Chapter 9 Knowledge

Test yourself – 9.1

1. Why is the use of categories so important for our day-to-day functioning?

Step 1 of 2
Categorization is the most commonly studies function of concept by now. It is the
method using which things get placed in groups known as categories. Categories
are not only convenient and easy ways for the sorting of things but they are tools
which are essential for ones’ understanding of the world around them.

Step 2 of 2
The main function that categories perform are helping one understand individual
cases that the person has not seen before. This is the reason why categories are
also known as the pointers to knowledge. For example, calling an animal that
looks furry, a ‘cat’, lets us know a great deal about the animal as we know lots of
general things about it.
Another important function of categories is that they help us understand
behaviors that we may otherwise might confusing and get baffled. For example,
seeing a man who has half his face painted gold and half painted black is very
baffling in general. But when we see him going towards the football stadium we
would understand and categorize him as a Pittsburgh Steelers fan.
It is no exaggeration that if things were not categorized into categories in our day-
to-day lives, then we would have had a difficult time in understanding and dealing
with the world.
2. Describe the definitional approach to categories. Why does it initially seem like
a good way of thinking about categories, but then become troublesome when we
consider the kinds of objects that can make up a category?
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
By deciding if a given object falls under the definition of the particular category,
one can decide if a given thing is a member of that category. This is what is done
according to the definitional approach to categorization.

Step 2 of 2
A plane figure which has four equal sides is a good definition of a square. On the
other hand, definitions in the case of objects that are present naturally like plants,
trees, and birds and objects that are human-made do not work well.
The reason why it seems good initially when we think of categories but
troublesome later when we understand the various types of objects that make up
a category is that not all the features are the same of the members of everyday
categories.
An example can be taken of chairs. Although chair is a furniture piece which has a
seat, back, legs and many times arms, not everything that we call a chair meets
this particular definition. A person sitting on a rock which is shaped as a chair can
be called as a chair by the person but it does not meet the given definition. In
cases like these making categories becomes troublesome.
3. What is the prototype approach? What experiments did Rosch do that
demonstrated connections between prototypicality and behavior?

Answer:

Step 1 of 3
When the membership of a category is decided by making comparisons between
the object under consideration to a prototype which represents that particular
category, then it is known as the prototype approach to categorization. The
prototype is not actually a member of the category but is an average
representation of the particular category.
Step 2 of 3
Rosch described the different variations within the categories as representation of
differences between prototypicality. When the member of the category closely
resembles the prototype of the category then it is known as high prototypicality.
On the other hand, when the member of the category does not closely resemble
the prototype of the category then it is known as low prototypicality.

Step 3 of 3
The experiment that Rosch did was that he presented participants of the
experiment with a category title in order to quantify the idea. He gave category
titles like furniture or bird along with around 50 members of the particular
category. Participants were then asked to rate members on a scale of one to
seven.
Using this approach, objects that are much more familiar to the category
prototype will be recognized faster and easily. This affects the behaviors of
individuals as it effects how one interprets the world.
4. What is the exemplar approach to categorization? How does it differ from the
prototype approach, and how might the two approaches work together?

Answer:

Step 1 of 3

In the same way as the prototype approach, the categorization method by the
exemplar approach involves the determination whether the object that is given is
similar to a standard object. The typicality effect of Rosch is explained by the
exemplar approach by explaining that the various objects which are similar to the
exemplars are classified in a faster manner.

Step 2 of 3
The differences between the two approaches is that while the standard for
prototype approach is only an average single (one) member of the category, many
examples are included in the standard for the exemplar approach where each of
the examples are known as an exemplar.
Step 3 of 3
Both these approaches can work together by first learning about a particular
category, then the exemplars are averaged into a particular prototype. Later on,
while learning, some of the information becomes stronger.
Therefore, we would not be very good at taking various exceptions into
consideration early in learning, but later on to the category, exemplars would be
added.
5. What does it mean to say that there are different levels within a category?
What arguments did Rosch present to support the idea that one of these levels is
“privileged"? How has research on categorization by experts led to modifications
of Rosch's ideas about which category is “basic” or “privileged"?

Answer:

Step 1 of 3
Hierarchical organization is the type of organization in which the general and
larger categories are divided into specific, smaller categories, thereby, leading to
the creation of a number of category levels.

Step 2 of 3
According to Rosch, there are various categories in which objects can be grouped,
ranging from general to specific. Three levels of categories have been given by
her, namely the superordinate level, known as the global level, the subordinate
level, known as the specific level, and the basic level.
The basic level is said to be psychologically special by Rosch as when one goes
above the level (to the global level), it results in the loss of a large amount of
information whereas when one goes below the level (to the specific level), then it
results in little information gain.

Step 3 of 3
People who are experts or have more familiarity and expertise with the particular
category, focus on more of the information which is specific than what Rosch had
associated with the specific level.
Categorization becomes more in depth as the knowledge about the particular
subject increases. For example, when an individual sees a table, he will call it a
table but a table manufacturer would name the specific category to which the
table belongs.
Test yourself 9.2
1. What is the basic idea behind the semantic network approach? What is the goal
of this approach, and how did the network created by Collins and Quillian
accomplish this goal?

Step 1 of 2
According to the approach of semantic network, concepts are arranged in the
form of networks. The basic concept behind the approach of semantic network is
the creation of a computer model for one’s memory in order to try to determine
how fast and how hierarchy is created in our brain for the organization of
information.

Step 2 of 2
The goal of this particular approach was to do the creation of a computer model
of the human memory. This was on the basis of the work of Ross Quillian.
The network created by Quillian and Collins consisted of various nodes which are
connected by links. Nodes are representations of concepts or categories. The
concepts are placed in the particular network in such a way so that the concepts
that are related are connected.
Due to the organization of the network in this model in a hierarchical manner,
that is, arrangement of specific concepts at the bottom while general ones are at
the top, leads to a prediction that is testable about the time that is taken by a
person for retrieving information regarding a particular concept. The
determination of the same can be done by calculating the distance that is
required for travelling in a network.
2. What is the evidence for and against the Collins and Quillian model? How did
Collins and Loftus modify the model to deal with criticisms of the Collins and
Quillian model, and how were these modifi cations received by other
researchers?

Answer:

Step 1 of 3
The network created by Quillian and Collins consisted of various nodes which are
connected by links. Nodes are representations of concepts or categories, and the
concepts are present in the network so that the concepts that are related are
connected.

Step 2 of 3
Due to the organization of the network in this model in a hierarchical manner,
that is, arrangement of specific concepts at the bottom while general ones are at
the top, leads to a prediction that is testable about the time that is taken by a
person for retrieving information regarding a concept. Determination of this can
be done by the distance which needs to be travelled in the network.
The evidence for the Quillian and Collins model is that it takes longer for an
individual to respond to statements that are more specific. On the other hand,
the evidence against this model is that it does not the typicality effect into
consideration.

Step 3 of 3
Loftus and Collins modified the model of Quillian and Collins by making a model
having networks in which the concepts which are more closely related were
depicted by lines that are shorter in length. Other researchers felt that this
particular model was so flexible that it made it difficult to falsify.
3. What are some of the properties of a good psychological theory? How have
these properties been applied to semantic network theories?

Answer:

Step 1 of 2
A good psychological theory has the four properties, namely, explanatory power,
falsifiability, predictive power, and generation of experiments.
i. Explanatory power: By making a statement as to why a particular result
occurred.
ii. Falsifiability: When a particular experimental result occurs then the theory or
part of it can be proved as wrong.
iii. Predictive power: The results of a particular experiment can be shown by the
theory.
iv. Generation of experiments: Theories which are good, lead to the stimulation
of lots of research in order to test the theory. Also research is done in order to
utilize the new methods that are suggested by the particular theory, ways are
determined for improving the theory, or for studying new question that are raised
by the theory.

Step 2 of 2
The semantic network theories apply these four properties very well. Most of the
results are explained and predicted very well but some results like the longer
times of reaction for some sentences and the typicality effect are not explained by
it.
4. What is a connectionist network? Describe how a connectionist network learns,
considering specifically how connection weights are adjusted. Also consider how
the way information is represented in a connectionist network differs from the
way it is represented in a semantic network.

Answer:

Step 1 of 3
The network which uses neuron’s in the brains for the representation of various
nodes is known as a connectionist network. The approach of creation of computer
models for the representation of various concepts and their properties on the
basis of characteristics of the brain is known as connectionism.

Step 2 of 3
A connection weight is a feature of a connectionist network. This feature
determines how various signals that are sent from one unit, decrease or increase
the activity of the unit that is present next. Transmission of signals from one
neuron to the other at a synapse is the point of correspondence of these weights.
Lower connection weights result in less excitation of the next unit in line whereas
high connection weights result in an increased tendency of excitation of the next
unit. Negative weights can result in inhibition of activation or decrease in
excitation of the receiving unit.

Step 3 of 3
Both the semantic and the connectionist network are dealing with similar
concepts. The difference between the two networks lies in the fact that while the
hierarchical (semantic) network indicates the various properties in the nodes of
the network, these properties are represented in the property units present in the
far right in the connectionist network.
5. How are categories represented in the brain? Describe evidence from single
neuron recording in monkeys, the effects of brain damage in humans, and human
brain imaging.

Answer:

Step 1 of 3
By the activity in specific areas of the brain, representation of various categories
of objects is done. The fusiform face area (FFA) and the parahippocampal place
area (PPA) are two examples of areas for the specific categories. The PPA
responds to places, rooms, and houses while the FFA responds to faces.

Step 2 of 3
An experiment was done by David Freeman and coworkers in order to illustrate
the carious categories in the brain by recordings made from single neurons.
According to the results of the experiment, different regions of cortex of the brain
respond to various aspects of a stimulus.
The prefrontal (PF) cortex responds to the abstract properties of the stimulus
which are characteristics of the cats or dogs in general. On the other hand, the
inferotemporal (IT) cortex, responds to the shapes and features of the cat and
dog stimuli.
Patients who have undergone brain damage are not able to tell the various
properties of animals along with telling the various differences between the
animals.

Step 3 of 3
Recordings of a single neuron show that more than a single area is used when an
object is represented. In humans the results are similar such that different areas
light up for different things.
6. How is the ability of young infants to form categories measured? Trace the
development between 2 and 7 months of infants’ ability to categorize. What
abilities are added after 7 months?

Answer:

Step 1 of 3
According to research, infants that are newborn, are capable of performing
primitive categorization. At about two months of age, sophisticated
categorization begins to appear. In very young infants, the major method for
studying categorization is the novelty preference or the familiarization procedure.
This procedure is based on the concept that, when an infant is shown two objects,
a novel one and a familiar one, then the infant prefers looking at the object which
is novel.

Step 2 of 3
Infants begin the formation of basic level categories between the ages of three to
four months. Infants are able top form more specific categories between six to
seven months of age. Only partial development of categorization at specific level
is developed in infants between six to seven months of age.
Therefore, from the ages of two to seven months, infants show a progression
from first forming global categories, followed by basic categories and then finally,
categories that are specific.

Step 3 of 3
The early development seen between the ages of two to seven months, are the
stepping stones for the development of concepts that are more sophisticated,
and progresses as language development occurs. After seven months, children
begin associating properties that are specific with their various categories. This
eventually leads the categories of infants that are perceptual to become into
categories that are knowledge-based in children as well as adults.