Unit 3 - Leadership and Management Perspectives

16/04/2020 Unit 3 - Leadership and Management Perspectives
Unit 3 - Leadership and Management Perspectives
Site: My Learning
Course: 2019-20 LWO4811 (LMA) Executive Leadership
Book: Unit 3 - Leadership and Management Perspectives
https://mdx.mrooms.net/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=1010668 1/15
Table of contents
SCOPE - Introduction
CONTENT - Growing Interest in Leadership & Management
Perspectives on Management
Management Styles: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
Management Styles: Reddin's Tasks or Relationships
Perspectives on Leadership
Action-Centred Leadership Model
Situational Leadership Theory
Transformational Leadership
Kouzes & Posner’s Leadership Challenge
ACTIVITY 3.1 - Leadership in the Action
THINKING
EXTRA
SCOPE - Introduction
Context
This unit explores contemporary perspectives on leadership and management and how these relate to you and your role in the maritime industry.
Required study time
By the end of the week, you will be expected to have:
Read the required chapters in the set texts

Read the additional online material
Completed any activities
As a general rule, allow about 14 hours for this plus up to 3 hours for activities and discussion and a further hour for the optional extras.
Essential reading
Mullins, L. J. (2016) Management and Organisational Behaviour, 11th edition. Harlow: Pearson. Chapters 9 and 10 (Available via the Personal
eTextbooks link at the side of the page, or below on smaller screens and devices.)
Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit you should be able to:
Critically evaluate a range of management and leadership perspectives

Apply leadership and management perspectives to your role in the maritime industry
Module tutors
Your module tutors will provide you with guidance and feedback. Please do make use of them and email them with any queries you have: Professor
Ian Favell and Jacqui Kasket, your module tutors, are there to help and it is important to remember that no question is too small!
You are also invited to email module leader Anna Kyprianou with any queries whilst you are working through the module.
Reading List
To access the eBooks and journals in addition to the set text,
please use the Reading List (available as a pop up here or via the link at the side of your screen, or below the module page on smaller screens and
devices). The Reading List contains links to the library record and you'll either be taken to the e-book, or the directory for a journal. For journals, each
directory may look slightly different depending on which database it's in, but you will be able to either search for the article, or use the year and date
links (generally on the right), to pick it out of a list.
If you have any problems accessing e-resources please contact the team at businesslibrarian@mdx.ac.uk
Equipment required
No additional equipment is required beyond the computer and internet connection you already have.
CONTENT - Growing Interest in Leadership & Management
Writings in the field of leadership and management by both practitioners and academics have been prolific over the past hundred years. Many of these
attempts to understand these terms are still relevant today as they provide useful insights into these fascinating organisational roles.
The interest in what constitutes effective leadership and management persists and is driven by a number of factors. Higgs (2004) suggests four
factors:
Changes in societal values – the economic growth and opportunities of the 1990s highlighted how labour was becoming less loyal and more
mobile. Employers were required to engage employees in different ways to secure commitment. In the late 2000s, the global economic changes
prompted by the “credit crunch”, restructuring and downsizing have further weakened the perception of the organisation as paternal and providing a
job for life.
Changes in investor focus – during the 1990s there was a recognition that the value of an organisation as measured by market capitalisation was
less and less the result of its earning and increasingly a reflection of other “intangibles”. A key intangible was the investors’ faith in the current
leadership and its ability to secure and develop this depth.
The need to implement change – as mentioned above, the pace, scale and uncertainty associated with economic change creates the need for
speedy yet considered responses (not mere knee-jerk reactions) and this means that effective leadership and management is in even greater
demand.
Impact on staff – These changes create stresses that many inexperienced, even experienced leaders, find difficult to manage. Leaders and
managers must learn to recognise and manage these stresses in themselves and in those they lead so that “emotional burn out” does not reduce
the managerial and leadership capacity of the organisation.
Whilst the terms leadership and management are often used interchangeably, the myriad of approaches have been disentangled here
into perspectives on management and perspectives on leadership.
Perspectives on Management
Organisations may have different structures and may function in different ways, but it is argued that they all have to be managed. As Pugh et al (1983)
stated almost thirty years ago “as long as there is management, there will be a problem of how to manage better”.
The prominent contributors to perspectives on management have largely concentrated on the ingredients for better management.
F. W. Taylor (1911) made significant contributions to management thinking and is often referred to as “the Father of scientific management” as the
principles and practices that developed from the work of Taylor and his followers, characterised by their concern for efficiency and systematisation, are
still prevalent today.
Another contributor was Henri Fayol (1948) who developed a broad theory of general management that is recognised today as the classical view of
management.
Fayol identified a number of functional activities:
Technical: Production, manufacture, adaptation

Commercial: Buying, selling, exchange
Financial: Optimum use of capital
Security: Protection (property & people)
Accounting: Stock, balance sheet, costs
He concluded his list with the following “Managerial Activities”:
Planning
Organising
Commanding employees
Co-ordinating activities, and
Controlling performance
Management Styles: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

The way in which managers manage is different dependent on both the situation and the individual style of the manager concerned.
What follows are two different approaches to management. The first identifies individual management styles and the second looks at the relationship
between the individual management style and its relationship to the task involved.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor (1960) put forward two contrasting theories about human nature and work. He argued that a person’s style of management was a
reflection of their attitudes towards people and their assumptions about human nature and behaviour. These became known as Theory X and Theory
Y.
The central principle of Theory X is that direction and control should be through a centralised system of organisation and the exercise of authority (i.e.
an authoritarian approach). One of the key assumptions underlying Theory X is that people are naturally lazy, dislike work and will avoid responsibility.
Threats and coercion (force) are required to drive performance.
The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of individual goals with organisational goals. The key assumption underlying Theory Y is that for
many people work is as natural as play or rest. By identifying what motivates a person and then designing a “reward” (not necessarily financial) based
on this, the natural human drive to achieve can be tapped to improve performance.
These two styles can be seen as ends of a spectrum. Theory X is often said to be traditional, old-fashioned and inappropriate in these (supposedly)
more enlightened times.
However, the needs of the situation may require that the Theory X approach still has its place. Even in the 21st century many jobs are still repetitive,
dull and offer little reward in terms of interest, excitement, achievement or satisfaction. So there may still be an argument for a Theory X management
approach. On the other hand, it is recognised that encouraging people to take responsibility for their work can be motivational.
Management Styles: Reddin's Tasks or Relationships
Reddin’s tasks or relationships? (3-D model of managerial behaviour)
Another way of looking at management style is to look at the relationship between the concern for the task and the concern for the people achieving it.
Reddin (1970) identified a range of management styles based upon the combinations of the two variables:
Task orientation (TO): The extent to which the manager directs both personal and subordinates’ efforts through planning, organisation and control
Relationship orientation (RO): Dependent upon the manager’s personal job relationships, this is characterised by consideration for subordinates’
feelings, mutual trust and encouragement
Figure 3.1: Task and relationship-orientated management styles
(Source: Reddin, W. J. (1970) Managerial Effectiveness, McGraw Hill)
Reddin suggested that these basic styles could be developed further by adding a third dimension determined by whether the managerial behaviour
was more effective (achieving output requirements) or less effective.
You can find a fuller account of this style on pp. 478-80 in Mullins
Now complete Activity 3.1 to apply this to your organisation.
Perspectives on Leadership
Thinking and discussion about what leadership is can be traced back to Plato. Historically, research on leadership effectiveness has been dominated
by the trait versus situational approaches. There were those who searched for a definitive set of traits (characteristics) that would differentiate between
effective and ineffective leaders, while others attempted to understand the characteristics of situations that created effective leaders. Neither the trait
nor situational approach resulted in a major advance in understanding the nature of effective leadership. The result of all this research was the
revelation that effective leadership probably represents some interaction between the characteristics of the leaders themselves and the characteristics
of the situation in which leadership takes place.
The evolution of leadership perspectives over the last hundred years can be summarised as follows:
Predominant
Period school of Key ideas
thought
Leadership could be understood by examining the

1920s Trait theory
distinguishing characteristics of “great leaders”
Leadership effectiveness explained and developed by

1950s Style theory
identifying appropriate styles and groups of behaviours
Contingency Leadership occurs in context and must adapt and

1960s
theory respond to circumstances
Charismatic The need for charismatic behaviour in order to transform

1970s
theory organisations
New leadership Leadership and management are different. New, more

1990s / neo- challenging and unknown events mean leaders need
charismatic other behaviours in addition to charisma
Strategic
leadership and Decision-making and delivering change are seen as the
2000s
change distinguishing behaviours required of leaders
leadership
You can find a full account on the many approaches to leadership in Chapter 10 of Mullins.
Action-Centred Leadership Model
What leaders do
There are many frameworks for understanding what leaders do and how they behave. Four approaches are considered:
Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership

Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Bass’s Transformational Leadership
Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership
John Adair’s approach to leadership is associated more with the functions of the leader rather than the personality or characteristic traits of the leader.
Three functions are identified in his Action-Centred Leadership Model in response to three sets of needs:
Task needs
Team maintenance needs
Individual needs
Shifting the emphasis sensitively between each of these distinct yet interrelated sets of needs and balancing them effectively is regarded as a hallmark
of good leadership.
See: www.businessballs.com/action.htm for more information on John Adair's model.
Situational Leadership Theory
What leaders do (continued)
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
The fundamental underpinning of the Situational Leadership Theory is that there is no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-
relevant and the most successful leaders are those that adapt their leadership style to the task to be completed.
A key variable in the style of leadership to be adopted is the readiness of the follower in terms of ability, confidence and willingness. Four states of
readiness are identified, each with a matching leadership style appropriate to the needs (or situation) of the follower.
Hersey & Blanchard categorised all leadership styles into four behaviour types, which they named S1 to S4:
S1: Telling – is characterised by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what,
how, why, when, and where to do the task
S2: Selling – while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using two-way communication and providing the socio-emotional
support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process
S3: Participating – this is now shared decision-making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task
behaviours while maintaining high relationship behaviour
S4: Delegating – the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The
leader stays involved to monitor progress.
Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves
according to the situation.
Transformational Leadership
Bass’s Transformational Leadership
Bass stated that transformational leaders motivate followers to do more than originally expected and the extent of the transformation is measured in
terms of the leaders’ sustained effects on those followers.
Bass attempted to capture the characteristics of the transformational leader in four “I” terms:
Idealised influence
Inspirational motivation
Intellectual stimulation
Individualised consideration (see Mullins, pp. 391-2)
From their extensive qualitative studies of leaders, Kouzes & Posner (2007) identified five core categories of behaviour associated with sustained
success as outlined in the following:
1. Model the Way

2. Inspire a Shared Vision
3. Challenge the Process
4. Enable Others to Act
5. Encourage the Heart
Within the Five Practices, they identified other behaviours, which they refer to as The Ten Commitments of Leadership.
Model the Way

Clarify shared ideals
Set example; align with ideals
Inspire a Shared Vision
Imagine and envision exciting future
Enlist/engage appeal to shared value
Challenge the Process
Look outward for initiatives
Experiment, take risks, small wins, learning
Enable Others to Act
Foster collaboration, facilitate relationships, build trust
Strengthen others, build competence
Encourage the Heart
Recognise contributions
Celebrate victories and values
For more information, refer to Kouzes, J. M. & Posner, B. Z. (2007) The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco: Jossey Bass (available as an eBook,
please use the Reading List as a pop up here or use the link at the side of your screen, or below the module page on smaller screens and
devices).
Don't forget to take part in the module-wide discussion questions posed on the Thinking page.
ACTIVITY 3.1 - Leadership in the Action
Read the introduction and discussion in Young. M & Dulewicz. V, (2005) "A model of command, leadership and management competency in the British
Royal Navy", Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 228–41.
1. Review the theories in this unit. Produce a table of the similarities and differences between Young & Dulewicz’s arguments and the theories
covered in the unit so far followed by a discussion. Remember this is a comparative exercise, don’t just make a list, there is a need to make real
comparisons and show what is similar and what isn’t.
This article was written in the context of the Royal Navy. From your experience, in what ways and to what extent do the findings in the article apply to
your own part of the maritime industry?
Your answer should be approximately 500 words not including the table. Label your answer Activity 3.1 with the title Leadership in the Maritime
Industry and place this in your portfolio.
Notes
1. Using a table to show the similarities and differences is helpful for the basis of the following discussion.
2. If you look carefully there are two focuses to this question; make sure that you address both or risk losing significant marks.
Return to Content: Perspectives on Leadership
To access the eBooks and journals in addition to the set text, use the hyperlinks where available or Reading List (available as a pop up here or via
the link at the side of your screen, or below the module page on smaller screens and devices). The Reading List contains links to the library record
and you'll either be taken to the eBook, or the directory for a journal. For journals, each directory may look slightly different depending on which
database it's in, but you will be able to either search for the article, or use the year and date links (generally on the right), to pick it out of a list.
THINKING
Unit 3/4 discussion - Leadership and management perspectives
The discussion topic for these two weeks is
In what ways does leadership style affect team working in your organisation?
Go to the Unit 3 / 4 discussion area and post your thoughts.
EXTRA
1. Listen to the Unit 3 Podcast (click on the play button)
(also accessible from the Learning Materials folder).
2. Go to the Learning Units section and watch the Unit 3 Video: Don't be frustrated; be curious - Barsh, Joanna (it will open the video to play in
another window).

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16/04/2020 Unit 3 - Leadership and Management Perspectives

Unit 3 - Leadership and Management Perspectives

CONTENT - Growing Interest in Leadership & Management

Management Styles: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Management Styles: Reddin's Tasks or Relationships

Action-Centred Leadership Model

Situational Leadership Theory

Kouzes & Posner’s Leadership Challenge

ACTIVITY 3.1 - Leadership in the Action

Required study time

By the end of the week, you will be expected to have:

Read the required chapters in the set texts

On completion of this unit you should be able to:

Critically evaluate a range of management and leadership perspectives

To access the eBooks and journals in addition to the set text,

CONTENT - Growing Interest in Leadership & Management

Fayol identified a number of functional activities:

Technical: Production, manufacture, adaptation

He concluded his list with the following “Managerial Activities”:

Management Styles: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Management Styles: Reddin's Tasks or Relationships

Reddin’s tasks or relationships? (3-D model of managerial behaviour)

Figure 3.1: Task and relationship-orientated management styles

(Source: Reddin, W. J. (1970) Managerial Effectiveness, McGraw Hill)

Now complete Activity 3.1 to apply this to your organisation.

Leadership could be understood by examining the

Leadership effectiveness explained and developed by

Contingency Leadership occurs in context and must adapt and

Charismatic The need for charismatic behaviour in order to transform

New leadership Leadership and management are different. New, more

Action-Centred Leadership Model

Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership

Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership

See: www.businessballs.com/action.htm for more information on John Adair's model.

Situational Leadership Theory

What leaders do (continued)

Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership

What leaders do (continued)

Bass’s Transformational Leadership

Individualised consideration (see Mullins, pp. 391-2)

Kouzes & Posner’s Leadership Challenge

What leaders do (continued)

Kouzes & Posner’s Leadership Challenge

1. Model the Way

Model the Way

ACTIVITY 3.1 - Leadership in the Action

Return to Content: Perspectives on Leadership

Unit 3/4 discussion - Leadership and management perspectives

The discussion topic for these two weeks is

Go to the Unit 3 / 4 discussion area and post your thoughts.

(also accessible from the Learning Materials folder).

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