ASAL Physics CB Sample

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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2019. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
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Contents
Contents
How to use this series 00 3.4 Mass and inertia 000
3.5 Moving through fluids 000
How to use this book 00 3.6 Newton’s third law of motion 000
3.7 Understanding SI units 000
Introduction00
4 Forces000
1 Kinematics000 4.1 Combining forces 000
1.1 Speed000 4.2 Components of vectors 000
FT
1.2 Distance and displacement, scalar 4.3 Centre of gravity 000
and vector 000
4.4 The turning effect of a force 000
1.3 Speed and velocity 000
4.5 The torque of a couple 000
1.4 Displacement–time graphs 000
1.5 Combining displacements 000 5 Work, energy and power 000
1.6 Combining velocities 000 5.1 Doing work, transferring energy 000
1.7 Subtracting vectors 000 5.2 Gravitational potential energy 000
1.8 Other examples of scalar and 5.3 Kinetic energy 000
vector quantities 000 5.4 Gravitational potential to kinetic energy
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transformations000
2 Accelerated motion 000
5.5 Down, up, down: energy changes 000
2.1 The meaning of acceleration 000
5.6 Energy transfers 000
2.2 Calculating acceleration 000
5.7 Power000
2.3 Units of acceleration 000
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2.4 Deducing acceleration 000 6 Momentum000
2.5 Deducing displacement 000 6.1 The idea of momentum 000
2.6 Measuring velocity and acceleration 000 6.2 Modelling collisions 000
2.7 Determining velocity and acceleration 6.3 Understanding collisions 000
in the laboratory 000 6.4 Explosions and crash-landings 000
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2.8 The equations of motion 000 6.5 Collisions in two dimensions 000
2.9 Deriving the equations of motion 000 6.6 Momentum and Newton’s laws 000
2.10 Uniform and non-uniform acceleration000 6.7 Understanding motion 000
2.11 Acceleration caused by gravity 000
2.12 Determining g000 7 Matter and materials 000
2.13 Motion in two dimensions: projectiles 000 7.1 Density000
2.14 Understanding projectiles 000 7.2 Pressure000
7.3 Archimedes’ principle 000
3 Dynamics000 7.4 Compressive and tensile forces 000
3.1 Force, mass and acceleration 000 7.5 Stretching materials 000
3.2 Identifying forces 000 7.6 Elastic potential energy 000
3.3 Weight, friction and gravity 000
iii
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CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
8 Electric current 000 13.3 Interference000

8.1 Circuit symbols and diagrams 000 13.4 The Young double-slit experiment 000
8.2 Electric current 000 13.5 Diffraction gratings 000
8.3 An equation for current 000
14 Stationary waves 000
8.4 The meaning of voltage 000
14.1 From moving to stationary 000
8.5 Electrical resistance 000
14.2 Nodes and antinodes 000
8.6 Electrical power 000
14.3 Formation of stationary waves 000
9 Kirchhoff’s laws 000 14.4 Determining the wavelength and speed of
sound000
9.1 Kirchhoff’s first law 000
9.2 Kirchhoff’s second law 000 15 Atomic structure 000
9.3 Applying Kirchhoff’s laws 000 15.1 Looking inside the atom 000
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9.4 Resistor combinations 000 15.2 Alpha-particle scattering and
the nucleus 000
10 Resistance and resistivity 000
15.3 A simple model of the atom 000
10.1 The I–V characteristic for a
15.4 Nucleons and electrons 000
metallic conductor 000
15.5 Forces in the nucleus 000
10.2 Ohm’s law 000
15.6 Discovering radioactivity 000
10.3 Resistance and temperature 000
15.7 Radiation from radioactive substances 000
10.4 Resistivity000
15.8 Energies in a and β decay 000
11 Practical circuits 000 15.9 Equations of radioactive decay 000
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11.1 Internal resistance 000 15.10 Fundamental particles 000
11.2 Potential dividers 000 15.11 Families of particles 000
11.3 Sensors 000 15.12 Another look at β decay 000
11.4 Potentiometer circuits 000 15.13 Another nuclear force 000
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12 Waves000 P1 Practical skills for AS 000
12.1 Describing waves 000 P1.1 Practical work in physics 000
12.2 Longitudinal and transverse waves 000 P1.2 Using apparatus and following
instructions000
12.3 Wave energy 000
P1.3 Gathering evidence 000
12.4 Wave speed 000
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P1.4 Precision, accuracy, errors and

12.5 The Doppler effect for sound waves 000
uncertainties000
12.6 Electromagnetic waves 000
P1.5 Finding the value of an uncertainty 000
12.7 Electromagnetic waves 000
P1.6 Percentage uncertainty 000
12.8 Orders of magnitude 000
P1.7 Recording results 000
12.9 The nature of electromagnetic waves 000
P1.8 Analysing results 000
12.10 Polarisation000
P1.9 Testing a relationship 000
13 Superposition of waves 000 P1.10 Combining uncertainties 000
13.1 The principle of superposition P1.11 Identifying limitations in
of waves 000 procedures and suggesting
improvements000
13.2 Diffraction of waves 000
iv

Contents
16 Circular motion 000 20.5 Changing temperature 000

16.1 Describing circular motion 000 20.6 Ideal gas equation 000
16.2 Angles in radians 000 20.7 Modelling gases: the kinetic model 000
16.3 Steady speed, changing velocity 000 20.8 Temperature and molecular
kinetic energy 000
16.4 Angular speed 000
16.5 Centripetal forces 000 21 Uniform electric fields 000
16.6 Calculating acceleration and force 000 21.1 Attraction and repulsion 000
16.7 The origins of centripetal forces 000 21.2 The concept of an electric field 000
21.3 Electric field strength 000
17 Gravitational fields 000
21.4 Force on a charge 000
17.1 Representing a gravitational field 000
17.2 Gravitational field strength g000 22 Coulomb’s law 000
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17.3 Energy in a gravitational field 000 22.1 Electric fields 000
17.4 Gravitational potential 000 22.2 Coulomb’s law 000
17.5 Orbiting under gravity 000 22.3 Electric field strength for a radial field 000
17.6 The orbital period 000 22.4 Electric potential 000
17.7 Orbiting the Earth 000 22.5 Gravitational and electric fields 000
18 Oscillations 23 Capacitance000
18.1 Free and forced oscillations 000 23.1 Capacitors in use 000
18.2 Observing oscillations 000 23.2 Energy stored in a capacitor 000
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18.3 Describing oscillations 000 23.3 Capacitors in parallel 000
18.4 Simple harmonic motion 000 23.4 Capacitors in series 000
18.5 Representing s.h.m. graphically 000 23.5 Comparing capacitors and resistors 000
18.6 Frequency and angular frequency 000 23.6 Capacitor networks 000
18.7 Equations of s.h.m. 000 23.7 Charge and discharge of capacitors 000
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18.8 Energy changes in s.h.m. 000
18.9 Damped oscillations 000 24 Magnetic fields and
18.10 Resonance000 electromagnetism000
24.1 Producing and representing magnetic fields
19 Thermal physics 000 000
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19.1 Changes of state 000 24.2 Magnetic force 000

19.2 Energy changes 000 24.3 Magnetic flux density 000
19.3 Internal energy 000 24.4 Measuring magnetic flux density 000
19.4 The meaning of temperature 000 24.5 Currents crossing fields 000
19.5 Thermometers000 24.6 Forces between currents 000
19.6 Calculating energy changes 000 24.7 Relating SI units 000
24.8 Comparing forces in magnetic, electric
20 Ideal gases 000 and gravitational fields 000
20.1 Particles of a gas 000
20.2 Explaining pressure 000 25 Motion of charged particles 000
20.3 Measuring gases 000 25.1 Observing the force 000
20.4 Boyle's law 000 25.2 Orbiting charged particles 000
v

25.3 Electric and magnetic fields 000 30 Medical imaging 000

25.4 The Hall effect 000 30.1 The nature and production of X-rays 000
25.5 Discovering the electron 000 30.2 X-ray attenuation 000
30.3 Improving X-ray images 000
26 Electromagnetic induction 000
30.4 Computerised axial tomography 000
26.1 Observing induction 000
30.5 Using ultrasound in medicine 000
26.2 Explaining electromagnetic induction 000
30.6 Echo sounding 000
26.3 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
000 30.7 Ultrasound scanning 000
26.4 Lenz’s law 000 30.8 Positron Emission Tomography 000
26.5 Everyday examples of electromagnetic
31 Astronomy and cosmology 000
induction000
31.1 Standard candles 000
27 Alternating currents 000
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31.2 Luminosity and radiant flux intensity 000
27.1 Sinusoidal current 000 31.3 Stellar radii 000
27.2 Alternating voltages 000 31.4 The expanding Universe 000
27.3 Power and alternating current 000
P2 Planning, analysis
27.4 Rectification000
and evaluation 000
28 Quantum physics 000 P2.1 Planning and analysis 000
28.1 Modelling with particles and waves 000 P2.2 Planning000
28.2 Particulate nature of light 000 P2.3 Analysis of the data 000
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28.3 The photoelectric effect 000 P2.4 Treatment of uncertainties 000
28.4 Threshold frequency and wavelength 000 P2.5 Conclusions and evaluation
28.5 Photons have momentum too 000 of results 000
28.6 Line spectra 000
Glossary000
28.7 Explaining the origin of line spectra 000
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28.8 Photon energies 000 Index000
28.9 The nature of light: waves or particles? 000
28.10 Electron waves 000
28.11 Revisiting photons 000
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29 Nuclear physics 000

29.1 Balanced equations 000
29.2 Mass and energy 000
29.3 Energy released in radioactive decay 000
29.4 Binding energy and stability 000
29.5 Randomness and radioactive decay 000
29.6 The mathematics of radioactive decay 000
29.7 Decay graphs and equations 000
29.8 Decay constant λ and half-life t1 000
2
vi

Chapter 27
Alternating
currents
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter you will learn how to:
• understand and use the terms period, frequency and peak value as applied to an alternating current or
voltage
use equations of the form x = x0 sin ωt representing a sinusoidally alternating current or voltage
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•
• recall and use the fact that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for a sinusoidal
alternating current
I0
• distinguish between root-mean-square (r.m.s.) and peak values and recall and use Ir.m.s. = and
V 2
Vr.m.s. = 0 for a sinusoidal alternating current
2
• distinguish graphically between half-wave and full-wave rectification
• explain the use of a single diode for the half-wave rectification of an alternating current
• explain the use of four diodes (bridge rectifier) for the full-wave rectification of an alternating current
• analyse the effect of a single capacitor in smoothing, including the effect of the value of capacitance and
the load resistance.
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BEFORE YOU START

• In pairs, try to recall and explain the relationship for power dissipation in terms of current, potential
difference and resistance from Chapter 8.
• The physics of alternating currents has similarities with simple harmonic motion (see Chapter 18).
Discuss what you remember about period, frequency and angular frequency.
• Write down what you know about the behaviour of diodes in circuits. What’s the most important
property of a diode?
• Discuss the discharge of a capacitor through a resistor. Can you remember the factors that affect the
time constant of a circuit?
DESCRIBING ALTERNATING CURRENT
FT
In many countries, mains electricity is a supply of
alternating current (a.c.). The first mains electricity
supplies were developed towards the end of
the 19th century; at that time, a great number of
different voltages and frequencies were used in
different places. In some places, the supply was
direct current (d.c.). Nowadays, this has been
standardised across much of the world, with
standard voltages of 110 V or 230 V (or similar), and
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frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
Mains electricity is transported along many
kilometres of high-voltage power lines (cables).
Transformers are used for stepping-up and stepping-
down alternating voltages between the power
Figure 27.1: This engineer is working on a transformer
stations and the consumers (Figure 27.1). From your
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used for increasing (stepping-up) the size of the
prior knowledge of transformers and transmission
alternating voltage to help with the transportation
of electrical energy, can you remember why it is
of electrical energy.
necessary for power lines to use high voltage?
18), and it can be interpreted in the same way. In a wire

27.1 Sinusoidal current
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with a.c., the free electrons within the wire move back
and forth with s.h.m. The variation of the current with
An alternating current can be represented by a graph such
time is a sine curve, so it is described as sinusoidal. (In
as that shown in Figure 27.2. This shows that the current
principle, any current whose direction changes between
varies regularly. During half of the cycle, the current is
positive and negative can be described as alternating,
positive, and in the other half it is negative. This means
but we will only be concerned with those which have a
that the direction of the current reverses every half cycle.
regular, sinusoidal pattern.)
Whenever you use a mains appliance, the charges (free
electrons) within the wire and appliance flow backwards
and forwards. At any instant in time, the current has a KEY WORD
particular magnitude and direction given by the graph.
sinusoidal: having a magnitude that varies as a
The graph has the same shape as the graphs used to sine curve.
represent simple harmonic motion (s.h.m.) (see Chapter
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27 Alternating currents
b Determine the time the current next has the

I /A 3
same value, but negative.
2 c State the time T for one complete cycle (the
1 period of the a.c).
d Determine the frequency of this alternating
0 t / ms
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 current.
–1 2 The following questions relate to the graph in
Figure 27.2.
–2
a Determine the values of I0 and ω.
–3 b Write an equation to represent this alternating
current.
Figure 27.2: A graph to represent a sinusoidal alternating
3 An alternating current, measured in ampere (A), is
current.
represented by the equation: I = 5.0 sin (120πt)
a Determine the values of I0, ω, f and T.
FT
An equation for a.c. b Sketch a graph to represent the current.
As well as drawing a graph, we can write an equation to
represent alternating current. This equation gives us the
value of the current I at any time t: 27.2 Alternating voltages
I = I0 sin ωt Alternating current is produced in power stations by
large generators like those shown in Figure 27.3.
where I is the current at time t, I0 is the peak value of the
alternating current, and ω is the angular frequency of
the supply, measured in rad s−1 (radians per second). The
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peak value is the maximum magnitude of the current.
It’s very much like the ‘amplitude’ of the alternating
current, except the unit is that of current.
This is related to the frequency f in the same way as for
s.h.m.:
R
ω = 2πf
and the frequency and period are related by:
1
f =
T
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KEY EQUATION
I = I0 sin ωt
Figure 27.3: Generators in the generating hall of a large
Remember that your calculator must be in the
power station.
radian mode when using this equation.
As you have already seen in Chapter 26, a generator
consists of a coil rotating in a magnetic field. An e.m.f.
Questions is induced in the coil according to Faraday’s and Lenz’s
laws of electromagnetic induction.
1 The following questions relate to the graph in
This e.m.f. V varies sinusoidally, and so we can write an
Figure 27.2.
equation to represent it which has the same form as the
a State the value of the current I and its equation for alternating current:
direction when time t = 5 ms.
V = V0 sin ωt
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where V0 is the peak value of the voltage. We can also a Determine the values of V0, ω and f for this
represent this graphically, as shown in Figure 27.4. alternating voltage.
b Calculate V when t = 0.002 s. (Remember
V that 100πt is in radians when you calculate
V0 this.)
c Sketch a graph to show two complete cycles of
this voltage.
0
T T 3T t
2 2
Measuring frequency and
–V0
voltage
An oscilloscope can be used to measure the frequency
Figure 27.4: An alternating voltage.
and voltage of an alternating current. Practical
FT
27.1 explains how to do this. There are two types of
oscilloscope. The traditional cathode-ray oscilloscope
Question (CRO) uses an electron beam. The alternative is a
4 An alternating voltage V, in volt (V), is represented digital oscilloscope, which is likely to be much more
by the equation: compact and which can store data and display the
V = 300 sin (100πt) traces later.
PRACTICAL 27.1
Measurements using an oscilloscope may be many controls on a CRO, even more than
A
those shown on the CRO illustrated in Figure 27.6.
A CRO is an electron beam tube, as shown in Figure
25.4, but with an extra set of parallel plates to
anode
produce a horizontal electric field at right angles to vacuum
the beam (Figure 27.5).
X2
Y2
R
The principles of a cathode-ray X1
oscilloscope (CRO) Y1
heated
The signal into the CRO is a repetitively varying
cathode
voltage. This is applied to the y-input, which deflects electron beam
the beam up and down using the parallel plates electron gun
Y1 and Y2 shown in Figure 27.5. The time-base screen
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produces a p.d. across the other set of parallel

Figure 27.5: The construction of a cathode-ray
plates X1 and X2 to move the beam from left to right
oscilloscope. Cathode rays (beams of electrons) are
across the screen.
produced in the electron gun and then deflected by
When the beam hits the screen of the CRO, it electric fields before they strike the screen.
produces a small spot of light. If you look at the screen
and slow the movement down, you can see the spot
The controls
move from left to right, while the applied signal moves
the spot up and down. When the spot reaches the The X-shift and the Y-shift controls move the
right side of the screen, it flies back very quickly and whole trace in the x-direction and the y-direction,
waits for the next cycle of the signal to start before respectively. The two controls that you must
moving to the right once again. In this way, the signal know about are the time-base and the Y-gain, or
is displayed as a stationary trace on the screen. There Y-sensitivity.
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CONTINUED
Determining frequency and amplitude
(peak value of voltage)
If you look at the CRO trace shown in Figure 27.7,
you can see that the amplitude of the waveform,
or the peak value of the voltage, is equivalent
brightness focus to 2 cm and the period of the trace is equivalent
to 4 cm.
time-base Y-gain If the Y-gain or Y-sensitivity setting is 2 V/cm,
then the peak voltage is 2 × 2 = 4 V. If the
time-base setting is 5 ms/cm, then the period is
X-shift Y-shift 4 × 5 = 20 ms.
on
FT
Y input In the example, since:
off
1
frequency =
Figure 27.6: The controls of a typical CRO. period
1
=
You can see in Figure 27.6 that the time-base 0.02
control has units marked alongside. Let us suppose = 50 Hz
that this reads 5 ms/cm, although it might be 5 ms/
division. This shows that 1 cm (or 1 division) on the
x-axis represents 5 ms. Varying the time-base control
A
alters the speed with which the spot moves across
the screen. If the time-base is changed to 1 ms/cm,
then the spot moves faster and each centimetre
represents a smaller time.
The Y-gain control has a unit marked in volts/cm, or
sometimes volts/division. If the actual marking is 5 V/
R
cm, then each centimetre on the y-axis represents
5 V in the applied signal. 1 cm
It is important to remember that on the CRO screen, Figure 27.7: A typical trace on the screen of a CRO.
the x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents
voltage.
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Questions 27.3 Power and

5 The Y-sensitivity and time-base settings are 5 V/cm
and 10 ms/cm. The trace seen on the CRO screen is
the one shown in Figure 27.7.
alternating current
We use mains electricity to supply us with energy. If
Determine the amplitude, period and frequency of
the current and voltage are varying all the time, does
the signal applied to the Y-input of the CRO.
this mean that the power is varying all the time too?
6 Sketch the CRO trace for a sinusoidal voltage of The answer to this is yes. You may have noticed that
frequency 100 Hz and amplitude 10 V, when the some fluorescent lamps flicker continuously, especially
time-base is 10 ms/cm and the Y-sensitivity if you observe them out of the corner of your eye or
is 10 V/cm. when you move your head quickly from one side to the
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other. A tungsten filament lamp would flicker too, but The lamps in Practical 27.2 are the ‘resistive loads’. A
the frequency of the mains has been chosen so that the full analysis, which we will come to shortly, shows that
filament does not have time to cool down noticeably Ir.m.s. is related to I0 by:
between peaks in the supply. I0
I r.m.s. =
2
Root-mean-square (r.m.s.) ≈ 0.707 × I 0
This is where the factor of 70% comes from. Note

values that this factor only applies to sinusoidal alternating
There is a mathematical relationship between the currents.
peak value V0 of the alternating voltage and a direct We also have r.m.s. voltage Vr.m.s. across the resistive load.
voltage which delivers the same average electrical Vr.m.s is related to the peak voltage V0 by:
power. The direct voltage is about 70% of V0. (You
might have expected it to be about half, but it is more V0
Vr.m.s. =
than this, because of the shape of the sine graph.) This 2
FT
steady direct voltage is known as the root-mean-square
(r.m.s.) value of the alternating voltage. In the same
KEY EQUATIONS
way, we can think of the root-mean-square value of an
alternating current, Ir.m.s. I0
Ir.m.s. =
2
KEY DEFINITION ≈ 0.707 × I0
root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value: the r.m.s. value where I0 is the peak (maximum) current.
of an alternating current is that steady current
V0
which delivers the same average power as the Vr.m.s. =
A 2
a.c. to a resistive load.
≈ 0.707 × V0
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady where V0 is the peak (maximum) voltage.
current which delivers the same average power as the a.c.
to a resistive load.
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PRACTICAL 27.2
Comparing alternating current (a.c.) and direct (on the right) and the other to a d.c. supply (the
current (d.c.) batteries on the left). The a.c. supply is adjusted so
that the two lamps are equally bright, indicating
Because the power supplied by an alternating
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that the two supplies are providing energy at the

current is varying all the time, we need to have some
same average rate. The output voltages are then
way of describing the average power which is being
compared on the double-beam oscilloscope.
supplied. To do this, we compare an alternating
current with a direct current, and try to find the A typical trace is shown in Figure 27.9. This shows
direct current that supplies the same average power that the a.c. trace sometimes rises above the steady
as the alternating current. d.c. trace, and sometimes falls below it. This makes
sense: sometimes the a.c. is delivering more power
Figure 27.8 shows how this can be done in practice.
than the d.c., and sometimes less, but the average
Two filament lamps (our resistive loads) are placed
power is the same for both.
side by side; one is connected to an a.c. supply
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CONTINUED
Figure 27.9: The oscilloscope trace from the experiment

shown in Figure 27.8.
FT
Figure 27.8: Comparing direct and alternating currents
that supply the same power. The lamps are equally bright.
Questions calculate the average power dissipated in a resistor, we

can use the usual formulae for power:
7 The alternating current (in ampere, A) in a resistor V2
is represented by the equation: I = 2.5 sin (100πt) =
P I=
2
R IV =
R
A
Calculate the r.m.s. value for this alternating
current. Remember that it is essential to use the r.m.s.
8 The mains supply to domestic consumers in many values of I and V, as in Worked example 1. If you
European countries has an r.m.s. value of 230 V use peak values, your answer will be too great by a
for the alternating voltage. (Note that it is the factor of 2.
r.m.s. value which is generally quoted, not the peak Where does this factor of 2 come from? Recall that r.m.s.
R
value.) and peak values are related by:
Calculate the peak value of the alternating I 0 = 2 I r.m.s
voltage.
So, if you calculate I 2R using I0 instead of Ir.m.s., you will
( )
2
Calculating power introduce a factor of 2 ≡ 2 . The same is true if you

D
calculate power using V0 instead of Vr.m.s.. It follows that,

The importance of r.m.s. values is that they allow us for a sinusoidal alternating current, peak power is twice
to apply equations from our study of direct current average power.
to situations where the current is alternating. So, to
WORKED EXAMPLE
1 A 20 Ω resistor is connected to an alternating Step 1 Calculate the r.m.s. value of the voltage.
supply. The voltage across the resistor has peak V0
value 25 V. Vr.m.s =
2
Calculate the average power dissipated in the 25
resistor. =
2
= 17.7 V
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CONTINUED
Step 2 Now calculate the average power Note that, if we had used V0 rather than V r.m.s.,
dissipated. (Remember you must use the we would have found:
r.m.s. value, and not the peak value.)
252
P=
V2
20
P=
R = 31.3 W
17.72
= which is double the correct answer.
20
= 15.6 W
Questions I0
FT
9 Calculate the average power dissipated in a resistor
of resistance 100 Ω when a sinusoidal alternating 0 t
current has a peak value of 3.0 A.
10 The sinusoidal voltage across a 1.0 kΩ resistor has a
peak value 325 V. –I0
a Calculate the r.m.s. value of the alternating I02 2
2
voltage.
< 2>
b Use V = IR to calculate the r.m.s. current in the
I02
resistor.
2
A
c Calculate the average power dissipated in the
resistor. t
0
d Calculate the peak power dissipated in the
resistor. Figure 27.10: An alternating current I is alternately positive
and negative, while I2 is always positive.
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Explaining root-mean-square Now, if we consider <I2>, the average (mean) value of
We will now briefly consider the origin of the term I2, we find that its value is half of the square of the peak
root-mean-square and show how the factor of 2 in the current (because the graph is symmetrical). That is:
equation I 0 = 2 I r.m.s comes about. 1 2
< I2 >= I0
2
The equation P = I 2R shows us that the power P is
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directly proportional to the square of the current I. To find the r.m.s. value of I, we now take the square root
Figure 27.10 shows how we can calculate I 2 for an of <I2>.
alternating current. The current I varies sinusoidally, This gives:
and during half of each cycle it is negative. However,
I 2 is always positive (because the square of a negative I r.m.s. = < I 2 >
number is positive). Notice that I 2 varies up and down, 1 2
and that it has twice the frequency of the current. = I0
2
I 0 = 2 I r.m.s.
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Summarising this process: to find the r.m.s. value of the This type of rectification is known as half-wave
current, we find the root of the mean of the square of rectification. For one-half of the time the voltage is zero,
the current–hence r.m.s. and this means that the power available from a half-wave
rectified supply is reduced.
27.4 Rectification The bridge rectifier

Many electrical appliances work with alternating To overcome this problem of reduced power, a bridge
current. Some, like electrical heaters, will work rectifier circuit is used. This consists of four diodes
equally well with d.c. or a.c. However, there are many connected across the input alternating voltage, as shown
appliances, such as electronic equipment, which in Figure 27.12. The output voltage Vout is taken across
require d.c. For these, the alternating mains voltage the load resistor R. The resulting output voltage across
must be converted to direct voltage by the process of the load resistor R is full-wave rectified.
rectification.
The way in which this works is shown in Figure 27.13.
FT
KEY WORD • During the first half of the positive cycle of
the input alternating voltage, the terminal A
rectification: the process of converting is positive. Current flows through diode 2,
alternating voltage into direct voltage. downwards through the load resistor R, through
diode 3 and back the supply via terminal B. In
this half of the cycle, current cannot flow through
diode diodes 1 or 4 because they are pointing the wrong
way (reverse bias).
• In the second half of the negative cycle of
load
the input alternating voltage, the terminal B
a.c. supply ~
A resistor Vout
R is positive. Current flows through diode 4,
downwards through the load resistor R, through
diode 1 and back to the supply via terminal A.
Diodes 2 and 3 do not conduct because they are
pointing the wrong way.
Vout
R
t 1 2
A
Figure 27.11: Half-wave rectification of a.c. requires a a.c. supply ~
single diode. B
D
3 4
A simple way to do this is to use a diode, which is a
component that will only allow current in only one R Vout
direction. (You have already met diodes in Chapter
10.) Figure 27.11 shows a circuit for doing this. An
alternating input voltage is applied to a circuit with
a diode and a resistor in series. The diode will only
Vout
conduct during the positive cycles of the input voltage.
Hence, there will be a current in the load resistor only
during these positive cycles. The output voltage Vout t
across the resistor will fluctuate as shown in the Vout
against time t graph. This graph is identical to the input Figure 27.12: Full-wave rectification of a.c. using a diode
alternating voltage, except the negative cycles have been bridge.
‘chopped-off’.
733
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 733 30-Aug-19 21:07:34

a I necessary in the circuit. This capacitor, of capacitance

C, is in parallel with the load resistor of resistance
2 R. This is shown in Figure 27.14. The idea is that the
+ A capacitor charges up and maintains the voltage at a high
level. It discharges gradually when the rectified voltage
– B 3 drops, but the voltage soon rises again and the capacitor
+
charges up again. The result is an output voltage with
R
‘ripple’.
b Vin ~ C R Vout
1
– A
FT
+ B
+
4 C charging C discharging
R Vout
I
Figure 27.13: Direction of current during full-wave Figure 27.14: A smoothing capacitor is connected across
rectification a for positive cycles and b for negative cycles. (in parallel with) the load resistor.
A
Note that in both halves of the cycle, current direction The amount of ripple can be controlled by carefully
in the load resistor R is always the same (downwards). choosing the capacitance C of the capacitor and the
This means that the top end of R must always be resistance R of the load resistor. A capacitor with a
positive. large capacitance value discharges more slowly than a
capacitor with a small capacitance value, so will give
R
You can construct a bridge rectifier using light-emitting a smaller ripple. Similarly, if the resistance R of the
diodes (LEDs) which light up when current flows resistor is increased, then this too leads to a slower
through them. By connecting this bridge to a slow a.c. discharge of the capacitor. You may have already met
supply (for instance 1 Hz from a signal generator), you the physics of discharging capacitors in Chapter 23.
can see the sequence in which the diodes conduct during So, the size of the ripple can be reduced by increasing
rectification. the time constant CR of the capacitor–resistor circuit.
D
Ideally, though this is definitely not a general rule, CR

must be much greater than the time interval between
Question the adjacent peaks of the output signal–you want the
11 Explain why, when terminal B in Figure 27.13 is capacitor to be still discharging between the ‘gaps’
positive (during the negative cycle), the current between the positive cycles. This is illustrated in Worked
flows through diodes 1 and 4, but not through example 2.
diodes 2 and 3. Note that, in Figures 27.11 to 27.14, we have represented
the load on the supply by a resistor. This represents
any components that are connected to the supply. For
Smoothing example, a rectifier circuit can be used to charge the
In order to produce steady d.c. from the ‘bumpy’ d.c. battery of a mobile phone or provide a direct voltage
that results from rectification, a smoothing capacitor is supply for small radio.
734
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 734 30-Aug-19 21:07:34

WORKED EXAMPLE
2 Figure 27.15 shows the output voltage from a Step 2 Compare the time constant with the time
half-wave rectifier. The load resistor has resistance interval between the adjacent peaks of
1.2 kΩ. A student wishes to smooth the output the output signal.
voltage by placing a capacitor across the load
resistor. The time constant of 0.012 ms is very
small compared with time interval of
V 40 ms between the adjacent peaks of the
output. If this capacitor were to be used,
0
t/ms
it would discharge far too quickly. There
0 50 100
would be no smoothing of the output
Figure 27.15: Output from a half-wave rectifier. voltages–the 10 pF capacitor is not
suitable.
ith the help of a calculation, suggest if a 10 pF
W Step 3 Repeat the steps for the 500 µF capacitor.
FT
capacitor or a 500 µF capacitor would be suitable
for this task. Time constant = CR = 500 × 10−6 × 1.2
× 103 = 0.60 s (= 600 ms)
Step 1 Calculate the time constant with the
10 pF capacitor. Now, the time constant of 600 ms is much
larger than 40 ms. This capacitor will not
Time constant = CR = 10 × 10−9 × 1.2 × 103 discharge completely between the positive
= 1.2 × 10−5 s (= 0.012 ms) cycles of the half-wave rectified signal. The
500 µF capacitor would be adequate for the
smoothing task.
A
Questions 1 2
12 Sketch the following voltage patterns: A
Vin ~
a a sinusoidal alternating voltage
B
R
b the same voltage as part a, but half-wave
3 4
rectified
R Vout
c the same voltage as part b, but smoothed
d the same voltage as part a, but full-wave
rectified
D
e the same voltage as part d, but smoothed. Figure 27.16: A bridge rectifier circuit that is wired
13 A student wires a bridge rectifier incorrectly as incorrectly. For Question 13.
shown in Figure 27.16. Explain what you would
expect to observe when an oscilloscope is connected
across the load resistor R. I
14 A bridge rectifier circuit is used to rectify an
alternating current through a resistor. A smoothing
capacitor is connected across the resistor. Figure t
27.17 shows how the current varies. Use sketches to
show the changes you would expect: Figure 27.17: A smoothed, rectified current. For
a if the resistance R of the resistor is increased Question 14.
b if the capacitance C of the capacitor is
decreased.
735
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 735 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

REFLECTION
Without looking at your textbook, summarise all the key equations from this chapter.
Make a list of mains operated devices in your laboratory. For each device, determine the power, r.m.s.
current and r.m.s. voltage.
Give yourself and a classmate one minute to draw a circuit diagram for a full-wave rectifier circuit. Compare
your circuit diagrams. Which diagram was more accurate? How would you make this diagram more accurate
if you were to draw it in the future?
FT
A
R
D
736
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 736 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

27
Chapter
Alternating
1: Cell structure
currents
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 The maximum power dissipated in a resistor carrying an alternating
current is 10 W.
What is the mean power dissipated in the resistor? [1]
A 5.0 W
B 7.1 W
C 10 W
D 14 W
2 The alternating current I in ampere (A) in a filament lamp is represented
by the equation:
I = 1.5 sin (40t).
FT
Which of the following is correct? [1]
A The angular frequency of the alternating current is 40 rad s . −1
B The frequency of alternating current is 40 Hz.

C The maximum current is 3.0 A.
D The peak voltage is 1.5 V.
3 Write down a general expression for the sinusoidal variation with
time t of:
a an alternating voltage V [1]
A
b an alternating current I (you may assume that I and V are
in phase) [1]
c the power P dissipated due to this current and voltage. [1]
4 The alternating current I in ampere (A) in a circuit is represented
by the equation:
I = 2.0 sin (50πt).
R
a State the peak value of the current. [1]
b Calculate the frequency of the alternating current. [2]
c Sketch a graph to show two cycles of the variation of current
with time. Mark the axes with suitable values. [2]
d Calculate Ir.m.s., the r.m.s. value of current, and mark this on
D
your graph in part c. [1]

e Determine two values of time t at which the current I = Ir.m.s.. [3]
5 A heater of resistance 6.0 Ω is connected to an alternating current
supply. The output voltage from the supply is 20 V r.m.s.
Calculate:
a the average power dissipated in the heater [2]
b the maximum power dissipated in the heater [1]
c the energy dissipated by the heater in 5.0 minutes. [2]
737
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 737 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

CONTINUED
6 An oscilloscope is used to display the variation of voltage across a
200 Ω resistor with time. The trace is shown. The time-base of the
oscilloscope is set at 5 ms div−1 and the Y-gain at 0.5 V div−1.
FT
1 division
Determine:
a the period and hence the frequency of the alternating voltage [2]
b the peak voltage and hence the r.m.s. voltage [2]
c the r.m.s. current in the resistor [1]
d the mean power dissipated in the resistor. [2]
A
7 a State the relationship between the peak current I0 and the r.m.s.
current Irms for a sinusoidally varying current. [1]
b The current in a resistor connected to a steady d.c. supply is 2.0 A.
When the same resistor is connected to an a.c. supply, the current
in it has a peak value of 2.0 A. The heating effects of the two
currents in the resistor are different.
R
i Explain why the heating effects are different and state
which heating effect is the greater. [2]
ii Calculate the ratio of the power dissipated in the resistor
by the d.c. current to the power dissipated in the resistor
by the a.c. current. [2]
D
8 A sinusoidal voltage of 6.0 V r.m.s. and frequency 50 Hz is connected

to a diode and a resistor R of resistance 400 Ω as shown in the diagram.
6.0 V 400 Ω R
r.m.s.
738
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 738 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

27
Chapter
Alternating
1: Cell structure
currents
CONTINUED
a Sketch a graph showing the variation with time of both the supply
waveform (use a dotted line) and the voltage across R (use a solid
line). Put numerical scales on both the voltage and time axes. [4]
b An uncharged capacitor C is connected across R. When the 6.0 V
r.m.s. supply is switched on, the capacitor charges fully during the
first quarter of a cycle. You may assume that the p.d. across the
diode is zero when it conducts. For the next three-quarters of the
first cycle, the diode stops conducting and the p.d. across R falls to
one-half of the peak value. During this time the mean p.d. across
R is 5.7 V.
For the last three-quarters of the first cycle, calculate:
FT
i the time taken [1]
ii the mean current in R [2]
iii the charge flowing through R [2]
iv the capacitance of C. [2]
c Explain why the diode stops conducting during part of each
cycle in part b. [2]
9 The rectified output from a circuit is connected to a resistor R of
resistance 1000 Ω. Graph A shows the variation with time t of the p.d.
V across the resistor. Graph B shows the variation of V when a
A
capacitor is placed across R to smooth the output.
V/V V/V
1.0 1.0
R
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
D
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 t/s 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 t / s
Graph A Graph B
Explain how the rectification is achieved. Draw a circuit diagram to

show the components involved. [6]
b Explain the action of the capacitor in smoothing the output. [3]
c Using graph B between t = 0.005 and t = 0.015 s, determine:
i the time during which the capacitor is charging [1]
ii the mean value of the p.d. across R [1]
iii the average power dissipated in R. [2]
739
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 739 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

CONTINUED
10 Electrical energy is supplied by a high-voltage power line which has a
total resistance of 4.0 Ω. At the input to the line, the root-mean-square
(r.m.s.) voltage has a value of 400 kV and the input power is 500 MW.
a i Explain what is meant by root-mean-square voltage. [2]
ii Calculate the minimum voltage that the insulators which
support the line must withstand without breakdown. [2]
b i Calculate the value of the r.m.s. current in the power line. [2]
ii Calculate the power loss on the line. [2]
iii Suggest why it is an advantage to transmit the power at a
high voltage. [2]
FT
11 A student has designed a full-wave rectifier circuit.
The output voltage for this circuit is taken across a resistor of resistance
120 Ω. The variation of the output voltage with time is shown.
V/V
100
50
0 t/ms
0 10 20 30 40
A capacitor is now connected across the resistor. The graph shows the
A
new variation of the output voltage with time.
V/V B
100
A C
50
0 t/ms
R
0 10 20 30 40
a Explain the variation of the output variation between points:

i AB [1]
ii BC. [1]
b Use the second graph to determine the value of the
D
capacitance C. [3]

t
−
(You may use the equation V = V0 e CR from Chapter 23.)
740
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 740 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

27
Chapter
Alternating
1: Cell structure
currents
SUMMARY
A sinusoidal alternating current can be represented by I = I0 sin ωt, where I0 is the peak value of the
current.
The root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating current is that steady current which delivers the
same average power as the a.c. to a resistive load; for a sinusoidal a.c.:
I0
I r.m.s. =
2
≈ 0.707 × I 0
The relationship between root-mean-square (r.m.s.) voltage Vr.m.s and peak voltage V0 is:
FT
V0
Vr.m.s. =
2
The power P dissipated in a resistor can be calculated using the equations:

V2
P = VI, P = I 2R and P =
R
where V and I are the r.m.s. values of the voltage and current respectively.
A single diode is used for the half-wave rectification of an alternating current. Four diodes (bridge
rectifier) are used for the full-wave rectification of an alternating current.
A
A capacitor placed in parallel with a resistive load will smooth the rectified alternating voltage. The
greater the time constant CR of the capacitor-resistor network, the smaller is the size of the ripple.
SELF-EVALUATION
R
Needs Almost Ready to
I can
more work there move on
understand the terms period, frequency and peak value
as applied to an alternating current or voltage
D
use the equations I = I0 sin ωt and V = V0 sin ωt for

sinusoidally alternating current and voltage respectively
understand that the mean power in a resistive load is half
the maximum power for a sinusoidal alternating current
understand root-mean-square (r.m.s.) and peak values
recall and use:
I0 V0
I r.m.s. = and Vr.m.s. =
2 2
741
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 741 30-Aug-19 21:07:36

CONTINUED
Needs Almost Ready to

I can
more work there move on
understand half-wave and full-wave rectification
explain how a single diode produces half-wave
rectification
explain how four diodes (bridge rectifier) produce full-
wave rectification
understand smoothing capacitors, and understand how
smoothing effects are governed by capacitance of the
FT
smoothing capacitor and the resistance of the load
resistor.
A
R
D
742
ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 742 30-Aug-19 21:07:36

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ISBN_Marketing_Sample.indd 1 23-Jul-19 6:52:07 AM

ISBNpre_i-xii.indd 3 29-Jul-19 3:39:37 PM

8 Electric current 000 13.3 Interference000

P1.4 Precision, accuracy, errors and

ISBNpre_i-xii.indd 4 29-Jul-19 3:39:37 PM

16 Circular motion 000 20.5 Changing temperature 000

19.1 Changes of state 000 24.2 Magnetic force 000

ISBNpre_i-xii.indd 5 29-Jul-19 3:39:37 PM

25.3 Electric and magnetic fields 000 30 Medical imaging 000

29 Nuclear physics 000

ISBNpre_i-xii.indd 6 29-Jul-19 3:39:37 PM

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 725 30-Aug-19 21:07:27

BEFORE YOU START

DESCRIBING ALTERNATING CURRENT

18), and it can be interpreted in the same way. In a wire

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 726 30-Aug-19 21:07:27

b Determine the time the current next has the

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 727 30-Aug-19 21:07:30

produces a p.d. across the other set of parallel

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 728 30-Aug-19 21:07:30

Questions 27.3 Power and

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 729 30-Aug-19 21:07:31

This is where the factor of 70% comes from. Note

that the two supplies are providing energy at the

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 730 30-Aug-19 21:07:31

Figure 27.9: The oscilloscope trace from the experiment

Questions calculate the average power dissipated in a resistor, we

Calculating power introduce a factor of 2 ≡ 2 . The same is true if you

calculate power using V0 instead of Vr.m.s.. It follows that,

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 731 30-Aug-19 21:07:33

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 732 30-Aug-19 21:07:34

27.4 Rectification The bridge rectifier

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 733 30-Aug-19 21:07:34

a I necessary in the circuit. This capacitor, of capacitance

Ideally, though this is definitely not a general rule, CR

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 734 30-Aug-19 21:07:34

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 735 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 736 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

B The frequency of alternating current is 40 Hz.

your graph in part c. [1]

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 737 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

8 A sinusoidal voltage of 6.0 V r.m.s. and frequency 50 Hz is connected

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 738 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

Explain how the rectification is achieved. Draw a circuit diagram to

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 739 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

a Explain the variation of the output variation between points:

capacitance C. [3]

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 740 30-Aug-19 21:07:35

The power P dissipated in a resistor can be calculated using the equations:

use the equations I = I0 sin ωt and V = V0 sin ωt for

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 741 30-Aug-19 21:07:36

Needs Almost Ready to

ISBNc27_p725-742.indd 742 30-Aug-19 21:07:36

You might also like

8 Electric current 000 13.3 Interference000

16 Circular motion 000 20.5 Changing temperature 000

19.1 Changes of state 000 24.2 Magnetic force 000

25.3 Electric and magnetic fields 000 30 Medical imaging 000

29 Nuclear physics 000

your graph in part c. [1]

capacitance C. [3]