See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/223783917

Characteristic site disturbance due to harvesting and extraction

machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites with peat soils

Article  in  Forest Ecology and Management · July 2003

DOI: 10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00628-X

CITATIONS READS
118 2,503

5 authors, including:

Christopher Kanali Philip Owende

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Technological University Dublin - Blanchardstown Campus
46 PUBLICATIONS   540 CITATIONS    57 PUBLICATIONS   7,847 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Maarten Nieuwenhuis Shane Ward

University College Dublin University College Dublin
160 PUBLICATIONS   2,409 CITATIONS    144 PUBLICATIONS   3,690 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

CLIMADAPT View project

COSTAction FP1207 ORCHESTRA View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Maarten Nieuwenhuis on 24 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98

Characteristic site disturbance due to harvesting and extraction

machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites with peat soils
Ciaran Nugenta,b, Christopher Kanalib,*, Philip M.O. Owendeb,
Martin Nieuwenhuisc, Shane Wardb
a
Forest Service, Department of the Marine and Natural Resources, Island Centre, Castleisland, County Kerry, Ireland
b
Forest Engineering Unit, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, University College Dublin, Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland
c
Crop Science, Horticulture and Forestry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
Received 28 December 2001; received in revised form 15 July 2002; accepted 1 November 2002

Abstract

The effects of wood harvesting and extraction machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites with peat soils were characterised
with the objective of quantifying the threshold levels beyond which significant site impacts (compaction and rutting) would
occur. The treatments involved running the machines in selected extraction racks (i.e., 3 m wide machine routes) while
conducting normal wood thinning and extraction operations comprising one and two passes by the harvester and the forwarder
with full payload, respectively. Soil disturbance thresholds were established by testing the level of significance of the difference
in induced soil damage and compaction before and after machine traffic treatments. For volumetric soil water content lying
between 10.0 and 14.9%, threshold cone penetration resistance levels for two 600/55–30.5 tyres were found to range from 594 to
640 kPa for deep-raised peat soil with initial strength lying between 524 and 581 kPa. In general, the proportion of the total rut
depth data in each rack that exceeded the threshold level of 21.5 cm was about 5%. The threshold value corresponds to sinkage
equivalent to 15% of the overall wheel diameter of the harvester, above which machine mobility would be hampered
considerably. In addition, after harvester traffic the mean rut depth per unit rack length was 10:2
102 cm/m, and it ranged
from 0.7 to 24:7
102 cm/m.
# 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rutting; Soil compaction; Sensitive sites; Ecoefficient mechanisation systems

1. Introduction careful planning of the related field operations,

Ecoefficient mechanisation of forest operations
deals with the minimisation of site impacts by
machines that are used in wood harvesting and extrac-
tion (Gasslander, 1982; Burger et al., 1985; Gigler and
Ward, 1993; Mennis, 1993). However, despite any
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ353-1-716-7418;
fax: þ353-1-475-2119.
E-mail address: christopher.kanali@ucd.ie (C. Kanali).
concern remains over the potential adverse impacts
to the forest ecosystem, especially on sensitive forest
sites such as the wet peat-based soils of Ireland.
These soils are susceptible to deep rutting from
harvesting and extraction machinery traffic. Sensi-
tive sites are where alterations to normal mechanised
harvesting practices are required in order to avoid
adverse effects on the ecological, economic and
social functions of the forest and its surroundings
(Tiernan et al., 2002).

0378-1127/03/$ – see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00628-X
86 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98

soil erosion and windthrow. It also includes physical

Nomenclature
damage to the residual trees and other vegetation, and
may lead to timber value and volume loss in subse-
1HP one harvester pass
quent harvests, and increased susceptibility to fungal
1HP þ 2FP combined one harvester pass and
infections and damage by insects. Other direct and
two forwarder passes
indirect damage to streams and soil stabilisation fea-
B tyre or track width
tures may also occur.
BH before harvester traffic
In Ireland, wood harvesting and extraction systems
CPR cone penetration resistance
that are suited to specific harvesting sites are assigned
d rim diameter
on the basis of the inherent terrain classes (viz. soil
k tyre aspect ratio
bearing capacity, terrain roughness, and slope), silvi-
L centre-to-centre distance between
cultural considerations (thinning or clear cutting),
pair of wheels covered by the band
stand characteristics (tree species and yield class),
track
and access to the sites for extraction of wood (Forest
P level of statistical significance
Service, 2000). In order to minimise the soil distur-
Pc tyre or track contact pressure
bance and damage on sensitive sites, the current
R unloaded wheel radius
approach is to lay a brash-mat (i.e., harvesting residues
S.D. standard deviation
including small diameter tree branches and non-mer-
SWC volumetric soil water content
chantable logs) ahead of harvester and forwarder
tcomputed computed t-value
harvesting machinery traffic (McDonald and Seixas,
tcritical critical t-value
1997; Tiernan et al., 2002). However, machine flota-
W wheel load
tion and mobility are still major constraints. There-
WD wheel drive
fore, tracked machines are preferred, but when
YBH initial CPR
wheeled machines are employed they must be fitted
Yc critical CPR
with wide tyres, dual wheels, band tracks or specially
Yf final CPR
adapted mocassins (Daly, 1998) to complement the
use of the brash-mat in order to avoid excessive rutting
Greek letters
or machine sinkage, and to enhance traction. The
eF percentage change in cone penetra-
overall effectiveness of the technique relies on the
tion resistance for forwarder
availability of adequate residue for the brash-mat and
eH percentage change in cone penetra-
operators must be careful with their machinery, espe-
tion resistance for harvester
cially on sensitive forest sites (McDonald and Seixas,
Cf final value of cone penetration
1997). The importance of environmentally sensitive
resistance
forest management has a direct bearing on the effi-
Ci initial value of cone penetration
ciency of machine operation. For example, in a typical
resistance
cut-to-length wood harvesting system (Vidrine et al.,
1999), the forwarder is considered a higher environ-
Harvesting within sensitive forest sites presents mental risk than the harvester since it moves over a
considerable limitations to the use of ground-based wider area (Taartila, 1994). The speed and size of
forest harvesting machines, as significant damage to payload of the forwarder determine its productivity,
forest ecosystems may occur (Hatchell et al., 1970; whereas these also increase the environmental risk
Vidrine et al., 1999; Tiernan et al., 2002). Such caused by the machine.
damage includes excessive machine sinkage (impedes Effective management of machine mobility, the
machine mobility), which has a direct bearing on the control of site disturbance, and moderation of poten-
cost of operating machinery. This may lead to exces- tial soil damage due to wood harvesting and extraction
sive soil disturbance (compaction, rutting and pud- machinery traffic requires characterisation of the
dling), which may inhibit the growth of residual trees effects of soil–machine interaction. The interaction
in thinning operations and increases the potential for should take into account the influence of machine
 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98 87

variables on a range of forest terrain that may be

encountered. The overall objective of this study was
to characterise the effects of wood harvesting and
extraction machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites
with peat soils, and to establish threshold levels for
machine traffic on such sites. Specific objectives on
these peat soils were:

1. to quantify the levels of induced cone penetration

resistance (CPR) (depicting the level of soil
compaction) and surface rutting due to successive
passes by typical wood harvesting and extraction
machines, and
2. to establish the threshold levels for the machine
traffic with respect to CPR, surface rutting, and
ground contact pressures.

2. Materials and methods

Field studies were conducted at Quinsboro Forest in

County Kildare (Republic of Ireland) in August 2000.
The forest was on raised peatlands (raised bogs),
which form from vegetation that grows due to pre-
sence of rainwater nutrients (Bord na M’ona, 2001a).
The salient characteristics of raised peatlands are:
95% water content (undrained); 5% solid content
(undrained); 97% organic content (anhydrous); 3%
inorganic (ash) content (anhydrous); 7.5 m average
profile depth, and 13 m maximum depth; and 700–
1000 mm annual rainfall (Bord na M’ona, 2001b). The
experimental site was generally level with a slope of
less than 58 (9%), and the surface was slightly uneven
from the ploughing ridges formed in the primary land
preparation. The site was in close proximity to the
national road network and had short extraction dis-
tances (200 m) to the landing area. The tree species
was 30-year-old Norway Spruce (Picea abies L.), Fig. 1. Layout of the experimental design at Quinsboro Forest. LT,
which had been thinned five years previously in some left rack trail; RT, right rack trail; (&) brash-mat and rut depth
areas while other areas were being thinned for the first sampling points; (*) CPR sampling points; soil water content
recorded at 20 m intervals within each rack.
time. Four straight extraction racks (i.e., 3 m wide
machine routes) of 100 m length, which ran perpen-
dicular to the slope, were selected for the experiments the forest floor. The potential pre-harvest brash-mat
(Fig. 1). Two racks were located on the portion of the levels and tree roots were comparable in each rack,
forest that was scheduled for the second thinning based on such factors as size and number of trees, and
operation, and the remainder was on the area receiving canopy closure within the parent stand. There was no
a first thinning. Vegetation was cleared from the racks history of the type of machinery used in the previous
to enhance visibility of the data acquisition points on thinning operation for the racks receiving second
88 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98
Fig. 2. Illustration of a 4WD Timberjack 770 harvester (Timberjack Oy, Tampere, Finland); dimensions are in mm.
thinning operation, although rack trails existed in
them. The same rack trails were used in the second
thinning as in the first and had no existing brash-mat
from the first thinning.
Figs. 2 and 3 depict the 4WD Timberjack 770
harvester, and the 8WD Timberjack 810B forwarder
used in the study. The harvester was fitted with size
600/55–30.5 tyres inflated to 200 kPa on both front
and rear axles, and it had a ground clearance approxi-
mately 0.6 m. Its weight was 106 kN, with a front to
rear axle weight distribution ratio of 3:2. The for-
warder had size 600/50–22.5 tyres inflated to 200 kPa,
and with a ground clearance approximately 0.6 m. The
tandem axles on the tractor and trailer chassis were
fitted with band tracks (see inset in Fig. 3), to lower
ground pressures and enhance traction. The tare
weight of the forwarder was 102 kN, and it had an
average payload of 54 kN. When fully loaded, the
forwarder had a front to rear axle weight distribution
ratio of 2:3. Brash-mat was laid ahead of the harvester
and the forwarder during thinning and extraction
operations to enhance machine floatation. Forwarding
occurred about a week after harvesting.
Data collection involved driving the machines
within each rack in a defined number of passes con-
sisting of one and two passes by the harvester and the
forwarder with full payload, respectively. CPR and
ground surface rutting were recorded before harvester
traffic (BH), after the one harvester pass (1HP), and
after the combined 1HP and the two forwarder passes
(1HP þ 2FP). The CPR data were taken to a depth of
80 cm in steps of 1 cm along the soil profile at four
locations (see inset in Fig. 1) spaced at 20 m intervals
along each rack using a cone penetrometer (Penetro-
logger ART.NR 06.15, Eijelkamp Agrisearch Equip-
ment, Giesbeek, The Netherlands) with a 5 cm2 steel
cone. At each location, three sets of CPR data were
recorded from each of the two wheel tracks (rack
trails). Initial surface elevation and, the harvester
and forwarder induced rutting were measured at
5 m intervals along each rack (see Fig. 1) using the
arrangement illustrated in Fig. 4. Thickness of the
brash-mat on the forest floor was also measured at the
elevation points. The brash-mat levels were taken after
the harvester pass and after the two forwarder passes.
Two steel posts were used to tie a 4 m horizontal rope
across the rack for measurement of perpendicular rut
depth using a meter rule. A 2 m long bamboo pole with
a rounded end and 5 cm graduations was used to
measure thickness of the brash-mat. Two measure-
ments for both rut depth and brash-mat thickness were
taken at each location (i.e., in the two rack trails). A soil
water content meter (HydroSense CS 620, Decagon
Devices) fitted with 10 cm probes was used to obtain
 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98 89

Fig. 3. Illustration of an 8WD Timberjack 810B forwarder (Timberjack Oy, Tampere, Finland); dimensions are in mm.

soil water content data at 20 m intervals along each corresponded to CPR and rut data from the existing
rack. The soil water content data were recorded rack trails prior to machine traffic (in the area first
just before harvesting and forwarding. The control thinning).

Fig. 4. Illustration of the technique used for rut depth measurement. LT, left rack trail; RT, right rack trail; induced rut depth ¼ A2  A1 .
90 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98

Estimates of the contact pressures of the tyre and
band track were calculated using standard Eqs. (1) and
(2), respectively, which assume a standard sinkage of
15% of the outer tyre diameter for off-road vehicles
operating on soft ground (Mellgren, 1980):
W each experimental rack just before harvester and for-
Pc ¼
RB
W taken within each rack trail on each rack per machine
Pc ¼
Bð1:25R þ LÞ
In these equations, Pc is the contact pressure, W the
wheel load (kN), R the unloaded wheel radius (m), B
the tyre or track width (m), and L the centre-to-centre
distance between the pair of wheels covered by the
band track (m). The wheel radius was determined by
Eq. (3) (Dunlop, 2002), where k is the aspect ratio of
the tyre (in decimal) and d the rim diameter (m):
R ¼ 12 ð2kB þ dÞ
Profiles of CPR before and after respective machine
traffic were drawn. Threshold levels for machine
traffic were established by testing the level of sig-
nificance of the difference of induced soil compaction
and rutting between machine traffic treatments and the
control on each rack. A two-tail t-test analysis with a
5% (P < 0:05) level of statistical significance was
applied using Microsoft Excel2000TM. The effects
of soil water content, depth of brash-mat and initial
CPR on the induced soil compaction and rutting were
analysed.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effects of soil water content and brash-mat
depth on induced soil compaction and rutting
Seven soil water content readings were recorded on
(1)
warder traffic. In addition, 20 brash-mat depth data were
(2)
traffic treatment (i.e., 1HP and 1HP þ 2FP). The brash-
mat data were acquired after the machine traffic treat-
ments 1HP and 1HP þ 2FP. A two-tail t-test analysis
was performed on paired results (e.g., for Racks 1 and 2)
to determine whether the soil water content (or brash-
mat depth) were significantly different within the racks.
In the paired comparisons and in succeeding analyses, a
5% level of statistical significance was utilised, and a
significant difference occurred when the computed
(3) t-value (tcomputed) was greater than the critical value
(tcritical). In general, there were no significant differences
that could be attributed to the difference in soil water
content and the depth of brash-mat in all the racks
(Tables 1 and 2). The mean volumetric soil water content
BH ranged from 9.0 to 14.9%, while the mean before
forwarder traffic ranged between 13.6 and 18.1%.
3.2. Comparison of CPR before and after
machinery traffic
Twenty-four CPR readings were recorded on each
experimental rack per machine traffic treatment for

Table 1
t-Test results for differences in soil water content for respective experimental racks with peat soila

Descriptionb Rack 1c Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 2 Racks 2 Racks 3

and 2c and 3c and 4 and 3 and 4 and 4

BH
Mean SWC  S:D: (%) 9.0  2.6 10.0  2.0 14.9  6.8 11.7  1.0
tcomputed 0.753 1.971 2.407 1.676 1.867 1.117
tcritical (two-tail) 2.201 2.306 2.306 2.365 2.262 2.447
Before forwarder traffic
Mean SWC  S:D: (%) 13.6  2.8 18.1  7.0 14.9  2.4 14.7  1.9
tcomputed 1.615 0.928 0.904 1.180 1.257 0.123
tcritical (two-tail) 2.306 2.179 2.201 2.365 2.365 2.201
a
Number of observations per experimental rack, 7; P < 0:05. Racks 1 and 3 correspond to the first thinning, and Racks 2 and 4 to the
second thinning. Number in italics denote the occurrence of significant difference.
b
SWC, volumetric soil water content; S.D., standard deviation.
c
The mean values in these columns correspond to Racks 1–4.
 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98 91

Table 2
t-Test results for differences in brash-mat depth in respective experimental racksa

Description Rack 1b Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 2 Racks 2 Racks 3

and 2b and 3b and 4b and 3 and 4 and 4

After harvester traffic

Mean brash-mat depth (cm) 7.9 13.8 7.6 7.3
S.D.c (cm) 8.6 14.0 7.8 8.0
tcomputed 1.602 0.096 0.238 1.708 1.802 0.150
tcritical (two-tail) 2.040 2.024 2.024 2.042 2.042 2.024
After forwarder traffic
Mean brash-mat depth (cm) 6.0 6.4 6.9 3.0
S.D.c (cm) 5.8 7.8 7.5 4.4
tcomputed 0.174 0.415 1.849 0.208 1.691 1.997
tcritical (two-tail) 2.030 2.028 2.028 2.024 2.042 2.040
a
Number of observations per experimental rack, 20; P < 0:05. Racks 1 and 3 correspond to the first thinning, and Racks 2 and 4 to the
second thinning.
b
The mean and S.D. values in these columns correspond to Racks 1–4.
c
Standard deviation.

every 1 cm increase in depth of the soil profile 0–
80 cm. The means of the 24 CPR data were computed,
and these were utilised in the development of the CPR
profiles (Figs. 5 and 6) and in the statistical analysis.
Generally, CPR increased with machine traffic, and
the increment was significant in the top 40 cm of the
forest floor. This indicates that trafficking due to
harvesting and extraction machines compacted the
top 40 cm of the soil profile. Similar compaction
results are reported in literature (Ellwein and Froeh-
lich, 1989; Raghavan et al., 1989; Kanali et al., 1996).
Such compaction, accompanied by soil disturbance,

Fig. 5. CPR profiles in racks receiving first thinning operation. BH, before harvester traffic; 1HP, one harvester pass; 1HP þ 2FP, combined
one harvester pass and two forwarder passes.
92 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98
Fig. 6. CPR profiles in racks receiving second thinning operation. BH, before harvester traffic; 1HP, one harvester pass; 1HP þ 2FP, combined
one harvester pass and two forwarder passes.
may restrain the growth of residual trees in thinning
operations, and also increase the potential for soil
erosion (Hatchell et al., 1970). However, the compac-
tion can be alleviated by normal land preparation (i.e.,
ripping) after the last harvest. The figures also show
that up to a soil depth of about 30 cm the forwarder
induced a higher CPR beyond that caused by the
harvester. For this reason, subsequent analyses on
the machine-induced CPR related to the data for the
soil profile 0–30 cm.
Table 3 shows a comparison of the change in CPR
obtained after harvester and forwarder traffic on the
experimental racks. Percentage change in CPR for the
harvester (eH) and for the forwarder (eF) were eval-
uated as eH ¼ 100ðC1HP  CBH Þ=CBH , and as eF ¼
100ðC1HPþ2FP  C1HP Þ=C1HP , where CBH, C1HP and
C1HPþ2FP are the CPR values for the machine traffic
treatments BH, 1HP and 1HP þ 2FP, respectively.
Generally, higher percentage increases in induced
CPR occurred after passage of the harvester than after
subsequent forwarder traffic. Initial passes of machine
traffic on a soil are known to cause the highest increase
in soil compaction in relation to subsequent passes
(Koger et al., 1985). Table 3 also shows that subse-
quent forwarder traffic resulted in lower values of CPR
readings in the top 5 cm soil profile than those
obtained after the harvester traffic. This could be
attributed to the loss in shear resistance due to the
repetitive loading and disturbance of the top soil layer.
The table also shows that higher percentage increases
in induced CPR occurred within the 10–30 cm soil
profile after passage of the forwarder than after pre-
ceding harvester traffic in the first thinning racks.
However, the higher increases in induced CPR
occurred after harvester traffic than after subsequent
forwarder passage in the second thinning racks. The
soil profile 10–30 cm in the first thinning racks seem
to require more consolidation as compared to that
in the second thinning racks, hence more machine
passes are required on the racks to effect a high change
in the induced CPR.
3.3. Establishment of threshold levels for machine
traffic on sensitive forest sites with peat soils
A two-tail t-test analysis was performed on paired
CPR results for each rack to determine whether the
compaction due to the 1HP and, 1HP þ 2FP machine
traffic treatments was significantly different from con-
trol (i.e., machine traffic treatment BH). The analysis
 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98 93

Table 3 Table 4
Change in CPR after harvester and forwarder traffica t-Test results for the difference in CPR before and after machine
traffic treatmentsa
Soil depth (cm) Initial CPR (kPa), Change in CPR (%)
mean  S:D: Description Machine traffic treatments
eH eF
BH 1HP 1HP þ 2FP
First thinning racks (initial)
Rack 1
0–5 254  44 17.3 20.4 First thinning racks
6–10 382  67 25.7 4.2 Rack 1
11–15 516  91 8.2 10.2 Mean CPR (kPa) 494 529 563
15–20 587  54 7.5 11.5 S.D. (kPa) 155 137 186
21–25 660  63 4.5 11.7 Threshold CPR (kPa) –b –
26–30 612  69 1.3 10.3 tcomputed 0.935 1.595
tcritical (two-tail) 2.001 2.002
Mean 9.2 4.6
Rack 3
Rack 3 Mean CPR (kPa) 567 587 672
0–5 334  112 0.7 1.8 S.D. (kPa) 128 147 194
6–10 556  89 2.1 23.4 Threshold CPR (kPa) – 650
11–15 651  67 2.4 14.8 tcomputed 0.597 2.539
15–20 648  106 3.9 18.3 tcritical (two-tail) 2.001 2.007
21–25 635  48 7.7 16.1
26–30 622  30 8.7 11.1 Second thinning racks
Rack 2
Mean 3.3 13.6
Mean CPR (kPa) 581 642 645
S.D. (kPa) 104 126 185
Second thinning racks
Threshold CPR (kPa) 640 –
Rack 2
tcomputed 2.083 1.685
0–5 412  77 9.3 30.7
tcritical (two-tail) 2.002 2.012
6–10 606  137 10.5 0.3
11–15 608  129 11.3 5.4 Rack 4
15–20 626  105 10.4 5.7 Mean CPR (kPa) 524 664 690
21–25 624  140 9.4 7.9 S.D. (kPa) 130 145 193
26–30 644  152 12.0 7.6 Threshold CPR (kPa) 594 608
tcomputed 3.987 3.964
Mean 10.5 0.6
tcritical (two-tail) 2.001 2.006
Rack 4 a
CPR, cone penetration resistance; BH, before harvester traffic;
0–5 289  97 46.3 14.9 1HP, one harvester pass; 1HP þ 2FP, combined one harvester pass
6–10 491  94 37.2 8.5 and two forwarder passes. Numbers in italic denote the occurrence
11–15 573  103 24.2 11.8 of significant difference. Harvester and forwarder tyres contact
15–20 606  115 26.1 7.2 pressures are 73.9 and 38.4 kPa, respectively. P < 0:05; 31
21–25 621  67 22.3 2.4 observations per machine traffic treatment used, which corresponds
26–30 609  68 14.5 3.2 to data for the soil profile 0–30 cm.
b
Mean 28.4 3.0 Absence of threshold level as result of non-occurrence of
corresponding significance difference.
a
S.D., standard deviation; eH, relates CPR values for 1HP and
BH machine traffic treatments; eF, relates CPR values for
1HP þ 2FP and 1HP machine traffic treatments; BH, before
harvester traffic; 1HP, one harvester pass; 1HP þ 2FP, combined relationship in Eq. (4). In this equation, Yc, YBH and Yf
one harvester pass and two forwarder passes. are the critical, initial (i.e., control) and final CPR
values, respectively:
tcritical
utilised the data within the 0–30 cm soil profile Yc ¼ YBH þ ðYf  YBH Þ (4)
tcomputed
(see Figs. 5 and 6). The threshold levels for CPR
(Table 4) beyond which the induced compaction was Ground contact pressures of 73.9 and 38.4 kPa for the
considered to be significant were determined from the harvester and forwarder, respectively, were determined
94 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98

from Eqs. (1)–(3). For these ground contact pressures Table 5

t-Test results for the difference in CPR between the harvester and
and for the 1HP machine traffic treatment, threshold
forwarder traffic treatmentsa
CPR levels were found to range from 594 to 640 kPa
for size 600/55–30.5 tyres inflated to 200 kPa operat- Description Machine traffic treatments
ing on peat soil with a forest stand of 30-year-old 1HP 1HP þ 2FP
Norway Spruce (P. abies L.). The initial soil strength
First thinning racks
in the 0–30 cm profile and the volumetric water con-
Rack 1
tent ranged from 524 to 581 kPa, and from 10.0 to Mean CPR (kPa) 529 563
14.9%, respectively. The corresponding threshold S.D. (kPa) 137 186
CPR levels for the 1HP þ 2FP machine traffic treat- tcomputed 0.834
ment ranged between 608 and 650 kPa for initial soil tcritical (two-tail) 2.004
strength and volumetric water content ranging from Rack 3
524 to 567 kPa and from 14.7 to 14.9%, respectively. Mean CPR (kPa) 587 672
Although numerous studies on soil compaction S.D. (kPa) 147 194
tcomputed 1.946
(Raghavan et al., 1978; Bedard et al., 1997; Kanali tcritical (two-tail) 2.003
et al., 1997) report threshold levels for the control of
machine traffic in agricultural soils, literature search Second thinning racks
reported no such levels for the ecoefficient mechanisa- Rack 2
tion of forest operations. To avoid inducing significant Mean CPR (kPa) 642 645
S.D. (kPa) 126 185
soil compaction (which may not be easily ameliorated tcomputed 0.083
by time), it is necessary to limit the contact pressure tcritical (two-tail) 2.006
imposed by wheels or tracks through proper selection of
Rack 4
the size and type of traction mechanism (tyres or Mean CPR (kPa) 664 690
tracks). High contact pressures are known to induce S.D. (kPa) 145 193
significant soil compaction (Raper et al., 1995; Kanali tcomputed 3.964
et al., 1997). The contact pressure may also be limited tcritical (two-tail) 2.006
by regulating the payload (i.e., amount of timber) a
CPR, cone penetration resistance; 1HP, one harvester pass;
carried on the forwarder, or by use of lighter machines 1HP þ 2FP, combined one harvester pass and two forwarder
than the current harvester or forwarder. However, redu- passes. Number in italics denote the occurrence of significant
cing the payload or switching to lighter machinery may difference. Harvester and forwarder tyre contact pressures are 73.9
and 38.4 kPa, respectively. P < 0:05; 31 observations per machine
increase the cost of timber harvesting and forwarding, traffic treatment used, which corresponded to data for the soil
since more harvesting and forwarding time will be profile 0–30 cm.
required. Consequently, there is need to balance
between minimising the adverse site impacts such as
soil compaction and the costs involved. Thus, the CPR
threshold levels established in this study may be useful was easily compacted as opposed to that in Rack 2 as
in the development of decision support systems for the the initial soil strength was lower in the former
ecoefficient mechanisation of forest operations, espe- (524 kPa) than in the later (581 kPa). High exposure
cially on the sensitive forest sites such as the wet peat- to previous machine traffic may be the cause of the
based soils of Ireland. high initial soil strength in Rack 2. Comparison of the
Comparison of the second thinning racks in Table 4 effects of the harvester and forwarder traffic indicates
shows that in general, the most significant soil com- that there was no significant difference between soil
paction was incurred by the harvester traffic. The compaction induced by the two machines (Table 5).
table also shows that the induced soil compaction was Possibly, the compaction impact of multiple forwar-
significantly different from control (i.e., BH) for both der passes was moderated by the use of band tracks,
the 1HP and, 1HP þ 2FP machine traffic treatments which imposed a mean contact pressure of 38.4 kPa
in Rack 4, whereas it was significant for the 1HP as opposed to the harvester contact pressure of
treatment only in Rack 2. Perhaps the soil in Rack 4 73.9 kPa.
 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98 95

3.4. Induced rutting on experimental racks
Twenty rut depth data were taken within each rack
trail on each experimental rack per machine traffic
treatment. The analysed results after traffic by the
harvester and forwarder on the racks are presented in
Table 6, and show that the mean depth of rutting after
1HP ranged between 7.8 and 15.3 cm. Subsequent
forwarder traffic in the same rack trails seemed to
increase the level of surface disturbance on the racks
where the associated mean rut depth ranged between
1.0 and 3.0 cm. The negative sign indicates a rise in
the soil level. The table also shows that high values of
rut depth were recorded in Rack 1 than in Racks 2–4,
perhaps because Rack 1 had lower initial soil strength
(CPR ¼ 494 kPa) than Racks 2–4 (CPR > 524 kPa),
as shown in Table 4.
The depth of induced rutting per unit rack length
after the 1HP machine traffic treatment ranged from
0:7
102 to 24:7
102 cm/m (Table 6). The rutting
after the 1HP þ 2FP machine traffic treatment ranged
between 0:1
102 and 29:1
102 cm/m. Simi-
larly, comparison of rutting for the 1HP and 1HP þ 2FP
machine traffic treatments yielded mean rut depths per
unit rack length in the range of 6:1
102 and
9:8
102 cm/m. The mean depths of rutting per unit
rack length when all racks are considered were
10:2
102 , 11:3
102 and 1:1
102 cm/m for
the 1HP, 1HP þ 2FP and ð1HP þ 2FPÞ  1HP machine
traffic treatments, respectively.
A two-tail t-test analysis was performed to deter-
mine whether there were significant differences in
rutting in the racks after harvester and forwarder
traffic (Table 7). The results show that there were
significant differences between the mean rut depth for
Rack 1 and the means for the other racks after
harvester traffic. Table 4 shows that Rack 1 had lower
initial soil strength (CPR ¼ 494 kPa) than Racks 2–4
(CPR > 524 kPa). Furthermore, significant differ-
ences occurred when the initial CPR for Rack 1 were

Table 6
Rut depth results after harvester and forwarder traffic on peat soil with SWC ranging from 9.0 to 18.1%a

Rut formation factorb Rack 1 Rack 2 Rack 3 Rack 4

1HP
Mean rut depth (cm) 15.3  8.2 8.0  6.7 7.8  7.1 7.8  6.8
Mean forest floor sinkage (cm) 6.5  13.8 6.3  9.0 2.8  7.5 2.4  7.1
Rut depth per unit rack length (
102 cm/m)
Mean 16.1 8.4 8.2 8.2
Range 7.5–24.7 1.4–15.5 0.7–15.7 1.1–15.4

1HP þ 2FP
Mean rut depth (cm) 18.4  9.2 8.2  6.1 9.5  5.9 6.8  6.9
Mean forest floor sinkage (cm) 5.5  11.0 3.6  9.1 0.7  6.4 3.1  9.7
Rut depth per unit rack length (
102 cm/m)
Mean 19.4 8.6 10.0 7.2
Range 9.6–29.1 2.2–15.1 3.8–16.1 0.1–14.4

(1HP þ 2FPÞ  1HP

Mean rut depth (cm) 3.0  6.3 0.2  5.7 1.8  5.5 1.0  4.8
Mean forest floor sinkage (cm) 1.0  10.1 2.7  7.7 2.1  5.6 0.7  8.3
Rut depth per unit rack length (
102 cm/m)
Mean 3.2 0.2 1.9 1.1
Range 3.4–9.8 5.8–6.2 3.9–7.7 6.1–4.0
a
Racks 1 and 3 correspond to the first thinning, and Racks 2 and 4 to the second thinning.
b
SWC, volumetric soil water content; 1HP, one harvester pass: rut depth ¼ soil level after 1HP  initial soil level; 1HP þ 2FP, combined
one harvester pass and two forwarder passes: rut depth ¼ soil level after 1HP þ 2FP  initial soil level; ð1HP þ 2FPÞ  1HP, rut depth ¼ soil
level after harvester and forwarder passes  soil level after harvester pass. Length of each rack is 95 m, hence, rut depth per unit rack
length ¼ rut depth/95. Negative sign indicates a rise in soil level.
96 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98

Table 7
t-Test results for differences in mean rut depth formed in the experimental racksa

Rut formation factor Rack 1b Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 2 Racks 2 Racks 3
and 2b and 3b and 4b and 3 and 4 and 4

1HP
Mean rut depth (cm) 15.3  8.2 8.0  6.7 7.8  7.1 7.8  6.8
tcomputed 4.619 4.090 4.421 0.136 0.151 0.000
tcritical (two-tail) 2.030 2.028 2.024 2.040 2.026 2.032
ð1HP þ 2FPÞ  1HP
Mean rut depth (cm) 3.0  6.3 0.2  5.7 1.8  5.5 1.0  4.8
tcomputed 1.769 0.770 2.589 1.060 0.880 1.937
tcritical (two-tail) 2.026 2.028 2.028 2.028 2.024 2.030
a
Number of observations in each rack per machine treatment, 20; P < 0:05. Racks 1 and 3 correspond to the first thinning, and Racks 2
and 4 to the second thinning. 1HP, one harvester pass; 1HP þ 2FP, combined one harvester pass and two forwarder passes;
ð1HP þ 2FPÞ  1HP, difference between the two machine traffic treatments. Numbers in italic denote the occurrence of significant difference.
b
The mean values in these columns correspond to Racks 1–4.

Table 8
t-Test results for differences in initial CPR in the experimental racksa

Descriptionb Rack 1c Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 1 Racks 2 Racks 2 Racks 3

and 2c and 3c and 4c and 3 and 4 and 4

Mean initial CPR (kPa) 494 581 567 524

S.D. (kPa) 155 104 128 130
tcomputed 2.593 2.008 0.814 0.489 1.914 1.307
tcritical (two-tail) 2.007 2.002 2.002 2.002 2.003 2.000
a
Number of observations per rack, 31; P < 0:05. Racks 1 and 3 correspond to the first thinning, and Racks 2 and 4 to the second thinning.
Numbers in italic denote the occurrence of significant difference.
b
CPR, cone penetration resistance; S.D., standard deviation. Data acquired BH.
c
The mean values in these columns correspond to Racks 1–4.

compared with those of the other racks (Table 8). the overall wheel diameter would hamper machine
Hence, the low initial soil strength in Rack 1 resulted mobility considerably (Mellgren, 1980). Therefore,
in the high rutting. Table 7 also shows that there was significant rutting as to impede harvester and forwarder
no significant difference in the depth of ruts formed for mobility did not occur during thinning of the 30-year-
the subsequent forwarder traffic in all the racks, except old Norway Spruce (P. abies L.), when the soil strength
when Racks 1 and 4 were compared. There seems not in the 0–30 cm profile and volumetric soil water
to be a suitable explanation for this observation as the
soil water content before forwarder traffic and initial Table 9
CPR in Racks 1 and 4 were found not to be signifi- Proportion (%) of the total rut depth data in each rack that exceeds
cantly different (see Tables 1 and 8). 21.5 cma
The proportion of the total rut depth data in each rack Machine traffic treatment Rack 1 Rack 2 Rack 3 Rack 4
that exceeded the threshold level of 21.5 cm, which
1HP 25.0 5.0 0.0 5.0
corresponds to a sinkage level of 15% of the overall 1HP þ 2FP 32.5 0.0 0.0 5.0
wheel diameter of the harvester (Mellgren, 1980) was a
assessed (Table 9). Except for Rack 1, the results show Racks 1 and 3 correspond to the first thinning, and Racks 2
and 4 to the second thinning. 1HP, one harvester pass; 1HP þ 2FP,
that the proportion of the rut depth data in each rack that one harvester pass followed by two forwarder passes. 21.5 cm,
exceeded the 21.5 cm level was about 5%. Normally, threshold level corresponding to 15% of overall wheel diameter
induced rutting beyond the threshold level of 15% of (2R).
 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98
content ranged from 524 to 581 kPa, and from 10.0 to
14.9%, respectively.
4. Conclusions
This study was conducted with the overall objective
of characterising the effects of wood harvesting and
extraction machinery traffic on sensitive forest sites
with peat soils, and to establish threshold levels for
machine traffic on such sites. The results show that:
1. Generally, the influence of harvester and forwar-
der traffic operating on the peat soil while thinning
30-year-old Norway Spruce (P. abies L.), on soil
physical properties is confined to the top 40 cm
layer of soil profile. The damage may be reduced
by controlling the number of machine passes, and
by limiting the contact pressure imposed by
wheels or tracks through proper selection of the
size and type of traction mechanism (tyres or
tracks) used.
2. In forest racks of 30-year-old Norway Spruce (P.
abies L.) with peat soil with initial CPR in the
range 524–581 kPa, CPR threshold levels for size
600/55–30.5 tyres were found to range from 594
to 640 kPa. The volumetric soil water content
ranged between 10.0 and 14.9%, and the mean
tyre contact pressure was 73.9 kPa.
3. The average rut depth per unit rack length after
harvester traffic was 10:2
102 cm/m, and it
ranged from 0:724:7
105 cm/m. The corre-
sponding values after the combined harvester and
forwarder traffics were 11:3
102 , and 0:1

102 to 29:1 cm/m, respectively. Initial soil
strength significantly influenced rut development.
In addition, generally, the proportion of the total
rut depth data in each rack that exceeded the 15%
of the overall wheel diameter was about 5%.
Induced rutting beyond the threshold level would
normally hamper machine mobility considerably.
Thus, significant rutting on the peat soil as to
impede harvester and forwarder mobility did not
occur during thinning of the 30-year-old Norway
Spruce (P. abies L.), when the soil strength in the
0–30 cm profile and volumetric soil water content
ranged from 524 to 581 kPa, and from 10.0 to
14.9%, respectively.
97
4. The threshold levels (CPR and rut depth) estab-
lished in this study may be useful in the
development of decision support systems for the
ecoefficient mechanisation of forest operations.
This would minimise the occurrence of adverse
impacts (compaction and rutting) caused by wood
harvesting and extraction machines to the forest
ecosystem, especially on sensitive forest sites such
as the wet peat-based soils of Ireland.
Acknowledgements
This project was funded by the European Commis-
sion under the 5th Framework Program on Quality of
Life and Management of Living Resources, contract
no. 1999-00991 (1999–2002). We would like to
acknowledge the assistance from Softwoods Ltd.,
Portarlington (Ireland) and The Irish Forestry Board
(Coillte) for use of their facilities.
References
Bedard, Y., Tessier, S., Lague, C., Chen, Y., Chi, L., 1997. Soil
compaction by manure spreaders equipped with standard and
oversized tires and multiple axles. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric.
Engrs. 40 (1), 37–43.
Bord na M’ona, 2001a. The Peatlands of Ireland. Bord na M’ona,
Peat Board of Ireland, 5 pp.
Bord na M’ona, 2001b. Raised Bogs. Bord na M’ona, Peat Board of
Ireland, 4 pp.
Burger, J.A., Perumpral, J.V., Kreh, R.E., Torbert, J.L., Mineai, S.,
1985. Impact of tracked and rubber-tired tractors on forest soil.
Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Engrs. 28 (2), 369–373.
Daly, E., 1998. Mocassins: walk on water. For. Mach. J. 5 (3), 18–19.
Dunlop, 2002. How to find tire diameter. http://www.dunloptir-
e.com.
Ellwein, P.G., Froehlich, D.P., 1989. Relationships between
parameters of combine design and soil compaction. ASAE
Paper No. 90-1091. American Society of Agricultural En-
gineers, St. Joseph, MI.
Forest Service, 2000. Code of practice (Ireland): planning the
thinning operation. Forest Service in the Department of the
Marine and Natural Resources, Dublin, Ireland, pp. 124–128.
Gasslander, J., 1982. State-of-the-art report in forest engineering. J.
Terramech. 19 (1), 71–82.
Gigler, J.K., Ward, S.M., 1993. A simulation model for the
prediction of the ground pressure distribution under tracked
vehicles. J. Terramech. 30 (6), 461–469.
Hatchell, G.E., Ralston, C.W., Foil, R.R., 1970. Soil disturbances in
logging: effects of soil characteristics and growth of Loblolly
Pine in the Atlantic coastal plain. J. For. 68, 772–775.
98 C. Nugent et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 180 (2003) 85–98
Kanali, C.L., Kaumbutho, P.G., Maende, C.M., Kamau, J., 1996.
Establishment of safe axle loads for sugarcane soils under
varying moisture content. J. Terramech. 33 (2), 81–90.
Kanali, C.L., Kaumbutho, P.G., Maende, C.M., Kamau, J., 1997.
The use of soil compaction levels in the selection of field-safe
sugarcane transport vehicles. J. Terramech. 34 (2), 127–140.
Koger, J.L., Burt, E.C., Trouse, A.C., 1985. Multiple pass effects of
skidder tyres on soil compaction. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Engrs.
28 (1), 11–16.
McDonald, T.P., Seixas, F., 1997. Effect of slash on forwarder soil
compaction. J. For. Eng. 8 (2), 15–26.
Mellgren, P.G., 1980. Terrain classification for Canadian forestry.
Canadian Pulp and Paper Association, Montreal, Que., 15 pp.
Mennis, M.F., 1993. Computer simulation of ground pressure
distribution under tracked forestry vehicles. M.E. Thesis.
National University of Ireland, Dublin.
Raghavan, G.S.V., Mckyes, E., Taylor, F., 1978. Corn production
loss in successive years by wheel traffic compaction. ASAE
Paper No. 78-1533. American Society of Agricultural En-
gineers, St. Joseph, MI.
View publication stats
Raghavan, G.V., Alvo, P., Mckyes, E., 1989. Soil compaction in
agriculture: a view towards managing the problem. Macdonald
College of McGill University, Quebec.
Raper, R.L., Bailey, A.C., Burt, E.C., Way, T.R., Liberati, P., 1995.
Inflation pressure and dynamic load effects on soil deformation
and soil–tyre interface. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Engrs. 38 (3),
685–689.
Taartila, S., 1994. Taking the environment into account when designing
forest machinery. In: Proceedings of the Soil, Tree, Machine
Interactions Seminar, Feldafing, Germany, July 4–8, 12 pp.
Tiernan, D., Owende, P.M.O., Kanali, C.L., Lyons, J., Ward, S.M.,
2002. Selection and operation of cable systems on sensitive
forest sites. ECOWOOD Project Deliverable D2 (Work
Package No. 1). Quality of Life and Management of Living
Resources Contract No. QLK5-1999-00991 (1999–2002), 4 pp.
Vidrine, C.G., deHoop, C., Landford, B.L., 1999. Assessment of
site and stand disturbance from cut-to-length harvesting. In:
Proceedings of the 10th Biennial Southern Silvicultural
Research Conference, Shreveport, Los Angeles, USA, February
16–18.