MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

Perpetuation of Life

Plant and animal reproduction, as well as all movements and functions

of living things, require energy to proceed. In the previous module, we

learned about bioenergetics, and we focused on how plants create

photochemical energy from sunlight. We also learned extensively

about the parts of the cell, the basic unit of living things, as well as

their functions. In this module, we will learn about how life continues

through reproduction. We will also learn about how hereditary

materials are passed from parents to offspirings. Finally, we will also

delve into genetic engineering in order to understand genetically

modified organisms (GMOs) and their implications for our lives today.

Plant Reproduction

The reproduction of plants is important for the propagation of life on

earth. Plants reproduce through three types: asexual, sexual, and

vegetative.

Asexual Reproduction

In the asexual mode of reproduction, offsprings are produced from the

vegetative unit produced by a parent without any fusion of sex cells or

Manual Title 1
X.X Module Title

gametes. In addition to this, only a single parent is involved and the

offspring produced are genetically identical to the parent. There are

also several types of asexual reproduction.

Fission can be seen in unicellular organisms such as yeast or bacteria.

The content of the parent cell divides into 2, 4, or 8 daughter cells.

Accordingly, fission may be called binary (2) or multiple (4 or more).

Each daughter cell that is newly formed grows into a new organism.

Budding is bud-like growth formed on one side of the parent cell. As

soon as the bud separates from the parent cell, it becomes a whole new

organism (e.g. yeast).

Fragmentation occurs in filamentous algae. It occurs as a result of

accidentally breaking off a filament into many fragments. Each new

fragment may give rise to a new organism through cell division (e.g.

Spirogyra).

Spore formation occurs in lower plants, such as pteridophytes and

byrophytes. During this type of asexual reproduction, special

reproductive units develop asexually on the body of the parent. These

special reproductive units are called spores. These are microscopic

units and are covered by protective wall. Once spores reach an

2
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

environment that is conducive to growth, they develop into new plant

bodies (e.g. bread moulds, mosses, ferns).

Vegetative Reproduction

Vegetative reproduction involves the formation of new plants from a

somatic, or vegetative cell, or buds or organs of the plant. Here, a

vegeatitive part of the plant, such as the root, stem, leaf, or bud, is

detached from the body of the parent and grows into a daughter plant

that is independent. It is similar to asexual reproduction in that it only

requires mitotic division. Thus, no gametic fusion occurs and daughter

plants are exact genetic copies of their parents.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of female and male

reproductive cells (gametes). These gametes are haploid, which means

that they contain only half the genetic material (chromosomes) for a

new organism to exist. The fusion of gametes is also called

fertilization and it results in the production of diploid zygote. When

the zygote undergoes further development, it gives rise to a new

individual that is diploid. At the beginning stages of sexual

reproduction, meiosis occurs. The offsprings are not genetically

identical to their parents.

Manual Title 3
X.X Module Title

Reproduction in Lower Plants

Two representative plants that are considered lower plants are

Spirogyra (multicellular) and Chlamydomonas (unicellular).

The unicellular algae, Chlamydomonas, is a haploid, unicellular algae

that is found in freshwater ponds. The plant’s body is pear-shaped, and

there are two flagella attached to the narrow end. Flagella are filaments

found in flagilates. A large chloroplast is present. Towards the center

of the organism, a nucleus is present. The chloroplast contains a single

pyrenoid. The organism may undergo sexual or asexual reproduction.

When it undergoes asexual reproduction, it is through zoospores.

Consequently, its flagellae is lost and the organism becomes non-

motile. The protoplasm divides mitotically and forms 4-8 zoospores.

Each zoospore develops a cell wall and it also grows into an adult cell.

The parent cell, however, does not exist anymore.

During sexual reproduction of the Chlamydomonas, the cell again

becomes non-motile by losing its flagella. The protoplasm also divides

mitotically into 2,4,8,16, and 132 daughter cells. Each daughter cell

then develops its own flagella and is released to the water by the

rupture of the mother cell wall. Each daughter cell acts as a gamete.

The gamete is morphologically identical (isogamous). Two gametes

released from the mother cell fuse together. The contents of the

4
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

gametes then fuse and form a zygote (diploid). This is the only stage in

the organim’s life cycle that is diploid. The zygotes then develop a

thick wall around itself (zygospores). Then, the zoospore grows into a

new organism.

On the other hand, Spirogyra is a free-floating algae found in

freshwater ponds. The body contains a row of rectangular cells that are

joined end to end (filamentous alga). Each cell has a sparial ribbon-

shaped chloroplast that contains many pyrenoids. The nucleus is

present in the cental vacuole with support from cytoplasmic strands. It

undergoes two types of reproduction: vegetative reproduction by

fragmentation and sexual reproduction.

Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation occurs first when filaments

break into smaller fragments. Then, each fragment grows into a new

organism by cell division.

On the other hand, sexual reproduction occurs in the organism.

Scalariform conjugation, which is when filaments conjugate to form a

ladder-like appearance, start when two filaments lie very close to each

other. The cells of the two filaments connect with each other through a

conjugation tube. The contents of the cytoplasm of each cell rounds of

to act as a separate gameter. The gamete from one cell (male) passes

Manual Title 5
X.X Module Title

into the conjugation tube towards the other cell (female). The contents

of these two gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote.

Reproduction in Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)

Angiosperms may reproduce vegetatively or sexually. Sexual

reproduction occurs by the fusion of male and female gametes that are

present in the flower. Thus, the plant’s basic reproductive unit is the

flower. Angiosperms can be classified according to the following:

 Annuals: these plants live for only one year. The plants that

produce seeds and flowers within just one season are termed as

annuals (e.g. peas).

 Biennials: plants that live for two seasons, and complete their

life cycles within these two seasons. During the first year, the

plant is in a vegetative state. In the second year, the plants

produce flowers, fruits, or seeds and then they perish (e.g.

radish).

 Perennials: plants that live for several years. The vegetative

state of these plants may last from one year to several years. In

the year following their vegetative state, they produce flowers,

seeds, or fruits (e.g. mangoes).

6
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

 Monocarpic: perennial plants that reproduce only once during

their lifetime and then die (e.g. bamboo).

Initiation of Flowering

When the plant’s seed germinates, plantlets emerge from it. The

young plant grows and continues to grow until it has a definites

shape and size. The plant’s vegetative parts (root, stem, leaves)

must be well-developed. This phase in the plant’s life cycle is

known as the young of juvenile phase.

After the plant completes vegetative growth, the plant then enters

into the reproductive phase, or the adult phase. A vegetative shoot

apex then tranforms into a floral apex, a reproductive part, and

starts bearing flowers. The flowering stage may last from several

days to several years.

A juvenile shoot has a soft stem, and only bears a few leaves. The

size and shape of the leaves remain the same. It does not respond

to stimuli nor does it produce flowers. On the other hand, an adult

shoot has well-developed stems and leaves. The size and shape of

the leaves change. It also responds to stimuli and can produce

flowers.

Factors Affecting Flowering

Manual Title 7
X.X Module Title

The plant’s flowering is affected by light (photoperiodism) and by

temperature (vernalisation). Vernasilation is when low

temperatures occur, and this stimulates the early formation of

flowers. On the other hand, photoperiodism is the response of the

plant to the duration of dark and light per day. This determines its

growth and flowering.

The sex of a flower may be bisexual, which means that they have

both carpels and stamens, or unisexual (having only a staminate or

pistillate). The sexual determination of flowers may vary in

dioceious species. However, sex determination may have a

chromosomal basis. The plants may also exhibit different levels of

substances required for growth. For instance, Cucumis, which bear

male flowers, have high levels of gibberellin as compared to those

that bear only female flowers. Gibberellin is a plant hormone that

assists in growth and reproduction. When gibberellin is applied

externally, the production of male flowers may be induced even in

plants that are genetically female. Conversely, treating male plants

with ethylene or auxin may induce the development of functional

female flowers. The latter response has been seen in Cannabis.

Parts of a Flower

8
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

A typical flower consists of four whorls which are located on a

stalk (thalamus). Sepals comprise the calyx. Petals comprise the

corolla. Additionally, stames comprise the androecium and pistils

(gynoecium) consists of carpels. The two outer whorls are known

as non-essential or accessory whorls because they do not play a

part in the plant’s reproduction, although they aid indirectly. The

two inner whorls, the androecium (male reproductive organ) and

the gynoecium (female reproductive organ) are termed as essential

whorls because they are the main components of the plant’s

reproduction.

Stamen, Microsporagia, and Pollen Grain

The plant’s stamen consists of an anther that contains

microsporagia, or four pollen sacs. These supported by a slender

filament. Each sporangium contains masses of large cells. These

cells show a prominent nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. These

cells are also known as the sporangeous or the microspore mother

cells. Each microsporangium is madeup of a distinct layers of cells

when mature. The outer most layer is the epidermis. It has a middle

layer of cells with thin walls. The innermost layer is the tapetum,

which consists of large cells. The tapetum nourishes the

developing grains of pollen.

Manual Title 9
X.X Module Title

Microspore mother cells undergo meiosis. Each mother cell

produces four haploid microspores (diploid pollen grains) that are

arranged in a tetrad.

The Development of the Male Gametophyte

The wall of the microspore consists of two principal layers. The

outer layer is the exine and thin spaces (germ pores). The exine is

made up of a durable substance called sporopollenin. The pollen

tube grows out of the pollen grain through the germ pores. The

inner layer is the cellulosic wall (the intine). The microspore

moves towards the periphery. The cell then divides into a small

generative cell and a large vegetative cell. At this stage, the pollens

are released by the rupture of the stodium dehiscence of the anther.

The pollen grain itself is not a male gamete. Rather, it produces the

male gamete and is therefore a male gametophyte.

The Development of the Female Gametophyte

The main part of the ovule is bounded by two coverings

(integuments). These integuments leave behind a small aperture, or

opening. The ovule is attached to the ovary via a stalk, known as

the furniclus. The basal part of this structure is the chalaza.

10
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

The female gamete’s gynoecium (pistil) represents its reproductive

part. Each pistil is composed of a stigma, ovary, and style. The

ovary contains one or more ovules (megasporangia), which act as

future seeds. An ovule develops as a type of projection from the

placenta in the ovary. It consists of integuments and nuclei. As the

ovule grows, it becomes raised on the stalk, termed as furniculus.

This is attached to the placenta on the other end.

Within the nucleus, a single hypodermal cell becomes larger and it

becomes the megaspore mother cell. This cell undergoes meiotic

division, and then gives rise to four haploid megaspore cells.

Usually, three of the megaspores degenerate, while one remains as

the functional megaspore. Thus, 8 nuclei are formed as a result of

this division. The enlarged structure, shaped like an oval and with

8 nuclei, is known as the embryo sac. The nuclei then migrate and

form three groups. Cell membranes and nuclei develop around the

nuclei, except the two at the center of the sac, which is now termed

as the central cell.

Vegetative Reproduction in Angiosperms

The natural method of the vegetative reproduction of angiosperms

starts with the underground modification of stems, such as ing

ginger, potato, onion, and corn. These are provided with buds

Manual Title 11
X.X Module Title

which develop into a new plant and are therefore used to carry out

vegetative propagation of the plant in the filed. Plants with

subaerial modification, such as chrysanthemum and pistia, are also

used for vegetative propagation. Artificial methods of vegetative

reproduction include the use of cuttings, layering, and aerial

layering.

Animal Reproduction

Animal reproduction is the process by which animals propagate on

earth and it is also the process through which genetic materials are

transferred to offspring. Animals, like plants, may reproduce through

asexual or sexual means. Asexual reproduction is primarily employed

by turnicates, protists, and cnidaria. However, it may also occur in the

more complex animal species. Indeed, the formation of identical twins

by the separation of two identicall cells in the early embryo is a form

of asexual reproduction. Through mitosis, genetically identical cells

are produced from one parent cell. This permits asexual reproduction

to occur in protists by the organism’s division, called fission. Cnidaria

commonly reproduce by budding, which is when a part of the parent’s

body is separated from the rest and differentiates into a new organism.

The new organism may become independent, or it may remain

attached to the parent organism, forming a colony.

12
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

Sexual reproduction occurs when a new individual is formed from the

union of two sex cells, or gametes. Gamates include the sperm and the

egg. The union of these two produces a fertilized egg, or zygot.

Through mitotic division, the zygote develops into a new organism.

The zygote and the cells that it forms are diploid. This means that they

contain both members of each pair of homologous chromosoms. The

gametes are formed in the sex organs, or gonads (the testes and the

ovaries), and are haploid. The process of sperm formation

(spermatogenesis) and egg formation (oogenesis) are also included in

the study of the reproduction of animals.

Different Approaches to Sex

Virgin birth, or parthenogenesis, is common in many species of

arthropods. Some species are exclusively parthenogenic (all female),

while others switch between generation. Another variation in the

reproductive strategies used by animals is hermaphroditism. This is the

case when one individual has both testes and ovaries. Tapeworms are

hermaphroditic, and it is able to fertilize itself. However, most

hermaphroditic animals require another organism to reproduce, such as

in the case of two earthworms. There are also some deep sea fish

which are hermaphrodites, meaning that they are both male and female

at the same time. Numerous species of fish can change their sex, a

Manual Title 13
X.X Module Title

process which is called sequential hermaphroditism. The change from

female to male is protogyny, while the change from male to female is

protandry.

Sex Determination

In fish, there are conditions which cause changes in sex. In mammals,

however, sex is already determined early in embryonic development.

The reproductive systems of both males and females (humans) are

identical during the first 40 days of embryonic development. During

this time, the cells that will give rise to either ova or sperm move from

the yolk sac to the embryonic gonads. These gonads can become testes

in males and ovaries in females. For this reason, embryonic gonads are

said to be indifferent. If the embryo is a male, it will posses a Y

chromosome. If the embryo is a female, it will have no Y

chromosomes. Recent evidence suggests that the sex-determining gene

(SRY) appears to have been highly conserved during the evolution of

vertebrate groups. Once the testes are formed in the embryo, they

secrete testosterone and other hormones that will promote the

development of the external genitalia of the male, as well as accessory

reproductive organs. In other words, all embryos are females until they

are masculanized by testosterone.

Fertilization and Development

14
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

There are two types of fertilization: internal and external. External

fertilization commonly occurs among organisms in the ocean, where

water allows for the rapid dispersion of sperm or ova towards others of

the same species. On the other hand, internal fertilization is common

in terrestrial animals. Internal fertilization is the introduction of the

male gamete into the female’s reproductive tract. Vertebrates that

practice internal fertilization have three strategies:

 Oviparity, which is found in some amphibians, fish, and some

reptiles, is when the eggs are deposited outside the mother’s

body after fertilization.

 Ovoviviparity is commonly found in mollies, guppies, and

mosquito fish. The fertilized eggs are retained within the

mother in order to complete their development. The embryos

still take all of their nourishment from the egg yolk. The young

are thus fully developed when they hatch.

 Viviparity is found in almost all mammals. The young develop

within the mother and takes its nourishment directly from their

mother’s blood, as opposed to egg yolks.

Reproduction in Fish and Amphibians

Manual Title 15
X.X Module Title

In most species of bony fish (teleosts), the fertilization of eggs

occurs externally. The eggs contain only enough yolk to sustain the

developing embryo until it is ready to tach. The development of

fish is rapid, and the young are able to find their own food source

from a very young age. Although thousands of eggs are fertilized

during a mating period, most of the eggs perish. In most

cartilaginous fish, however, most fertilization is internal. The male

introduces sperm into the female by means of a modified pelvic

fin. In these vertebrates, the development of the young is

viviparous.

Amphibians use external fertilization in most cases. In these

organisms, gametes from the males and females are released

through the cloaca. Most amphibian eggs develop in the water. The

time required for amphibians to develop is much longer than fish.

However, amphibian eggs do not have a lot of yolk. Instead, the

process of amphibian development is divided into embryonic,

larval, and adult stages.

Reproduction in Reptiles and Birds

Most reptiles and birds are oviparous. That is, after their eggs have

been fertilized, they are deposited outside of the mother’s body in

order to complete their development. As with most animals that

16
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

fertilize internally, male reptiles have a penis that they use to

introduce male gametes into the female’s reproductive tract. The

shells of reptile eggs are leathery, and this allows for better

withdstanding of environmental conditions.

All birds practice internal fertilization, although most birds lack a

penis. In some of the larger birds (e.g. ostriches, geese, and swans),

the male cloaca can extend to form a false penis. As the eggs

passes through the oviduct, the glands secrete the egg whites and

the hard shells that distinguish bird eggs from reptilian eggs. Most

birds are also homeotherms, meaning that they keep a stable body

temperature. Thus, they often incubate their eggs after laying them

to keep them warm. The young that emerges from bird eggs do not

develop rapidly, and they need to be assisted and fed by their

parents until they are ready to be independent.

Bird and reptile eggs show the stark evidence for adaptation to

land. These eggs are termed as amniotic eggs because the embryo

that develops within the cavity filled with fluid is surrounded by a

membrane called an amnion. The amnion is an extra-embryonic

membrane and develop outside of the body of the embryo. Other

extra-embyronic membranes include the chorion, the yolk sac, and

the allantois.

Manual Title 17
X.X Module Title

Reproduction in Mammals

The reproductive cycles of mammals differ greatly. Some are

seasonal breeders that reproduce only once a year. Other have

shorter reproductive cycles. Among those that have short

reproductive cycles, females usually undergo the reproductive

cycle, while males are more constant in their reproductive activity.

Ovulation in females is the cyclic release of an egg from the ovary.

Most mammals are fertile only at the time of ovulation. The period

of sexual receptivity is called estrus, and the reproductive cycle is

therefore called an estrous cycle.

The estrous cycle of most mammals change according to the

secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH). These are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland

and cause changes in egg cell development and hormone secretion

in the ovaries. Like other mammals, humans and apes have an

estrous cycle. However, unlike other mammals, humans and apes

can mate anytime during their reproductive cycle. The most

primitive mammals, the monotremes, are oviparous. The

marsupials (e.g. kangaroos) give birth to offspring that are already

completely developed. The placental mammals retain their young

for a much longer period within the mother’s uterus. The fetuses

18
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

are nourished by the placenta, which is derived from the chorion

and the uterine lining of the mother. The fetus derives its nutrients

from the mother’s blood, since fetal and maternal blood vessels are

in close proximity.

Overview of Genetics

The most fundamental characteristic of all living things is the ability to

reproduce. All organisms gain their genetic material from their

parents. Genetic information determines their structures and functions

by directly influencing the synthesis of proteins.

Genes and Chromosomes

Gregor Mendel deduced the classical principles of genetics in 1865.

He based his deductions on the results of breeding experiments with

peas. Characteristics of the peas, such as seed color, could be predicted

by Mendel through the determination of a pair of inherited factors.

These inherited factors are now called genes. One gene copy, which ci

termed as an allele, specifies a certain trait that is inherited from each

parent. A gene is said to be dominant if it contains alleles for two

colors, and only one color shows. For instance, breeding yellow and

green peas yields yellow peas. In this case, the yellow is said to be

dominant gene while green is said to be recessive. If Y designates

Manual Title 19
X.X Module Title

yellow and y designates green, then the genetic composition

(genotype) of the peas is Yy, and their physical appearance

(phenotype) is yellow. Mendelian genetics is the term for the

deductions of Mendel.

Shortly after, the role of chromosomes as carriers of genes was

proposed. It was also realized that higher animals and plants have

diploid cells, which contain two copies of each chromosome. Cell

division in the form of meiosis involves the daughter cell inheriting

only one member of each chromosome pair. Consequently, the sperm

and egg are haploid cells at fertilization, and this creates diploid

organisms.

20
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

Experiments on the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster,

established most of the principles of genetics today. The

fundamentals of genetic linkage, mutation, and the

relationships between chromosomes and genes were

elucidated. Genetic alterations were observed in Drosophila

in the 1900s. These involved readily observable traits, such

as eye color and wing shape. This experiment showed that

there are traits which are inherited in pairs, which are said

to be linked genes.

Chromosomes exchange materials during meiosis, leading to the

linked genes’ recombination. The frequency of recombination between

two linked genes depends on their distance from each other on the

chromosome. Thus, the frequency with which different genese

recombine can be used for mapping their positions on chromosomes,

which is known as genetic mapping.

Manual Title 21
X.X Module Title

Genes and Enzymes

The first evidence for the existence of enzymes came in 1909, through

the study of the disease called phenylketoneuria. The disease results

from a genetic defect that results in problems with the metabolism of

phenylalanine, an amino acid. This defect was hypothesized to result

from a lack of enzymes needed to catalyze the metabolic reaction.

Subsequently, this led to the suggestion that genes also specify the

synthesis of enzymes.

Understanding the chromosomal basis of heredity and the relationship

between enzymes and genes did not itself provide a molecular

22
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

explanation for the gene. Chromosomes, aside from containing DNA,

also contain proteins.

The structure of DNA is three-dimensional. We owe our understanding

of this structure to James Watson and Francis Crick, who formed the

basis for present-day molecular biology. DNA is a polymer composed

of four nucleic acid bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and

thymine (T). The former two are purines, while the latter two are

pyrimidines. These bases are linked to phosphorylated sugars. The

central model of the DNA is that it is double-helix with a sugar-

phosphate backbone on the outside of the molecule. On the inside,

bases are held together by hydrogen bonds that are formed between

purines and pyrimidines on opposite chains. The amount of adenine is

always equal to the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine to

that of cytosine. Due to this specific base pairing, two strands of DNA

are complementary: each strand contains the bases that are required to

specify the sequence of the other strand.

Replication of DNA

The discovery of complementary base pairing between DNA strands

suggest that there is a molecular solution to the problem of how

genetic material directs its own replication. Two strands of DNA can

separate to serve as templates for a new strand. This would be

Manual Title 23
X.X Module Title

specified by base pairing. This process is called semiconservative

replication, because one strand is conserved in the progeny DNA

molecule. The enzyme that catalyzes DNA replication is DNA

polymerase. The replication of DNA can either be bidirectional, going

both forwards and backwards, or unidirectional, going only one

direction. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the DNA chain in a

specific direction, which is from 5’ to 3’.

DNA Transcription and Translation

Protein synthesis is directed by genes. When genes are defective, they

produce defective proteins and this results in abnormalities such as

albinism. There are two basic steps to the synthesis of protein. The

first is the transcription of genes, which produces a messenger RNA

(mRNA) molecule. The second step to protein synthesis is translation.

24
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

This is the portion of protein synthesis in which the mRNA molecule

is translated into proteins.

During transcription, the sequence of nucleotides in a gene in the DNA

is copied to the corresponding sequence of nucleotides in mRNA.

During translation, the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA

determines the sequence of amino acids in the proteins.

DNA transcription is mediated by RNA polymerase. It separates the

two strands of the double helix and constructs an mRNA molecule by

adding nucleotides one at a time. The base-pairing rule summarizes

which nucleotides pair with each other. Guanine pairs with cytosine,

while adenine pairs with thymine.

DNA translation determines the sequence of amino acids in the

protein. The cell uses transfer RNA (tRNA) the bring the correct

amino acid for each codon in the mRNA. Each tRNA has three

nucleotides that form an anti-codon. The three nucleotides in the anti-

codon are complementary to the three nucleotides in the mRNA codon

for a specific amino acid. Amino acids are the building blocks of

proteins.

Manual Title 25