GENDER AND SEXUALITYMODULE 1

GENDER, GENDER CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Module Objectives:
To understand gender, gender concepts and definitions.
To reflect on gender and gender differences and their implications for societies.
SEX vs GENDER

SEX
 Biological characteristics (including genetics,
anatomy and physiology) that generally define
humans as female or male. Note that these biological
characteristics are not mutually exclusive; however, there
are individuals who possess both male and female
characteristics.
 Born with.
 Natural

 Universal, A-historical
No variation from culture to culture or time to
time.
Cannot be changed, except with the medical
treatment.
Example: Only women can give birth. Only
women can breastfeed

GENDER
 Socially constructed set of roles and
responsibilities associated with being girl and boy
or women and men, and in some cultures a third
or other gender.

 Not born with.

 Learned.

 Gender roles vary greatly in different societies,

cultures and historical periods as well as they
depend also on socio-economic factors, age,
education, ethnicity and religion.

Although deeply rooted, gender roles can be

changed over time, since social values and norms
are not static.
.
Example: The expectation of men to be
economic providers of the family and for women
to be caregivers is a gender norm in many cultural
contexts.
However, women prove able to do traditionally
male jobs as well as men (e.g. men and women
can do housework; men and women can be
leaders and managers).

PRACTICAL POINT: At birth, the difference between boys and girls is their sex; as they grow up
society gives them different roles, attributes, opportunities, privileges and rights that in the end create
the social differences between men and women.
EXCERCISE 1: Identify whether the statements about men and women refer to SEX or
GENDER.
1) Women give birth to babies, men don't.- SEX
2) Girls are gentle, boys are rough.- SEX
3) In one case, when a child brought up as a girl learned that he was actually a boy, his school marks
improved dramatically. - GENDER
4)Amongst Indian agriculture workers, women are paid 40-60 per cent of the male wage. - GENDER
5) In Europe, most long-distance truck drivers are men. - GENDER
6) Women can breastfeed babies, men can bottle-feed babies. SEX
7) Most building-site workers in Britain are men. - GENDER
8) In ancient Egypt men stayed at home and did weaving. Women handled family business. Women
inherited property and men did not. - GENDER
9) Men's voices break at puberty; women's do not. SEX ER AND SEXUALITY
10) In one study of 224 cultures, there were 5 in which men did all the cooking, and 36 in which
women did all the housebuilding. GENDER
11) According to UN statistics, women do 67 per cent of the world's work, yet their earnings for it
amount to only 10 per cent of the world's income. GENDER
12) There are more women than men in the caring professions such as nursing. GENDER
13) Men are susceptible to prostate cancer, women are not. SEX

GENDER EQUALITY vs. GENDER EQUITY

GENDER EQUALITY
The state or condition that affords women and
men equal enjoyment of human rights, socially
valued goods, opportunities and resources,
allowing both sexes the same opportunities and
potential to contribute to, and benefit from, all
spheres of society (economic, political, social, and
cultural).

Example: A family has limited funds, and both

daughter and son need new pair of shoes for the
new school year, but only one can get new shoes
this year. If the family decides (and who in the
family decides?) which child will get the new
shoes based on the child’s NEED, and not on
the child’s sex, this is an example of gender
equality.

IMPORTANT POINT! Equity leads to equality! Equity means that there is a need to continue
taking differential actions to address historical inequality among men and women and achieve
gender
equality!
Gender equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sex are
fundamental human rights!
Gender equality implies equal enjoyment of rights by men and women.

GENDER EQUITY
Justice and fairness in the treatment of women
and men in order to eventually achieve gender
equality, often requesting differential treatment
of women and men (or specific measures) in
order to compensate for the historical and social
disadvantages that prevent women and men from
sharing a level playing field.
Example: Provision of leadership training for
women or establishing quotas for women in
decision-making positions in order to achieve the
state of gender equality.

TRANSGENDER vs. TRANSSEXUAL

Transgender: refers to those trans people who live permanently in their preferred gender, without
necessarily needing to undergo any medical intervention/s.

Transsexual: refers to people who identifies entirely with the gender role opposite to the sex
assigned to at birth and seeks to live permanently in the preferred gender role. Transsexual
people
might intend to undergo, are undergoing or have undergone gender reassignment treatment
(which
may or may not involve hormone therapy or surgery).
GENDER AND SEXUALITY
GENDER GAP and PATTERNS OF GENDER INEQUALITY
The gender gap is the difference in any area between women and men in terms of their levels
of participation, access to resources, rights, power and influence, remuneration and benefits. Of
particular relevance related to women’s work is the “gender pay gap”, describing the difference
between the average earnings of men and women (ILO, 2007).

Patterns of Inequalities
Inequalities in political power and representation: Women are often underrepresented in
formal
decision-making structures, including governments, community councils, and policy-making
institutions.
Inequalities in economic participation and opportunities: In most countries, women and men
are distributed differently across sectors. Women are receiving lower wages for similar work, are
more likely to be in low-paid jobs and unsecured work (part-time, temporary, home-based) and
are likely to have less access than men to productive assets such as education, skills, property
and credit.
Educational attainment: In most countries women have lower literacy rate, lower level of
enrolment in primary, secondary and tertiary education.
Sexual and domestic violence: Women tend to be more often victims in a form a domestic
violence by woman’s intimate partner, sexual exploitation through trafficking and sex trade, in
wars by an
enemy army as a weapon of attempted ‘ethnic cleansing’ etc.
Differences in legal status and entitlements: There are many instances in which equal rights to
personal status, security, land, inheritance and employment opportunities are denied to women
by law or practice.
IMPORTANT NOTE! Achieving greater equality between women and men will require
changes
at many levels, including changes in attitudes and relationships, changes in institutions and legal
frameworks, changes in economic institutions, and changes in political decision-making
structures.

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES AND CONCEPTS ON GENDER

TERM and definition

Disaggregated Data
Data broken down by sex, age or other variables
to reflect the different needs, priorities and
interests of women and men, and their access to
and control over resources, services and
activities.

Gender Blind
Ignoring or failing to address the gender
dimension.

Gender Analysis
The study of differences in the conditions,
needs, participation rates, access to resources
and development, control of assets, decision-
making powers, etc., between women and men
in their assigned gender roles.

Gender Awareness
The recognition of the fact that life experience,
expectations, and needs of women and men are
different, that they often involve inequality and
are subject to change.

Gender Balance
Having the same (or a sufficient) number of
women and men at all levels within the
organization to ensure equal representation and
participation in all areas of activity and interest.

Gender Focal Point

A person within the organization (field or
headquarters) who is identified as being a
reference point for issues concerning gender.

Gender Roles
The sets of behaviour, roles and responsibilities
attributed to women and men respectively by
society which are reinforced at the various levels
of the society through its political and
educational institutions and systems,
employment patterns, norms and values, and
through the family.

Gender Mainstreaming
The systematic integration of the respective
needs, interests and priorities of men and
women in all the organization’s policies and
activities. This rejects the idea that gender is a
separate issue and something to be tacked on as
an afterthought.

Feminism
A collection of movements and ideologies that
share a common goal: to define, establish, and
achieve equal political, economic, cultural,
personal, and social rights for women. There are
several outdated and false stereotypes on
feminism (e.g. feminism meant wanting women
to defeat or overtake men into submission).

MODULE 2 QUIZ Q&A

HUMAN SEXUALITY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

These are people who can only be sexually attracted to those they are already
romantically attracted to.
2/2

demisexual

Romantic orientation : desire for intimate and emotional relationship ; sexual

orientation : __________________

0/2

Correct answer

sexual desire

An expression of personality that mixes masculinity and femininity.

2/2

androgynous

Those who do not identify with any gender

1/1

agender

 
 

Individuals born with physical sex markers that are neither clearly male nor female

2/2

intersex

The middle range of the gender identity spectrum is called

2/2

non-binary

It is specifically used to call men who are attracted to other men.

 Correct answer

gay

People who fall in love with one partner at a time

2/2

monogamous
 

Those who feel they are a combination of, between, or beyond genders

0/2

genderqueer or queer

Correct answers

genderqueer

queer

A person who has the potential to be attracted to members of any gender and/or sex

1/1

pansexual

It is also sometimes used as an umbrella term for people for people of all
marginalized sexualities and genders

1/1

queer
 

A masculine expression or personality

1/1

butch

A term specifically used for women who are attracted to other women

0/1

Correct answer

lesbian

The sexual orientation which involves attraction to opposite gender or sex

1/1

heterosexual

They can love and have honest, intimate relationships with multiple people.
2/2

polyamorous

It can refer to people who experience attraction toward non-binary or agender people

1/1

skoliosexual

Any person who experiences attraction to people of their own gender as well as other
genders

1/1

bisexual

The classification of all people as either men and masculine or women and feminine

1/1

gender binary

 
 

male sex chromosome: ________; female sex chromosome: __________

0/2

xy ; xx

Correct answers

xy ; xx

xy - xx

xy xx

female gonads:__________; male gonads____________

2/2

ovaries ; testes

MODULE 2
HUMAN SEXUALITY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Module Objectives:

To understand the difference between sex and gender.

To understand the binary and spectrum perspectives of human sexuality.

To understand how individuals identify themselves in society.
SEX vs GENDER
To understand sexual diversity and gender diversity we need to first have an understanding
of sex and gender and how these terms differ and relate to each other. Often, these two terms are
used as synonyms of each other, however the distinction between sex and gender can be very
important.

Sex
Sex is a medical term designating a certain combination of physiological characteristics
related to the human reproductive system. These include chromosomes, gonads, hormones,
genitalia and secondary sex characteristics (like breast tissue or facial hair). Bodies are generally
expected to be easily categorized as one of two sexes, male or female. In short, sex refers to the
physical characteristics of the person.

This involves making assumptions, including:

1. That there are exactly two clearly differentiated versions of every sex trait which always
correspond neatly with the rest.
2. That all of these traits are unchanging over the course of a person's life.

A chart of sex characteristics and their usual associations of "female" or "male" would look
something like this:
Characteristics
Chromosomes
FEMALE- XX
MALE- XY
Gonads
FEMALE- Ovaries
MALE- Testes
Hormones
FEMALE- Estrogen, progrestogen
MALE- Testosterone
Genitalia
FEMALE- Uterus, vagina, vulva, etc.
MALE- Penis, scrotum, etc.
Secondary
FEMALE- Breasts, "hourglass figure,"
shorter, higher voice, more
body fat
MALE- Facial and body hair, "triangle"
frame, taller, lower voice, more
muscle

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Gender
Gender is a complex system of identities, expressions, and roles that are usually assigned
based on the appearance of one's genitalia at birth. How gender is represented and defined varies
from culture to culture and from person to person. Gender is a word that can take on a number
of more specific meanings.

Just like with sex categories, the separation of these gender categories involves
assumptions, including:
1. That a person's gender will be predictable based on their assigned sex at birth.
2. That all people fall neatly into one of two gender categories.
Both of the established social gender categories carry with them a set of expectations for how
people within them will behave in the world; a cultural ideal of masculinity and femininity.
These
are known as gender roles or gender stereotypes. In short, gender refers to the non-physical
characteristics of a person.

Gender Roles
In our own respective cultures, gender usually involves a separation of people into the
social categories of girls/women and boys/men.

Gender roles are imposed on people to varying degrees depending on how flexible their
upbringing and social environments are, but a partial chart of stereotypically constructed gender
roles might look like the following table.
Cultural Roles
Division of Labor
Girl/Woman- Housework, cooking, childrearing
Boy/Man- Manual labor, technical career
Interests
Girl/Woman- Fashion, romantic movies, shopping
Boy/Man -Highly rational, stoic, insensitive,
crude
Relational
Power
Girl/Woman- Follower, collaborative
Boy/Man -Leader, authoritative
Sexual Role
Girl/Woman- Submissive, receptive, chaste
Boy/Man- Dominant, initiator, promiscuous
Appearance
Girl/Woman- Long hair, dresses, make-up expressive
mannerisms and speech, constricted
posture
Boy/Man- Short hair, facial hair, subdued
mannerisms and speech, open
postures
SEXUAL ORIENTATION vs ROMANTIC ORIENTATION
Sexual orientation and romantic orientation are deeply intertwined for most people. A
person may be physically attracted to and may be sexually intimate with someone that they are
not
romantically attracted to (or "in love with"). A person may also have a loving and romantic
attraction to someone who they are not physically attracted to.

Sexual Orientation
For many people, gender or sex have the biggest impact on how sexually attractive they
find someone, but this doesn't mean that people who are attracted to a particular gender are
attracted to all people of that gender or always unattracted to people of other genders.
Differences in gender, sex, physique, dress, personality and many other traits can all play a
role in how sexually attractive someone finds a person and also in what way they find them
attractive.
People who identify as gay or same-gender-loving people are exclusively or primarily
attracted to others of their own gender or sex. This is sometimes called being homosexual.
Often, gay is used specifically for men who are attracted to other men, whereas women
who are attracted to other women are often referred to as lesbians.
Straight people include men who are primarily or exclusively attracted to women, and
women who are primarily or exclusively attracted to men. This is sometimes called being
heterosexual.

Romantic Orientation
While sexual orientation is the tendency to feel sexual desire toward people of certain
genders, a person may have the tendency to fall in love with certain people. We might call this
romantic orientation—the desire for intimate and emotional relationships with people of
particular
genders or sexes. It's about who we feel affection for and may include who we seek out to build a
life or family with.

EXERCISE 2. Essay
Is your romantic orientation any different from your sexual orientation? Have you ever
found someone to be physically attractive, but you didn't want a relationship with them? Have
you
ever been romantically interested in someone you just were not attracted to--or there was no
"chemistry?"
Many people have had these experiences.
What someone looks for in a sexual partner is not always the same as what they look for
in a romantic partner–including gender.
Just because someone is romantically attracted to another person, does not mean they must
be sexually attracted to that person.
Just like sexual orientation, someone's romantic orientation may be based on sex or gender,
but can also depend on a great number of other factors like those listed earlier.
What someone looks for in a sexual partner is not always the same as what they look for
in a romantic partner–including gender
Some people can only be sexually attracted to those they are already romantically or
emotionally attracted to–a term called demisexual.
Some people are monogamous–they only fall in love with one person at a time. Others are
polyamorous–they can love and have honest, intimate relationships with multiple people.
BINARY SYSTEMS
A binary is any system that is split into two separate parts. In terms of sex, gender and
sexuality, our culture supports a number of binaries for classifying people into one of two
distinct
options, and each of these binaries is tied to the others. In a binary outlook on the world,
someone is either Option A or Option B, and those are the only choices.
Many times it is expected that the two separate parts of any binary are opposing; black is
the opposite of white, men are the opposite of women and good is the opposite of bad.
The Sex Binary
The sex binary is the classification of all people as either male or female. Examples of this
binary can be found on government issued IDs or legal or medical documents with either an M
or an F as options for sex.
The Gender Binary
The gender binary classifies all people as either men and masculine or women and
feminine. People assigned male at birth are expected to identify as men and have an expression
that is masculine. In the same way, people assigned female at birth are expected to identify as
women and have an expression that is feminine.
This can be seen in the marking of most public restrooms by depicting the men wearing
pants and women wearing dresses, or in clothing stores where there is a men’s section and a
women’s section with gender-coded clothing (Infants may even be color-coded with blue or pink
based on the sex they were assigned at birth!).
The Sexual Orientation Binary
The sexual orientation binary presumes that one is either sexually attracted to men, or they
are sexually attracted to women. A man who is known to have a sexual history with women is
often assumed by others to only be attracted to women. This binary often assumes that all people
are heterosexual or homosexual--which is still limited and inaccurate.
The Romantic Orientation Binary
The romantic orientation binary, as you might expect, presumes that a person is either
romantically attracted to men, or they are romantically attracted to women. A woman who has a
dating history with men is often assumed to only date men.
Again, the expectation is that all people are straight, but even when we consider that some
people are attracted to the same sex and gender, Romantic Orientation and Sexual Orientation
Binaries still fail to include many sexual, romantic and gender identities.
Linked Binaries
In the dominant worldview, each binary is tied up with all the others. When an infant is
assigned the sex female at birth, they’re presumed to identify as a girl and grow up to identify as
a woman, who will have a feminine gender expression, and be sexually attracted to and
romantically attracted to males/men. Infants who are assigned male have a corresponding
experience.
THE SPECTRUM MODEL OF SEX, GENDER AND SEXUALITY
The spectrum model more accurately represents the ways in which an individual’s sex,
gender identity, gender expression and sexual and romantic orientations do not always exist as
opposite endpoints. They can exist in any combination, and a person's placement on one
spectrum does not necessarily determine their placement on any of the others.

The Sex Spectrum

Intersex people are individuals born with physical sex markers (genitals, hormones, gonads,
or chromosomes) that are neither clearly male nor female. The existence of intersex people
shows
that there are not just two sexes, and the lines between sexes can be blurry.
The sex spectrum is the concept of a continuum of people with sexes ranging from people
with typical male physiology to people with typical female physiology.

The Gender Identity Spectrum

The gender spectrum visualizes gender as a continuum stretching from men to women
and masculine to feminine. Gender identities other than man or woman are considered to be
non-binary. The middle range of this spectrum might include:
Transgender—a more general term for those who do not identify with the gender
generally associated with the sex they were assigned at birth
Agender—those who do not identify with any gender
Genderqueer or queer—those who feel they are a combination of, between, or beyond
genders.

The Gender Expression Spectrum

The spectrum model also creates room for a range of gender expressions that fall
between masculine and feminine.
Butch—a masculine expression or personality
Femme— a feminine expression or personality [pronounced ‘fem’]
Androgynous—an expression or personality that mixes masculinity and femininity

The Orientation Spectrum

The orientation spectrum places people whose sexual and/or romantic orientation is
toward persons of the same gender and/or sex—gay, lesbian and same-gender-loving people—
at one end and people whose sexual and/or romantic orientation is toward persons of the
other binary gender or sex—straight people—at the other end. In this model, people who are
sexually and/or romantically attracted to both men and women and/or those who are attracted
to folks with non-binary genders are found in the middle region, which is why they are often
collectively known as middle sexualities.
Many of the same terms used to describe sexual orientation apply to romantic orientation
as well. But remember, someone's sexual orientation spectrum is not necessarily the same as
their romantic orientation.
Bisexual can refer to any person who experiences attraction to people of their own
gender as well as other genders, not necessarily at the same time, in the same way or to
the same degree.
Pansexual can refer to a person who has the potential to be attracted to members of any
gender and/or sex.
Queer is finding greater use as a non-specific term to describe a sexual orientation other
than straight—including people anywhere along this spectrum. It is also sometimes used
as an umbrella term for people of all marginalized sexualities and genders.
Skoliosexual can refer to people who experience attraction toward non-binary or agender
people.
EXERCISE 3. The following is a worksheet to help you think about where you fall on a
continuum. Where do you see yourself in relation to 1 year ago or 5 years ago? Take a moment
to print and complete the worksheet. You do not need to share this with anyone. It is a tool for
self-reflection. (gender sex and sexuality graphic.pdf)
FLUIDITY
The map of someone’s experiences of sex, gender and sexuality can be very simple or very
complicated. It can also change gradually over the course of a person's life, or even change from
one situation to another. We call this state of change fluidity. This growth can affect your life to
a greater or lesser degree.
A person who identified as a boy, but maybe always felt a bit “off” could later realize an
inner sense of self as a woman, or could even feel a sense of self that shifts between different
genders. A woman who has always thought of herself as straight could suddenly find herself, in
adulthood, attracted to another woman for the first time. Many people spend a period of time
questioning their sexual orientation or gender identity, perhaps eventually finding what feels
most
authentic to them.
Even straight, cisgender people experience fluidity in their sexuality and gender to some
degree. Most people experience a dramatic increase in attraction to other people around puberty,
and that's also sexual fluidity. The way a small child expresses her girlhood is a very different
expression of gender than she’ll have as an adult expressing womanhood; that's an example of
gender fluidity.
Recognizing that change is a natural part of life, and looks a bit different for everyone, is
a key step toward fully accepting people of diverse genders and sexualities.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

How do you Identify?
Every individual has a unique set of life experiences. People often feel a special connection
to others whose experiences reflect their own in some way. A person may grow up sharing a
language, religion or culture with others and feel connected to this heritage. A person may find
that a personal trait of theirs that had always felt isolating is actually shared by others, and feel
connected to a new community. These experiences of connection (or isolation) have huge
effects on our life journeys and our personalities. They come together to make up our identity
or conception of self.

Intersectionality
Identities come from a person’s relationship to race, culture, religion, language, class, sex,
gender, sexuality, dis/ability, age, weight and countless other areas of life. People can have
multiple identities and each one can influence the degree to which we are marginalized or
privileged.
A person of color who is also gay and a woman can experience each of these facets of
herself as identities.
Identities intersect with one another to create a more complex identity – an idea that
Kimberlé Crenshaw put forward as intersectionality. In other words, a white gay man will have
a very different experience of gay identity than a lesbian of color will have, and the barriers they
face will look different.

Salient Identities
Each individual is a complicated bundle of these experiences. Some of them will seem
invisible to us because they do not cause us any hardship or because we grew up believing them
to be the “default” identity. Other identities feel salient, or integral, to who we are. They are
more easily recognized because we have to fight to exist in them with dignity or because we can
always see how they have flavored our lives in a distinctive way. It’s important to remember
that there is no universal human experience and no such thing as a “default” identity. White is
not the default; cisgender is not the default; straight is not the default; etc. Each person’s
individual identities are their own default, and we should respect those.
EXERCISE 4. Essay
Which identities are the most important to you, the first ones you think of when describing
yourself? Which do you take for granted?

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

MODULE 3
HISTORY OF HUMAN SEXUALITY

It is the basis of the word aphrodisiac.

1/1

APHRODITE

It means as "the love of boys".

1/1

PEDERASTY

It is e death penalty imposed for premarital sex and adultery in some Islamic states.

1/1

STONING

He was reputed as "a man to every woman and a woman to every man.

1/1

JULIUS CAESAR
 

It is the name synonymous with sexual repression.

1/1

VICTORIA

It was glorified in art as plough, ax, and sword.

1/1

PENIS

The Goddess of Love

Correct answers

Venus

venus

VENUS

The prophet who had several wives and concubines

1/1

ABRAHAM

The book in the Bible which states the role of a good wife that starts before dawn and
works well into the night.

1/1

PROVERBS

The country where some fathers give their daughters to other men for payment of
gambling debts

1/1

AFGHANISTAN

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

MODULE 3
HISTORY OF HUMAN SEXUALITY
Module Objectives:
To trace the different concepts of sexuality across time and across places.
To know the distinct beliefs and practices about sexuality in different contexts.
History places sexual attitudes and behavior in context. It informs us as to whether sexual
behavior
reflects trends that have been with us through the millennia or the customs of a particular culture
and era. History shows little evidence of universal sexual trends.
Prehistoric Sexuality: From Female Idols to Phallic Worship
Art produced in the Stone Age suggests the worship of women’s ability to bear children
and perpetuate the species. Primitive statues and cave drawings portray women with large,
pendulous breasts, rounded hips, and prominent sex organs. Most theorists regard the
figurines as fertility symbols. Stone Age people may have been unaware of the male’s
contribution to reproduction.
Last Ice Age retreated (about 11,000 BCE) and the climate warmed, human societies
turned agrarian.
Awareness of the male role in reproduction, phallic worship (worship of the penis).
Knowledge of paternity (around 9000 BCE), resulting from observation of livestock (they
began to understand that a predictable period of time elapsed between copulation and the
birth of offspring).
The penis became glorified in art as a plough, ax, or sword.
Phallic symbols played roles in religious ceremonies in ancient Egypt.
The ancient Greeks sometimes rendered phalluses as rings, sometimes as necklaces.
In ancient Rome, a large phallus was carried like a float in a parade honoring Venus, the
goddess of love.
The incest taboo may have been the first human taboo.
Brother–sister marriages were permitted among the presumably divine rulers of ancient
Egypt and among the royal families of the Incas and of Hawaii, even though they were
generally prohibited among commoners.
Father–daughter marriages were permitted among the aristocracy and royalty of ancient
Egypt. Incestuous relationships in these royal blood lines may have kept wealth and power,
as well as “divinity,” in the family.
GENDER AND SEXUALITY
The Ancient Hebrews
Viewed sex, at least in marriage, as a satisfying experience intended to fulfill the divine
command to “be fruitful and multiply”
Social customs:
Childlessness and the development of a repulsive abnormality, such as a boil, were grounds
for divorce.
Male–male and female–female sexual behavior were strongly condemned, as they
threatened the perpetuation of the family.
Believed that sex helped strengthen marital bonds and solidify the family.
The prophet Abraham had several wives and concubines, and King Solomon had several
hundred

Jewish law legislated the minimum frequency of marital relations, which varied according
to the man’s profession and the amount of time spent at home:
Every day for those who have no occupation, twice a week for laborers, once a week for ass-drivers; once

every thirty days for camel drivers; and once every six months for sailors.

—Mishnah Ketubot 5:6; Ketubot 62b–62b

According to the Book of Proverbs, a good wife rises before dawn to tend to her family’s
needs, brings home food, instructs the servants, tends the vineyards, makes the clothes, keeps the
ledger, helps the needy, and works well into the night.
A wife was considered the property of her husband and could be divorced on a whim.
A wife could also be stoned to death for adultery, but she might have to share her husband
with secondary wives and concubines.
Men who consorted with the wives of other men were considered to have violated the
property rights of those men and might have to pay for “damages.”
A woman is a man’s property.
In Afghanistan some fathers have given other men their daughters as payment for
gambling debts.
Zambian judge Alfred Shilibwa ordered a hotel employee, Obert Siyankalanga, to pay a
woman’s husband $300 in compensation after he fondled her breasts (“Man pays victim’s
husband,” 2000).
The Ancient Greeks
The Greeks valued family life, but Greek men also admired the well-developed male body
and enjoyed nude wrestling in the arena.
Erotic encounters and off-color jokes characterized the plays of Aristophanes and other
playwrights.
The Greeks held that the healthy mind must dwell in a healthy body. They cultivated
muscle and movement along with mind.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

The Greeks viewed their gods—Zeus, god of gods; Apollo, who inspired art and music;
Aphrodite, the goddess of carnal love whose name is the basis of the word aphrodisiac;
and others—as voracious seekers of sexual variety. Not only were they believed to have
sexual adventures among themselves but they were also thought to have seduced mortals.
Three aspects of Greek sexuality:
o male–male sexual behavior

The Greeks viewed people as bisexual . Male–male sex was deemed normal and tolerated so
long
as it did not threaten the institution of the family.
o pederasty
Pederasty means love of boys. Sex between men and prepubescent boys was illegal, but families
were generally pleased if their adolescent sons attracted socially prominent mentors.
o prostitution

Prostitution flourished at every level of society. Prostitutes ranged from refined courtesans to
concubines , who were usually slaves. Courtesans could play musical instruments, dance, engage
in witty repartee, and discuss politics. They were also skilled in the arts of love. No social stigma
was attached to visiting a courtesan. At the lower rungs of society were streetwalkers and brothel
prostitutes. The latter were not hard to find: A wooden or painted penis invariably stood by the
door.
The women of Athens had no more rights than slaves. They were subject to the authority of their
male next-of-kin before marriage and to their husbands afterwards. They received no formal
education and were consigned mostly to women’s quarters in their homes. They were
chaperoned
when they ventured out of doors. A husband could divorce his wife without cause and was
obligated to do so if she committed adultery.
The World of Ancient Rome
Much is made of the sexual excesses of the Roman emperors and ruling families. Julius
Caesar is reputed to have been bisexual—“a man to every woman and a woman to every
man.” Other emperors, such as Caligula, sponsored orgies at which guests engaged in sexual
practices including bestiality and sadism . Sexual excesses were found more often
among the upper classes of palace society than among average Romans, however.
Romans disapproved of male–male sexual behavior as a threat to the integrity of the
Roman family. The family was viewed as the source of strength of the empire. Although
Roman women were more likely than their Greek counterparts to share their husbands’
social lives, they still were the property of their husbands.
Fellatio, Cunnilingus, Fornication are sexual terms that originated from Roman culture.
The Early Christians
Adultery and fornication were rampant among the upper classes of Rome.
Early Christian leaders began to associate sexuality with sin.
They sought to restrict sex to marriage.
Celibacy was closer to the Christian ideal than marriage.
Demanded virginity of brides
Prostitution was condemned.
Christians taught that men should love their wives with restraint, not passion.
Divorce was outlawed.
Unhappiness with one’s spouse might reflect sexual, thus sinful, restlessness.
Dissolving a marriage might also jeopardize the social structure that supported the church.
Masturbation, male–male sexual behavior, female–female sexual behavior, oral–genital
contact, anal intercourse—all were viewed as abominations in the eyes of God.
Islam
The Islamic tradition treasures marriage and sexual fulfillment in marriage.
Premarital sex and adultery invite shame and social condemnation— and, in some
fundamentalist Islamic states, the death penalty, by stoning.
Islamic tradition permits a sexual double standard. Men under most circumstances may
take up to four wives but women are permitted only one husband.
Public social interactions between men and women are severely restricted in more
conservative Islamic societies.
India
Cultivated sexual pleasure as a spiritual ideal to the extent of the ancient Hindus of India
Sexual practices were codified in a sex manual, the Kama Sutra, which illustrates sexual
positions.
Sex was a religious duty, not a source of shame or guilt.
Hindu deities were often portrayed as engaging in same-sex as well as male–female sexual
activities.
Sexual fulfillment was regarded as one way to become reincarnated at a higher level of
existence.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

The Far East
Sexuality was akin to spirituality.
To the Taoist masters of China, sex was a sacred duty—a form of worship that led
toward harmony with nature and immortality.
Taoists believed that it was wasteful for a man to “spill his seed.” Masturbation,
acceptable for women, was ruled out for men.
Sexual practices such as anal intercourse and oral–genital contact (fellatio and
cunnilingus) were permissible, so long as the man did not squander yang through
wasteful ejaculation.
Same-sex activity was not prohibited by Taoist holy writings, but some Taoists frowned
on exclusive homosexuality.
The “good wife,” was limited to domestic roles.
Christianity in the Middle Ages
The Church had long regarded all women as being tainted by the sin of Eve.
The cult of the Virgin Mary flourished. The ideal of womanhood was in the image of
Mary: good, gracious, loving, and saintly. It helped elevate the status of women.
There were two conflicting concepts of woman: One was the woman as Eve, the
temptress; the other was the woman as Mary, virtuous and pure.
Contemporary Western images of women still show the schism between the good girl
and the bad girl—the Madonna and the whore.
Protestant Reformation
Luther disputed many Roman Catholic doctrines on sexuality. He believed that priests
should be allowed to marry and rear children. To Luther, marriage was as much a part of
human nature as eating or drinking.
Calvin rejected the Roman church’s position that sex in marriage was permissible only
for procreation. He believed that sexual expression in marriage also strengthened the
marriage bond and helped relieve the stresses of everyday life.
Coming to America
Each religion stressed the ideal of family life and viewed sex outside of marriage as
immoral or sinful.
A woman’s place, by and large, was in the home and in the fields.
The Victorian Period
Victoria, her name has become virtually synonymous with sexual repression.
Victorian society in Europe and the United States, on the surface at least, was prim and
proper. Sex was not discussed in polite society. Even the legs of pianos were draped with
cloth for the sake of modesty.
Many women viewed sex as a marital duty to be performed for procreation or to satisfy
their husbands’ cravings.
I am happy now that Charles calls on my bed chamber less frequently than of old. As it is, I now
endure but two calls a week and when I hear his steps outside my door I lie down on my bed,
close my eyes, open my legs and think of England.
—Attributed to Alice, Lady Hillingdon
 Women were assumed not to experience sexual desires or pleasures.
“that the majority of women (happily for society) are not much troubled with
sexual feeling of any kind”

Sex drains the man of his vitality.

intercourse be practiced infrequently
ejaculation depleted men of “vital fluids” they needed to
maintain health and vitality
preached against “wasting the seed” by masturbation or
frequent marital intercourse

Victorian women did experience sexual pleasure and orgasm.

Prostitution flourished. Men apparently thought that they were doing their wives a favor
by looking elsewhere.
Same-sex sexual behavior was considered indecent.
The Recent Trends
More teenagers are sexually active today, and at younger ages, than they were a couple of
generations ago.
In addition to premarital sex, two other features of the sexual revolution have become
permanent parts of our social fabric: the liberation of female sexuality and a greater
willingness to discuss sex openly.
Countless pornography websites populate the Internet and can be accessed by children.
Today, with multiple websites offering the opportunity to download videos of celebrities
such as Paris Hilton and Kim Kardashian engaging in sexual activity, pornography has
nearly reached the status of wallpaper.

GENDER AND SE

MODULE 4
PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN SEXUALITY

Different cultures view the rightness and wrongness of sexual behaviors similarly.

Correct answer
FALSE

Our own meaningful cultural values and beliefs are the ultimate indicators of our
sexual behaviors' normalcy, naturalness and morality.

Correct answer
FALSE

Sexual behaviors for all people are pleasurable because we have been endowed with
innately pleasurable biological structures.
2/2

FALSE

Tick the MEN or WOMEN button for your answer on the following differences between
genders.

According to the Feminist Theory, being feminine or masculine seem to be pure

constructions of the society.
2/2

TRUE
 
Sexual behaviors of both lower and higher species are dominantly controlled by
instinct according to the cross-species perspective.
0/2

TRUE
FALSE

Pangalan *
Nehemiah Villarosa Diego

 
Human sexuality appears to reflect a combination of various factors.
1/1

TRUE
 
 
Differences in social and mating behavior are the main focus of evolutionary
perspective.
1/1

TRUE
 
Email *
nemayajegu21@gmail.com

 
Our sexual ideas and impulses become very impossible to be expressed because of
our ability to repress them.
2/2

FALSE
 
IDENTIFICATION
Identify what is being referred to by the following items. Use LOWERCASE letters only for your answers.

 
This is a sexual phenomenon that is considered as the most satisfying part of a sexual
activity between two consenting individuals.
···/2

orgasm

 
This refers to the evolutionary process by which adaptive traits are considered the
means to reproduce and thrive in future generations.
2/2

natural selection
 
 
It explains why people show different levels of sex drives and various expressions of
sexual desires.
2/2

erotic plasticity
 
 
It is the word that was initially used as an insult to describe homosexuals.
1/1

queer
 
 
It is the perspective which believes that cultural institutions and beliefs affect sexual
behaviors.
···/2

Correct answer

sociological perspective

 
What shields our consciousness from our basic sexual and aggressive urges
according to Freud?
2/2

ego

XUALITY
MODULE 4
PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN SEXUALITY
Module Objectives:
To understand human sexuality as explained by the different viewpoints.
To describe the essence of human sexuality in every individual’s life.
THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The biological perspective focuses on the roles of genes, hormones, the nervous system,
and other biological factors in human sexuality. Sex serves the biological function of
reproduction. Human beings are biologically endowed with structures that make sexual
behavior possible—and, for most people, pleasurable.
Study of the biology of sex informs about the mechanisms of reproduction as well as of
the mechanisms of sexual arousal and response. Orgasm is a spinal reflex as well as a
psychological event.
Biological researchers have made major strides in assisting infertile couples to conceive,
for example, through laboratory-based methods of fertilization.
Knowledge of biology has furthered people’s ability to overcome sexual problems.
THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
Species vary not only in their physical characteristics but also in their social behavior,
including their mating behavior. Scientists look to evolution to help explain such variability.
Natural selection. The evolutionary process by which adaptive traits enable members of a
species to survive to reproductive age and transmit these traits to future generations.
New variations in species can also be introduced through random genetic changes called
mutations. Although mutations occur randomly, they are subject to natural selection.
Adaptive mutations enhance reproductive success. As more members of the species come
to possess these traits, the species changes.
Some scientists suggest that there is also a genetic basis to social behavior, including sexual
behavior, among humans and other animals. If so, we may carry traits that helped our
prehistoric ancestors survive and reproduce successfully.
The Evolutionary Perspective and Erotic Plasticity
The concept of “erotic plasticity” addresses the fact that in response to various social and
cultural forces, people show different levels of sex drive and express their sexual desires in
a variety of ways.
There is evidence that women show greater erotic plasticity than men do.
(1) individual women show greater variation than men in sexual behavior over time;
(2) women seem to be more responsive than men to most specific cultural factors, such as
cultural permissiveness or restraint; and
(3) men’s sexual behavior is more consistent with their sexual attitudes than women’s.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Altruism
It is apparently adaptive for the female of one species of insect to eat the male after
mating. “Dad” then literally nourishes his offspring during the period of gestation. In
evolutionary terms, his “altruism”—his personal sacrifice—is adaptive if it increases the
chances that the offspring will survive and carry his genes. In other species, it may be
adaptive for fathers to “love them and leave them”—that is, to mate with as many
females as possible and abruptly abandon them to “plant their seed” elsewhere.
Gender Differences in Preferred Number of Sex Partners
Some evolutionary psychologists argue that men are naturally more promiscuous than
women because they are the genetic heirs of ancestors whose reproductive success was
related to the number of women they could impregnate.
Women, by contrast, can produce only a few offspring in their lifetimes. Thus, the
theory goes, they have to be more selective with respect to their mating partners.
Women’s reproductive success is enhanced by mating with the fittest males—not with
any Tom, Dick, or Harry who happens by.
The male’s “roving eye” and the female’s selectivity are embedded in their genes.
THE CROSS-SPECIES PERSPECTIVE
There are animal examples, or analogues, of human male–male sexual behavior,
female–female sexual behavior, oral–genital contact, and oral–oral behavior (i.e., kissing).
Foreplay is also well known in the animal world.
Turtles massage their mates’ heads with their claws.
Male mice nibble at their partner’s necks.
Most mammals use only a rear-entry position for copulation, but some animals, such as
apes, use a variety of coital positions.
Sexual behavior among “higher” mammals, such as primates, is less directly controlled
by instinct than it is among the “lower” species, such as birds, fish, or lower mammals.
Experience and learning play more important roles in sexuality among “higher” species.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Sociological perspectives provide insight into the ways in which cultural institutions and
beliefs affect sexual behavior and people’s sense of morality.
Mead concluded that gender role stereotypes are not inherent in our genetic heritage.
Rather, they are acquired through cultural expectations and socialization. That is, men and
women learn to behave in ways that are expected of them in their particular culture.
Clellan Ford, an anthropologist, and Frank Beach, a psychologist, found great variety in
sexual customs and beliefs. They also found some fairly common threads.
Kissing was quite common although not universal. The Thonga of Africa did not practice
kissing. When witnessing European visitors kissing each other, members of the tribe
commented that they could not understand why Europeans “ate” each other’s saliva and
dirt.
The frequency of sexual intercourse also varies from culture to culture, but intercourse is
relatively more frequent among young people everywhere

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Societies differ in their attitudes toward childhood masturbation. Some societies, such as
the Hopi Native Americans of the southwest United States, ignore it. Trobrianders
encourage it. Other societies condemn it.
Societies differ widely in their sexual attitudes, customs, and practices. The members of all
human societies share anatomic structures and physiological capacities for sexual pleasure,
however. The same hormones flow through their arteries. Yet their sexual practices, and
the pleasure they reap or fail to attain, may set them apart.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
 Psychological perspectives focus on the many psychological influences—perception,
learning, motivation, emotion, personality, and so on—that affect sexual behavior and
experience of oneself as female or male.
Some psychological theorists focus on the motivational role of sex in human personality.
Others focus on how experiences and mental representations of the world affect sexual
behavior.
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud believed that we are all born with biologically based sex drives that must be
channelled through socially approved outlets if family and social life are to carry
on without undue conflict.
The ego shields the conscious mind from awareness of our baser sexual and
aggressive urges by means of defense mechanisms such as repression, or
motivated forgetting of traumatic experiences.
Although many sexual ideas and impulses are banished to the unconscious, they
continue to seek expression. One avenue of expression is the dream, through
which sexual impulses may be perceived in disguised, or symbolic, form.
Learning Theories
When sexual behavior (like masturbation) feels good, but parents connect it with
feelings of guilt and shame, the child is placed in conflict and may vacillate between
masturbating and swearing off it.
If, as young children, we are severely punished for sexual exploration, we may
come to associate sexual stimulation in general with feelings of guilt or anxiety.
Cognitive Views
According to social–cognitive theory, children acquire the gender roles deemed
appropriate in a society through reinforcement of gender-appropriate behavior and
through observing the gender-role behavior of their parents, their peers, and other
models on television, in films, in books, and so on.
FEMINIST THEORY
Feminism and feminist theory are born of protest against ideas such as those of Aristotle’s
who have described a female as a deformed male.
Focuses on the subordination of women to men; analyzing the relationships between
sexism, heterosexism (prejudice or discrimination against homosexuals by heterosexuals),
racism, and class oppression; and exploring means of resistance—on individual and
societal levels
It challenges among others the following:
Traditional views of men as breadwinners and women as homemakers
Traditional views of men as political policymakers, especially since those
policies affect women and children
Traditional views of men as sexual “aggressors” and women as sexual
“gatekeepers”
Traditional gender roles that view men as objective and rational, and women as
emotional and irrational
Femininity and masculinity might be purely social constructions that have the effect of
giving women second-class citizenship—or, in many historic eras and parts of the
world, no citizenship whatsoever.
Feminists assert that men have no right to control women’s bodies
Examples:
Abortion is the personal choice of a woman;
Women have as much right as men to decide whether or not to engage in sexual
activity, and with whom;
There are few if any gender differences in mental abilities, such as those used in math
and science;
Most medical research has been conducted by men for men, with men as subjects.
QUEER THEORY
The word queer was initially used as an insult to describe homosexuals.
Queer theory challenges a number of commonly held assumptions about gender and
sexuality, such as the assumptions that heterosexuality is normal and superior to
homosexuality and that people are naturally divided into heterosexuals and homosexuals.
According to queer theory, the concepts of heterosexuality and homosexuality are social
constructs that ignore commonly experienced mismatches among people’s anatomic sex,
society’s gender roles, and individuals’ sexual desires.
Queer theory asserts that human sexuality has always been more varied than those in
power—particularly male heterosexuals—are willing to admit.
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN SEXUALITY
Given the complexity and range of human sexual behavior, we need to consider multiple
perspectives to understand sexuality. Each perspective—historical, biological, cross-species,
sociological, psychological, feminist, and queer—has something to teach us.
First, human sexuality appears to reflect a combination of biological, social, cultural, and
psychological factors that interact in complex ways.
Second, there are few universal patterns of sexual behavior, and views on what is right and
wrong show great diversity.
Third, although our own cultural values and beliefs may be deeply meaningful to us, they
may not indicate what is normal, natural, or moral in terms of sexual behavior. The
complexity of human sexuality—a complexity that causes it to remain somewhat baffling
even to scientists—adds to the wonder and richness of our sexual experience.

ENDER AND SEXUALITY

MODULE 5
GENDER AND GENDER IDENTITY

TRUE/FALSE / FACT/MYTH
Decide whether the statements are true or false / myth or fact. Tick the button only for your answer.

 
According to the biological perspective, intersexuality is a result of aberrations in
one's chromosomes, gonads and hormones.
Correct answer
TRUE
 
People who are born with bodies and genitals that possess features of both male and
female are called intersexed.
TRUE
 
 
Intersexed persons perceive ambiguity about their given biological sex.
Correct answer
FALSE

 
Sexual variations ultimately give the entire picture of the development of gender.
FALSE
 
 
To intersexed persons, they have clear perceptions of their genitalia.
TRUE
 
Children's display of gender-stereotypic behaviors is attributed to parent's
expectations and reinforcements of these behaviors.
TRUE
 
The development of gendered behaviors among people sometimes completely comes
unconsciously  
Correct answer
TRUE

 
Religious traditions have trivial, if not negligible influence on gender and sexuality.

FALSE
 
 
The media tend to present men and women on equal footing, thus causing gender
behavior variations
FALSE
 
 
Transgenderism encompasses different forms of gender role conformity.
···/1

 
FALSE

No correct answers

 
Transexualism is still called a disorder today and it is still listed in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
FALSE
 
 
All cross-dressers engage in cross dressing exclusively for sexual gratification.
Correct answer
FALSE

 
Both men and women engage in sexual thoughts each day.
1/1

TRUE
 
Women's sexual identity tends to be permanent.
1/1

FALSE
 
 
Men tend to be physiologically aroused to a wider range of sexual targets.
FALSE
 
 
Anonymity is an important consideration among women to admit or not to admit
having more sexual partners.
1/1
TRUE
 
 
Behavioral characteristics and appearance vary considerably across both gay men
and lesbians
FACT

 
Homosexuality is sexually transmitted.
Correct answer
MYTH

 
It is rare for child molesters to be gay or lesbians.
1/1

MYTH
 
 
Homosexual men report having just one or more partners than heterosexual men do.
FACT

 
Sexuality does not cause any difference in one's ability to have a functional
relationship.
FACT

 
There are assigned roles in a gay relationship.
Correct answer
MYTH

 
There is evidence that true male bisexuality exists.
MYTH
 
Correct answer
FACT

 
There is a direct association between gender nonconformity and homosexuality.
FACT
 
 
Sexual orientation is purely a learned behavior.
MYTH

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

MODULE 5
GENDER AND GENDER IDENTITY
Module Objectives:
To identify biological and psychosocial influences of gender identity and sexuality.
To distinguish variations of gender expression.
To know some of the differences which men and women have on sexuality and attitudes
toward sex.
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON GENDER AND SEXUALITY
Our biological sex is a function of three separate components: our chromosomes, gonads, and
hormone levels. These factors work together to differentiate the bodies and brains of biological
males and females.
Moreover, chromosomes, gonads, and hormones are all linked to the development of our sexual
and gender identities. In order to develop typical male and female bodies, brains, and behaviors,
all of these factors must work together and build on each other in a very specific sequence. If
anything falls out of that sequence, or when things do not unfold according to the typical male or
female schedule, the result is intersexuality.
Biological Sex Variations
Although most people think of biological sex as having two categories (i.e., male and female),
the
reality is that there are several variations on sex because some people are born with bodies and
genitals that do not appear completely male or female, but rather have features of both.
A person who possesses both male and female biological traits is intersexed.
Some intersexed individuals are referred to as hermaphrodites, but the term is generally not
used anymore because it is considered outdated, offensive, and inaccurate.
Intersexed individuals have “ambiguous” genitalia because their genitals appear to be
somewhere in between a penis and a vagina
To intersexed persons, there is nothing “ambiguous” about what is between their legs.

Type of variation

Klinefelter's syndrome

Brief description

XXY chromosome combination. Anatomic male with some female

features. Low interest in sex.

Gender identity

Usually male

Sexuality

Same-gender attraction no more common than it is among biological (Le..

XY) males

Type of variation

Turner's syndrome

Brief description

Single X-chromosome. Feminine body and genital appearance, but no functioning internal reproductive
structures. Sex life depends on when puberty is induced by physician.
Gender identity

Female

Sexuality

Not linked to same-gender attraction

Type of variation

Complete androgen Insensitivity syndrome

Brief description

XY male insensitive to androgens. Feminine genital appearance. Usually not detected until puberty.

Gender identity

Female

Sexuality

Most are attracted to men

Type of variation

Partial androgen insensitivity syndrome

Brief description

XY male who does not respond completely to androgens. Genitals appear to be a mix of male and
female structures.

Gender identity

Can be male or female

Sexuality

Sexual attraction is variable

Type of variation

5-Alpha-reductase deficiency

Brief description

XY male unable to convert testosterone to DHT. Possesses testes, but has feminized genital appearance
until puberty.

Gender identity

Usually female during childhood, male starting at puberty

Sexuality

Most are attracted to women

Type of variation

Congenital adrenal hyperplasta

Brief description

XX female with adrenal glands that produce excessive androgens. Masculinized genital appearance. Can
also occur in XY males, but they are similar to unaffected males in most regards.

Gender identity

Usually female with masculine interests

Sexuality

Most are attracted to men, but prevalence of same-gender attraction is high

What Do These Biological Sex Variations Tell Us About Gender Identity?
All of these sexual variations tell us that biology and genetics play an undisputable role in the
development of both gender identity and sexuality.
When biological events do not follow the typical male or female pattern, it is not always
easy to predict the identity a person will adopt later in life.
Out of all of the potential biological variables, prenatal sex hormone exposure may be the
most important of all. It may be the impact of hormones on the brain that explains why
these sexual variations typically result in different gender identities.
These sexual variations also do not tell the entire story, thus, there would certainly seem
to be room for psychosocial factors to contribute to the development of gender.
PSYCHOSOCIAL INFLUENCES ON GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUALITY
There are a vast number of social factors that teach us about our gender identity and gender role
at a very young age. These factors encourage us to conform to a very specific set of gendered
expectations throughout our lives.
Social Interactions and Norms
Social interactions are among the first things to shape our perceptions of gender, and interactions
with our parents in particular are among the most influential.
The way parents interact with the child is completely different depending upon whether
it is a boy or a girl.
Parents’ simple knowledge of a child’s sex appears to prompt a set of beliefs about gender
appropriate behaviors and traits that can creep into social interactions, sometimes
completely outside of conscious awareness. This may lead children to engage in gender
stereotypic behavior through a self-fulfilling prophecy in which parents’ expectations
elicit and reinforce gendered behavior, effectively making gender stereotypes come true.
Social interactions that occur in school with peers and teachers further reinforce ideas about
gender.
Gender-segregated play that begins very quickly in childhood and continues through
adolescence.
Teachers tend to be more tolerant of bad behavior in boys than in girls, and they tend to
give boys more attention. Teachers also harbor stereotypes about the academic abilities of
the sexes, such as believing that math comes easier to boys.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Socialization within religious contexts further reinforces gender role beliefs.
The writings and teachings of many religious traditions propagate themes of male
dominance and female submissiveness.
Many religions do not permit women to serve as clergy or in leadership roles, which can
send a very visible and powerful statement that men are the ones in charge.
Research finds that religiosity is typically a strong predictor of holding traditional gender
role attitudes.
Physical Environments
The physical environment in which we grow up can have a profound influence on our gender
role beliefs.
Color of your room
Men/Women or Male/Female comfort room
Men/Women or Male/Female clothing sections in department stores
Boys/Girls Toy section
Media
Media plays a part in conveying gender role information to children since they spend more hours
on the internet, at the movies, playing video games, and listening to music. When it comes to sex
and gender, the media tends to present men and women in highly gender-stereotyped ways.
Repeated exposure to these ideas leads us to internalize these gendered beliefs, which then
become
self-perpetuating. However, despite the amount of pressure exerted by these sources to conform
to a specific gender identity and role, not everyone follows their socially prescribed role. This
often
happens for intersexed individuals, but it also happens for persons who are transgendered.
Table 5.3 Gendered Presentations of Men and Women in the Media

An analysis of G-rated films released between 1990 and 2005 revealed that only 28% of
speaking characters were female (this included both real life and animated characters). Likewise,
83% of narrators in these films were male.

An analysis of films across all rating categories released between 1990 and 2006 found that
women were more likely to be presented as parents and as part of a committed relationship
compared to men. This same analysis found that women were more than five times as likely to
be depicted in sexy and revealing attire than men. Together, these results suggest that women are
usually only presented in either a very traditional or highly sexual manner.

An analysis of female leads from 13 of the most popular G-rated films released between 1937
and 2006 found that all of the women were valued and praised for being beautiful and that their
primary focus was finding love.

An analysis of 1,034 TV shows spanning 12 different networks airing in 2005 found that male
characters outnumbered female characters two to one in children's programming. In addition,
female characters were more than four times as likely as male characters to be dressed in a sexy
fashion.

VARIATIONS IN GENDER EXPRESSION

The general term for someone whose behaviors or physical appearance is not consistent with
societal gender roles is transgender. In other words, a transgendered person does not conform
to ideas of what men and women are “supposed” to be. Transgender is a broad umbrella term
that

encompasses different forms of gender role nonconformity. GENDER AND

SEXUALITY
Transsexualism
A transsexual is someone whose gender identity does not match their biological sex. The
clinical
term for this is gender dysphoria, which refers to unhappiness and discomfort that stems from
an incongruence between one’s physical sex and one’s psychological gender identity. Thus, a
male
to-female (MTF) transsexual is someone who is born male but perceives herself as female,
whereas
a female-to-male (FTM) transsexual is born female but perceives himself as male. Although
transsexualism is no longer called a “disorder,” the fact that a diagnostic label still exists is
highly
controversial among professionals in the field and transsexuals themselves.
Cross-Dressing
Another subtype of transgenderism is cross-dressing. Cross-dressing is a broad term that refers
to the act of wearing clothing typically associated with the other sex. One variant of cross-
dressing
is transvestism, which refers to the act of obtaining sexual gratification from wearing clothing
of
the other sex. However, not everyone who cross-dresses does so because it is a turn-on. The
terms
“cross-dresser” and “transvestite” may be overlapping but they are not synonymous. The term
“transvestite” is considered offensive in some parts of the transgender community. Aside from
sexual arousal, some cross-dressers engage in this behavior for performance art. Examples of this
would be drag kings (women who dress as men) and drag queens (men who dress as women),
people
who cross-dress primarily for entertainment or as a career. Although cross-dressing of this nature
often seems to coincide with being gay or bisexual, this is not always the case. Heterosexuals can
and do participate in drag.
Other Identities
Androgynous persons possess both masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
simultaneously (please note that this does not necessarily imply being intersexed).
Bigendered persons change their gender role behavior depending upon the context, moving
fluidly
between a more masculine and feminine role.
Genderqueer individuals think of themselves outside of binary gender classifications, such as
individuals who think of themselves as having a third gender or as being genderless.
Being genderless is sometimes referred to as asexuality, although this term is used more
commonly
to represent a lack of interest in partnered sex.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN SEXUALITY AND ATTITUDES TOWARD SEX
Men have more favorable attitudes toward “hooking-up” and are more willing to have sex
with someone they have just met.
In terms of sexual behaviors, a few of the biggest areas men and women differ include
frequency of masturbation and use of pornography. Perhaps not surprisingly, men
masturbate more, and utilize far more porn, than women.
Men report having a higher sex drive and more daily thoughts about sex. However, there
is no truth to the common stereotype that men think about sex every seven seconds.
AnSEXUALITY
average 34 sexual thoughts per day, or about twice per hour. In contrast, women average
about 19 sexual thoughts per day, or just over once per hour.
Women report having had more sexual partners when they think their answers will be
anonymous compared to when they think their answers might become known to others.
Women have more erotic plasticity than men. That is, female sexuality is more flexible and
responsive to social and cultural factors than male sexuality. Evidence for this comes from
a variety of studies indicating that (1) women become physiologically aroused to a wider
range of sexual targets (2) women are more likely to report a bisexual orientation (3)
women’s sexual identity is more likely to change over time, and (4) women are far less
likely to develop fetishes or become fixated on one specific sexual object.

Sexual Orientation Myths

Some of the most common myths and stereotypes that exist on the topics of homosexuality and bisexuality.
MYTH: Men cannot truly be bisexual. Contrary to the popular stereotype that bisexual men are just guys
who are not ready to come out of the closet yet, research has found evidence of “true” male bisexuality (i.e.,
strong physiological and psychological arousal in response to both men and women).
MYTH: All gay men are effeminate and all lesbians are masculine. While gender nonconformity is indeed
associated with homosexuality, behavioral characteristics and appearance vary considerably across both gay
men and lesbians. While it is certainly true that some gay men are effeminate, there are also a lot of macho
gay men. Likewise, some lesbians are masculine or “butch,” but others are extremely feminine. The reality
is that the gay and lesbian community is enormously diverse, which means that traits and characteristics can
vary greatly from one person to the next. As some evidence of this, consider the fact that studies of “gaydar”
have found that it is far from perfect, and that not everyone who identifies as gay displays gender
nonconformity.
MYTH: In a gay relationship, someone must play the “husband” and someone must play the “wife”. Despite
popular media depictions that almost universally portray gay couples in this way, there are not assigned roles
in a gay relationship. The reality is that partners in gay and lesbian relationships tend to share responsibilities
equally rather than conforming to traditional gender roles.
MYTH: Gay parents tend to raise gay children. There is no empirical support for the idea that homosexuality
is socially transmitted. As a result, it is perhaps not surprising that children of gay parents are no more likely
to be gay than children of heterosexual parents. Besides, if sexual orientation was purely a learned behavior,
then why do so many heterosexual parents produce gay children?
MYTH: Homosexuality is correlated with pedophilia. There is no scientific link between homosexuality and
sexual interest in children. For instance, consider a study by Freund, Watson, and Rienzo in which adult
heterosexual and homosexual men were exposed to sexually suggestive photos of male and female
individuals at various ages (as children, adolescents, and adults). The men were hooked up to penile strain
gauges in order to measure arousal. Results indicated that gay men did not respond any more to images of
male children than heterosexual men responded to images of female children. These findings, combined with
other studies suggesting that it is rare for child molesters to be gay or lesbian indicates that there is nothing
to even remotely back up this idea.
MYTH: All gay men are promiscuous and are incapable of having long-term relationships. This is perhaps
the most common stereotype about gay men, but the truth of the matter is that it is a wild exaggeration. First,
consider that gay and heterosexual men report having equally high sex drives. Thus, gay men do not
necessarily have stronger libidos than their heterosexual counterparts. But do they have more partners?
Research has found that gay men have a higher average number of partners. However, a closer look at these
data reveals that this average is thrown off by a small number of gay men who reported an exceptionally
large number of partners. Instead, if you consider the median (which is not susceptible to the same distortion
as an average), homosexual men report having just one more partner than heterosexual men do. Thus, the
idea that all gay men are sleeping around at a substantially elevated rate is not supported by research. Also,
to the extent that some gay men indeed accumulate more partners, it can probably be explained by the fact
that it is easier to find a willing male partner than a willing female partner due to differential interest in casual
sex. If women expressed greater interest in casual sex (or if society permitted them to do so without penalty),
heterosexual men would likely have just as many partners as gay men. It is also worth noting that gay men
are perfectly capable of having long-term, satisfying relationships. Sexuality makes no difference in one’s
ability to have a functional relationship.
MYTH: Bisexual people cannot be faithful. Some people believe that a bisexual person cannot remain in an
exclusive, monogamous relationship for long because a bisexual individual will ultimately become
dissatisfied and desire a partner of the other sex. However, bisexuals can indeed be content with monogamy.
For example, in Lisa Diamond’s longitudinal study of sexual fluidity, she found that 89% of the women who
identified as bisexual wound up in long-term, monogamous relationships.
MYTH: Most people who have HIV are gay or bisexual men. In the United States, this statement istechnically
true. Most new infections are currently attributable to gay and bisexual men. However, if you look beyond
the US, this is not true at all. In other parts of the world, particularly in Africa, where HIV is most prevalent,
the vast majority of people infected are heterosexuals, and about half of them are women. Thus, while this
statement may be true in some places, it is far from accurate when looking at the overall picture for this
disease.