soils in adobes and the guidelines
published by earthen architecture organizations [76]. Nevertheless, some of the adobes
did not have any fibers, which could be a clear sign of the oblivion and abandonment of
the traditional techniques. This loss of the traditional earthen construction techniques has
provoked a poor manufacture of the adobe houses, creating new scenarios where people
do not trust in the material and substitutes the earthen architecture with modern materials.
Although each country has different architectural typologies, the adobe houses in
Latin America show the same type of alterations and modifications over the original
systems. The abandonment and substitution of vernacular architecture is a global concern,
and when an earthquake occurs the consequences are very similar for these buildings, as
we have seen in the recent major events. The manufacturing of adobe is almost identical,
as well as the building process and structural performance of the pieces.
The primary focus of future research works will be to compare the results obtained
from the material characterization of the Jojutla samples with other study cases from
traditional Mexican adobe buildings, verify the results obtained with the PLT with other
historic constructions and upgrade the correlation equations.
By replicating the methodology and improving it, incorporating water vapor and
erosion resistance tests, it will be possible to generate a more precise knowledge about
earthen materials and necessary data for the conservation of this cultural heritage.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization A.S.-C., E.M.A.-G., and A.N.-E.; methodology A.S.-C.,

E.M.A.-G., W.M.-M., M.A.N.-S., J.L.R.-S., A.N.-E., and A.M.; software, A.S.-C., M.A.N.-S., and
A.M.; investigation, A.S.-C. and E.M.A.-G.; writing – original draft preparation, review and editing,
A.S.-C., E.M.A.-G.; A.M., and J.L.R.-S. supervision, E.M.A.-G., W.M.-M., J.L.R.-S., and A.N.-E., project
administration A.S.-C., E.M.A.-G., and W.M.-M.; funding acquisition, A.S.-C., E.M.A.-G., W.M.-M.,
and J.L.R.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), and
CIC-UMSNH, and partially funded by CONACYT grants: LN299076, LN314846, LN31585 and by
PAPIIT UNAM contract IN108521.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Materials Laboratory “Ing. Luis Silva Ruelas” of
the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the UMSNH for the equipment support, the Postgraduate Program
PIDA of the Faculty of Architecture of the UMSNH, the economic support given by CONACYT and
CIC-UMSNH and CIMNE, in Barcelona, Spain. The mechanical test support of D. Preciado-Villicaña
and M. Ruiz-Mendoza; the field work support of E. G. Navarro-Mendoza and J. C. Bernabé-Reyes;

and the Technical support of the LANCIC, Instituto de Fisica, UNAM, J. Cañetas-Ortega for her
support during SEM and EDS analyses. The authors also acknowledge O. de la Paz Soto-Talavera
and C. Bustos-Mejía from the ITZ (Intituto Tecnológico de Zacatepec) for their support during the
field work and recollection of the samples in Jojutla.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.
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Characterization of Adobe Blocks Pointload Assessment As A Complementary Study of Damaged Buildings and SamplesHeritage

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Characterization of Adobe Blocks Pointload Assessment As A Complementary Study of Damaged Buildings and SamplesHeritage

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heritage

Heritage 2021, 4, 864–888. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4020047 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage

1.1. Earthen Architecture in Mexico

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 8

2.1. Sampling Adobe and Soils

Previous research works involving historical and archaeological heritage followed

Table 1. List of collected samples, type, date, and provenance.

Sample Type Collection Date Provenance

Previous research works involving historical and archaeological heritage followed

3. Results and Discussion

The average ultrasonic

3.2. Mineralogical Analyses

Table 3. XRD results on the analyzed samples.

Mineral M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13

3.3. Elemental Analyses

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 16

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 17

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW (c) (d) 18

Table 4. Moisture content percentage.

Sample Wet Weight (g) Dried Weight (g) Moisture (%)

Table 5. USCS classification of the specimens.

Sample LL % PL % IP % USCS Classification

Figure 14. Granulometric

The SieveTable 6. Fibre

3.6. Mechanical Properties

Heritage 2021, 4 882

The point load test is justified since an acceptable coefficient of determination R2

Author Contributions: Conceptualization A.S.-C., E.M.A.-G., and A.N.-E.; methodology A.S.-C.,

and M. Ruiz-Mendoza; the field work support of E. G. Navarro-Mendoza and J. C. Bernabé-Reyes;

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