1.Assimilation 3.

Deletion
• Palatalization • Syncope
[j], [ʒ], [ʃ], [dʒ], [tʃ] Example: [i] in the word family [fæməli] ->
Example: dɪd you -> dɪd ju fam(i)ly [fæmili]

• Final devoicing • Apocope

Example: have [həv] -> [həf] Old English Modern English Word
na:ma neɪm name
• Nasalization sticca stɪk stick
Example: pan [Pæn]
• Aphaeresis
2. Dissimilation Example:
Example: February [februəri] -> Febyuary ➔ round (from around)
➔ specially (from especially)
➔ spy (from espy)

4. Sound Addition 5. Metathesis

• Prothesis Example: ask [æsk] -> [æks]
Example: French language; scola -> escola =
school 6. Diphthongization
Example: oy/oi as in boy [bɔɪ]
• Anaptyxis or anaptyctic
Example: athlete [æθliːt] -> [æθəliːt] 7. Monophthongization
Example: [ai] to [a:] before r in some dialects as
• Excrescence in fire [ˈfaɪə] -> [(fa:(r)]
➔ a type of a sound addition which refers to a
consonant being inserted between other 8. Lenition
consonants → [f] -> [v]; affrication or spirantization (turning
into an affricate or a fricative)
• Paragoge → [t] -> [ts] -> [s]; debuccalization (loss of place)
➔ added a sound (usually a vowel) to the end → [s] -> [h]; degemination
of a word → [kː] -> [k]; deglottalization, such as [kʼ] -> [k]

9. Strengthening
Example: fricative may become a stop (i.e. [v]
becomes [b]