Literature

Literature broadly is any collection of written work, but it is also

used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an
art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry.[2] In recent
centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature,
much of which has been transcribed.[3] Literature is a method of
recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and
entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual,
or political role.

Literature, as an art form, can also include works in various non-

fiction genres, such as biography, diaries, memoir, letters, and the
essay. Within its broad definition, literature includes non-fictional
books, articles or other printed information on a particular
subject.[4][5]

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura

"learning, a writing, grammar," originally "writing formed with
letters," from litera/littera "letter".[6] In spite of this, the term has The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883)
also been applied to spoken or sung texts.[7][8] Developments in is a canonical piece of children's
literature and one of the best-selling
print technology have allowed an ever-growing distribution and
books ever published.[1]
proliferation of written works, which now includes electronic
literature.

Literature is classified according to whether it is poetry, prose or drama, and such works are categorized
according to historical periods, or their adherence to certain aesthetic features, or genre.

Contents
Definitions
History
Oral literature
Oratory
Writing
Early written literature
Publishing
University discipline
In England
America
Women and literature
Children's literature
Aesthetics
Literary theory
 Literary fiction
The value of imaginative literature
The influence of religious texts
Types of literature
Poetry
Prose
Novel
Novella
Short story
Graphic novel
Electronic literature
Nonfiction
Drama
Law
Law and literature
Copyright
United Kingdom
United States
European Union
Copyright in communist countries
Copyright in Japan
Censorship
Awards
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Definitions
Definitions of literature have varied over time.[9] In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature
denoted all books and writing literature can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions, so that
cultural studies, for instance, include, in addition to canonical works, popular and minority genres. The
word is also used in reference non-written works: to "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate
culture".

A value judgment definition of literature considers it as consisting solely of high quality writing that forms
part of the belles-lettres ("fine writing") tradition.[10] An example of this in the (1910–11) Encyclopædia
Britannica that classified literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing".[11]

History
Oral literature

The use of the term "literature" here is a little problematic because

of its origins in the Latin littera, “letter,” essentially writing.
Alternatives such as "oral forms" and "oral genres" have been
suggested but the word literature is widely used.[12]

Oral literature is an ancient human tradition found in "all corners of

the world".[13] Modern archaeology has been unveiling evidence
of the human efforts to preserve and transmit arts and knowledge
that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, across
various cultures:

The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional

roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by
performing scribes; geometric vases from archaic A traditional Kyrgyz manaschi
Greece mirror Homer's oral style. (...) Indeed, if these performing part of the Epic of Manas
final decades of the millennium have taught us at a yurt camp in Karakol,
anything, it must be that oral tradition never was the Kyrgyzstan
other we accused it of being; it never was the
primitive, preliminary technology of communication
we thought it to be. Rather, if the whole truth is told,
oral tradition stands out as the single most dominant
communicative technology of our species as both a
historical fact and, in many areas still, a contemporary
reality.[13]

The earliest poetry is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a way of remembering history,
genealogy, and law.[14]

In Asia, the transmission of folklore, mythologies as well as scriptures in ancient India, in different Indian
religions, was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic
techniques.[15]

The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first by comparing
inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia
and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed
and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down. According to Goody, the Vedic texts
likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate society".

Australian Aboriginal culture has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed down through
thousands of years. In a study published in February 2020, new evidence showed that both Budj Bim and
Tower Hill volcanoes erupted between 34,000 and 40,000 years ago.[16] Significantly, this is a "minimum
age constraint for human presence in Victoria", and also could be interpreted as evidence for the oral
histories of the Gunditjmara people, an Aboriginal Australian people of south-western Victoria, which tell
of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in existence.[17] An axe found underneath
volcanic ash in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower
Hill.[16]
All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely
so.[18] Homer's epic poetry, states Michael Gagarin, was largely composed, performed and transmitted
orally.[19] As folklores and legends were performed in front of distant audiences, the singers would
substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavor and thus
connect with the audience, but making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition as unreliable.[20] The
lack of surviving texts about the Greek and Roman religious traditions have led scholars to presume that
these were ritualistic and transmitted as oral traditions, but some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in
the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an exclusive product of an oral tradition.[21]

Writing systems are not known to have existed among Native North Americans before contact with
Europeans. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the use of writing to record and
preserve history, scientific knowledge, and social practices.[22] While some stories were told for amusement
and leisure, most functioned as practical lessons from tribal experience applied to immediate moral, social,
psychological, and environmental issues.[23] Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated
characters and circumstances with real emotions and morals as a means of teaching. Plots often reflect real
life situations and may be aimed at particular people known by the story's audience. In this way, social
pressure could be exerted without directly causing embarrassment or social exclusion.[24] For example,
rather than yelling, Inuit parents might deter their children from wandering too close to the water's edge by
telling a story about a sea monster with a pouch for children within its reach.[25]

See also African literature#Oral literature

Oratory

Oratory or the art of public speaking "was for long considered a literary art".[4] From Ancient Greece to the
late 19th century, rhetoric played a central role in Western education in training orators, lawyers,
counsellors, historians, statesmen, and poets.[26][note 1]

Writing

Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and

administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and
writing became a more dependable method of recording and
presenting transactions in a permanent form.[28] Though in both
ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have already
emerged because of the need to record historical and
environmental events. Subsequent innovations included more Limestone Kish tablet from Sumer with
pictographic writing; may be the earliest
uniform, predictable, legal systems, sacred texts, and the origins
known writing, 3500 BC. Ashmolean
of modern practices of scientific inquiry and knowledge-
Museum
consolidation, all largely reliant on portable and easily
reproducible forms of writing.

Early written literature

Ancient Egyptian literature,[29] along with Sumerian literature, are considered the world's oldest
literatures.[30] The primary genres of the literature of ancient Egypt—didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and
tales—were written almost entirely in verse;[31] By the Old Kingdom (26th century BC to 22nd century
BC), literary works included funerary texts, epistles and letters, hymns and poems, and commemorative
autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early
Middle Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created.[32]
Many works of early periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the
Sanskrit Panchatantra.200 BC – 300 AD, based on older oral tradition.[33][34] Drama and satire also
developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production.
Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles,
particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable
being the Shijing or Book of Songs (1046–c.600 BC), .[35][36][37]

In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on

philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and
poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock
printing, produced the world's first print cultures.[38] Much of
Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought
period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769‒269
BC).[39] The most important of these include the Classics of
Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as
works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War, c.5th Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches
century BC)) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the for the name "Ramesses II", from
Grand Historian, c.94 BC). Ancient Chinese literature had a the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom
heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court
records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China
was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BC
historian Zuo Qiuming.[40]

In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres
included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to
1500–1000 BC, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India.[41][42] The Vedas are among the
oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BC, and the "circum-
Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period,
spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[43] The period
between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most
influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata[44][45] and the Ramayana,[46] with subsequent redaction
progressing down to the 4th century AD. Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas[47] &
Krishnacharitmanas.

The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean (c.1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B syllabary on
clay tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories,
receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered.[48][49] Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the
original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature almost certainly existed in Mycenaean Greece,[49] but
it was either not written down or, if it was, it was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive
the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC.[49] Homer's, epic poems the Iliad and
the Odyssey, are central works of ancient Greek literature. It is generally accepted that the poems were
composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC.[50] Modern scholars consider
these accounts legendary.[51][52][53] Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted
orally.[54] From antiquity until the present day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has
been great, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film.[55] The Homeric
epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the
one who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[56][57] Hesiod's Works and Days (c.700 BC) and
Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres
included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347
BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC) authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western
philosophy, Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus (c. 484 –
c. 425 BC) ) and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in ancient Greece,
of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays
by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes (c. 446 – c.
386 BC) provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest
form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[58]

The Hebrew religious text, the Torah, is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (539–333 BC,
probably 450–350 BC).[59] This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader
of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.[60] This represents a
major source of Christianity's Bible, which has been a major influence on Western literature.[61]

The beginning of Roman literature dates to 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a
Greek play.[62] Literature in latin would flourish for the next six centuries, and includes essays, histories,
poems, plays, and other writings.

The Qur'an (610 AD to 632 AD)[63] ), the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the
Arab language, and marked the beginning of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the
Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.[24][64] As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of
unifying and standardizing Arabic.[24]

Theological works in Latin were the dominant form of literature in Europe typically found in libraries
during the Middle Ages. Western Vernacular literature includes the Poetic Edda and the sagas, or heroic
epics, of Iceland, the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, and the German Song of Hildebrandt. A later form of
medieval fiction was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular
appeal.[65]

Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the European Renaissance
as a result of the Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press[66] around 1440, while the Medieval
romance developed into the novel,[67]

Publishing

Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, but

became more practical with the invention of printing. Prior to
printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes.

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of

earthenware c. 1045. Then c.1450, separately Johannes Gutenberg
invented movable type in Europe. This invention gradually made
books less expensive to produce and more widely available.
The intricate frontispiece of the
Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created Diamond Sutra from Tang dynasty
before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A China, the world's earliest dated
man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could printed book, AD 868 (British Library)
look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight
million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes
of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."[68]

Eventually, printing enabled other forms of publishing besides books. The history of modern newspaper
publishing started in Germany in 1609, with publishing of magazines following in 1663.

University discipline
In England

In England in the late 1820s, growing political and social awareness, "particularly among the utilitarians
and Benthamites, promoted the possibility of including courses in English literary study in the newly
formed London University". This further developed into the idea of the study of literature being "the ideal
carrier for the propagation of the humanist cultural myth of a welleducated, culturally harmonious
nation".[69]

America

American Literature (academic discipline)

Women and literature

The widespread education of women was not common until the nineteenth century, and because of this
literature until recently was mostly male dominated.[70]

There are few women poets writing in

English, whose names are George Sand was an idea. She has a unique place in our age.
remembered, until the twentieth Others are great men ... she was a great woman.
century. In the nineteenth century some
names that stand out are Emily Brontë,
Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Emily Victor Hugo, Les funérailles de George Sand[71]
Dickinson (see American poetry). But
while generally women are absent from
the European cannon of Romantic literature, there is one notable exception, the French novelist and
memoirist Amantine Dupin (1804 – 1876) best known by her pen name George Sand.[72][73] One of the
more popular writers in Europe in her lifetime,[74] being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and
Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s,[75] Sand is recognised as one of the most notable
writers of the European Romantic era. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is the first major English woman
novelist, while Aphra Behn is an early female dramatist.

Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded between 1901 and 2020 to 117 individuals: 101 men and 16
women. Selma Lagerlöf (1858 – 1940) was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, which she
was awarded in 1909. Additionally, she was the first woman to be granted a membership in The Swedish
Academy in 1914.[76]

Feminist scholars have since the twentieth century sought expand the literary canon to include more women
writers.

Children's literature

A separate genre of children's literature only began to emerge in the eighteenth century, with the
development of the concept of childhood.[77]: x–xi The earliest of these books were educational books,
books on conduct, and simple ABCs—often decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic
letters.[78]

Aesthetics
Literary theory

A fundamental question of literary theory is "what is literature?" – although many contemporary theorists
and literary scholars believe either that "literature" cannot be defined or that it can refer to any use of
language.[79]

Literary fiction

Literary fiction is a term used to describe fiction that explores any

facet of the human condition, and may involve social commentary.
It is often regarded as having more artistic merit than genre fiction,
especially the most commercially oriented types, but this has been
contested in recent years, with the serious study of genre fiction
within universities.[80]

The following, by the award-winning British author William Boyd

on the short story, might be applied to all prose fiction:

[short stories] seem to answer something very deep in

Dante, Homer and Virgil in Raphael's
Parnassus fresco (1511), key figures
in the Western canon
our nature as if, for the duration of its telling,
something special has been created, some essence of
our experience extrapolated, some temporary sense
has been made of our common, turbulent journey
towards the grave and oblivion.[81]

The very best in literature is annually recognized by the Nobel

Prize in Literature, which is awarded to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of
Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an
ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i
en idealisk riktning).[82][83]

The value of imaginative literature

Some researchers suggest that literary fiction can play a role in an individual's psychological
development.[84] Psychologists have also been using literature as a therapeutic tool.[85][86] Psychologist
Hogan argues for the value of the time and emotion that a person devotes to understanding a character's
situation in literature;[87] that it can unite a large community by provoking universal emotions, as well as
allowing readers access to different cultures, and new emotional experiences.[88] One study, for example,
suggested that the presence of familiar cultural values in literary texts played an important impact on the
performance of minority students.[89]

Psychologist Maslow's ideas help literary critics understand how characters in literature reflect their
personal culture and the history.[90] The theory suggests that literature helps an individual's struggle for self-
fulfilment.[91][92]

The influence of religious texts

Religion has had a major influence on literature, through works like the Vedas, Torah, Bible, and
Qur'an.[93][94][95]

The King James Version of the Bible has been called "the most influential version of the most influential
book in the world, in what is now its most influential language", "the most important book in English
religion and culture", and "the most celebrated book in the English-speaking world". Prominent atheist
figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as
being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature" and "a great work of literature", respectively, with
Dawkins then adding, "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is
verging on the barbarian".[96][97]

Types of literature

Poetry

Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its

greater use of the aesthetic qualities of language, including musical
devices such as assonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm, and by
being set in lines and verses rather than paragraphs, and more
recently its use of other typographical elements.[98][99][100] This
distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as sound
poetry, concrete poetry and prose poem,[101] and more generally
by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.[102] Abram Lipsky refers
to it as an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished from
poetry by lack of rhythm".[103]

Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire.
These are a type of poem in which
the written words are arranged in
such a way to produce a visual
image.
something set in metrical lines: "any kind of subject consisting of
Rhythm or Verses".[98] Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence
(his Poetics), "poetry" before the 19th century was usually less a
technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive
or rhetorical art.[104] As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the
earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral
tradition;[105][106] hence it constitutes the earliest example of
literature.

Prose

As noted above, prose generally makes far less use of the aesthetic qualities of language than
poetry.[99][100][107] However, developments in modern literature, including free verse and prose poetry
have tended to blur the differences, and American poet T.S. Eliot suggested that while: "the distinction
between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure".[108] There are verse
novels, a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of poetry
rather than prose. Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is the most famous example.[109]

On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the case of ancient Greece] recent
scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an
"invention" properly associated with the classical period".[110]
Latin was a major influence on the development of prose in many European countries. Especially important
was the great Roman orator Cicero.[111] It was the lingua franca among literate Europeans until quite
recent times, and the great works of Descartes (1596 – 1650), Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), and Baruch
Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin
prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and
Isaac Newton (d. 1727).

Novel

A novel is a long fictional prose narrative. In English, the term

emerged from the Romance languages in the late 15th century,
with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new,
without a distinction between fact or fiction.[112] The romance is a
closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a
fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns
upon marvellous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel
"the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human
events and the modern state of society".[113] Other European
languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel
is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo",[114] indicates the proximity
of the forms.[115]

Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels

before the novel",[116] the modern novel form emerges late in
cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.[117] Sculpture in Berlin depicting a stack
Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a of books on which are inscribed the
dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and names of great German writers.
critically.[115][118][119]

Novella

The publisher Melville House classifies the novella as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short
story".[120] Publishers and literary award societies typically consider a novella to be between 17,000 and
40,000 words.[121]

Short story

A dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish it
from any short narrative and its contested origin,[122] that include the Bible, and Edgar Allan Poe.[123]

Graphic novel

Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of artwork, dialogue, and text.

Electronic literature

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of digital works

Nonfiction
Common literary examples of nonfiction include, the essay; travel literature and nature writing; biography,
autobiography and memoir; journalism; letters; journals; history, philosophy, economics; scientific, and
technical writings.[5][124]

Nonfiction can fall within the broad category of literature as "any collection of written work", but some
works fall within the narrower definition "by virtue of the excellence of their writing, their originality and
their general aesthetic and artistic merits".[125]

Drama

Drama is literature intended for performance.[126] The form is

combined with music and dance in opera and musical theatre (see
libretto). A play is a written dramatic work by a playwright that is
intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiefly dialogue
between characters. A closet drama, by contrast, is written to be
read rather than to be performed; the meaning of which can be
realized fully on the page.[127] Nearly all drama took verse form
until comparatively recently.

The earliest form of which there exists substantial knowledge is

Greek drama. This developed as a performance associated with
religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon
well-known historical, or mythological themes,

In the twentieth century scripts written for non-stage media have

been added to this form, including radio, television and film.

Cover of a 1921 libretto for Law

Giordano's opera Andrea Chénier

Law and literature

The law and literature movement focuses on the interdisciplinary connection between law and literature.

Copyright

Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner

the exclusive right to make copies of a creative work, usually
for a limited time.[128][129][130][131][132] The creative work
may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form.
Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an
idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea
itself.[133][134][135]

United Kingdom The Library of the Palais Bourbon in Paris

Literary works have been protected by copyright law from

unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710.[136] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean
"any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly
includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design
material for a computer program, and (d) a database."[137]

Literary works are all works of literature; that is all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic
or musical works).[138]

United States

The copyright law of the United States has a long and complicated history, dating back to colonial times. It
was established as federal law with the Copyright Act of 1790. This act was updated many times, including
a major revision in 1976.

European Union

The copyright law of the European Union is the copyright law applicable within the European Union.
Copyright law is largely harmonized in the Union, although country to country differences exist. The body
of law was implemented in the EU through a number of directives, which the member states need to enact
into their national law. The main copyright directives are the Copyright Term Directive, the Information
Society Directive and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market. Copyright in the Union is
furthermore dependent on international conventions to which the European Union is a member (such as the
TRIPS Agreement and conventions to which all Member States are parties (such as the Berne
Convention)).

Copyright in communist countries

Copyright in Japan

Japan was a party to the original Berne convention in 1899, so its copyright law is in sync with most
international regulations. The convention protected copyrighted works for 50 years after the author's death
(or 50 years after publication for unknown authors and corporations). However, in 2004 Japan extended the
copyright term to 70 years for cinematographic works. At the end of 2018, as a result of the Trans-Pacific
Partnership negotiations, the 70 year term was applied to all works.[139] This new term is not applied
retroactively; works that had entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018 by expiration would
remain in the public domain.

Censorship

Is a means employed by states, religious organizations, educational institutions, etc, to control what can be
portrayed, spoken, performed, or written.[140] Generally such bodies attempt to ban works for political
reasons, or because they deal with other controversial matters such as race, or sex.[141]

A notorious example of censorship is James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which has been described by Russian-
American novelist Vladimir Nabokov as a "divine work of art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th century
prose.[142] It was banned in the United States from 1921 until 1933 on the grounds of obscenity.
Nowadays it is a central literary text in English literature courses, throughout the world.[143]

Awards
There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and
contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards
are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language,
nationality and output (e.g. for first-time writers or debut
novels).[144]

The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes
established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895,[145] and is
awarded to an author on the basis of their body of work, rather
than to, or for, a particular work itself.[note 2] Other literary prizes
for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt
International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International
Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Award, Guardian First Book Award
and the Franz Kafka Prize.

See also Soviet poet Anna Akhmatova (1922),

whose works were condemned and
Library censored by the Stalinist authorities
Literary agent
Literary element
Literary magazine
Reading
Rhetorical modes
Science fiction § As serious literature
Vernacular literature

Notes
1. The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rise to
philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece.[27]
2. However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was
given.

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where life's complexities are depicted with "unprecedented, and unequalled, linguistic and
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144. John Stock; Kealey Rigden (15 October 2013). "Man Booker 2013: Top 25 literary prizes" (ht
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Bibliography
A.R. Biswas (2005). Critique of Poetics (vol. 2) (https://books.google.com/books?id=9dpqORJYi
zkC&q=%22the%20best%20expression%20of%20the%20best%20thought%20reduced%20
to%20writing%22&pg=PP1). Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0377-1.
Jeremy Black; Graham Cunningham; Eleanor Robson, eds. (2006). The literature of ancient
Sumer. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-929633-0.
Cain, William E.; Finke, Laurie A.; Johnson, Barbara E.; McGowan, John; Williams, Jeffrey J.
(2001). Vincent B. Leitch (ed.). The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (https://archiv
e.org/details/nortonanthologyo00vinc). Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-97429-4.
Eagleton, Terry (2008). Literary theory: an introduction: anniversary edition (Anniversary,
2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-7921-8.
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism (https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi000
0floo). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
Hogan, P. Colm (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of
Texas Press, p. xx, ISBN 978-0-292-72527-0
Giraldi, William (2008). "The Novella's Long Life" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014022222215
1/http://williamgiraldi.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/novella1.pdf) (PDF). The Southern
Review: 793–801. Archived from the original (http://williamgiraldi.com/wp-content/uploads/2
011/08/novella1.pdf) (PDF) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
Goody, Jack (2006). "From Oral to Written: An Anthropological Breakthrough in Storytelling". In
Franco Moretti (ed.). The Novel, Volume 1: History, Geography, and Culture. Princeton:
Princeton UP. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-691-04947-2.
Paris, B.J. (1986). Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. Cranbury: Associated
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Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (https://ar
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Ross, Trevor (1996). "The Emergence of "Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in
the Eighteenth Century." " (https://www.ualberta.ca/~dmiall/MakingReaders/Readings/Ros
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Further reading
Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The Narrative Modes: Techniques of the Short Story. Cambridge:
Brewer. An overview of several hundred short stories.
Gillespie, Gerald (January 1967). "Novella, nouvelle, novella, short novel? — A review of
terms". Neophilologus. 51 (1): 117–127. doi:10.1007/BF01511303 (https://doi.org/10.1007%
2FBF01511303). S2CID 162102536 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162102536).
Wheeler, L. Kip. "Periods of Literary History" (http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/documents/periods_lit
_history.pdf) (PDF). Carson-Newman University. Retrieved 18 March 2014. Brief summary of
major periods in literary history of the Western tradition.

External links
Project Gutenberg Online Library (http://www.gutenberg.org/)
Internet Book List (https://web.archive.org/web/20070207044954/http://www.iblist.com/)
similar to IMDb but for books
Internet Archive Digital eBook Collection (https://archive.org/details/texts)

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