The nucleon number/ mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an

atom.

The atomic number/ proton number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.

Protons are deflected towards the negatively charged plate.

Electrons are deflected towards the positively charged plate, and because they are much lighter
compared to protons, they are deflected to a larger extent.
As neutrons are uncharged, they remain unaffected by the electric field.

Extent of deflection = charge/ mass

An orbital is a region of space where there is a high probability density.

1. Aufbau principle: electrons must reside in the orbital with the lowest possible energy first
→ 4s orbitals must be filled before 3d orbitals
2. Pauli exclusion principle: an orbital can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons and the 2
electrons must be in opposite spins
3. Hund’s rule: when electrons are added successively to a subshell, they must occupy orbitals
singly and with the same spin first before pairing can occur.

24Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 → half filled d orbitals are more stable
29Cu: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 → fully filled d orbitals are more stable

Across a period, first ionisation energy generally increases. Across a period, nuclear charge increases
while there is negligible increase in shielding effect since electrons are removed from the same principal
quantum shell. The atomic radius decreases. As a result, the valence electrons are increasingly attracted
to the positive nucleus and more energy is required to remove them.

From Be to B/ Mg to Al:
The 2p electron to be removed from B has a higher energy than the 2s electron to be removed from Be.
Hence, the 2p electron requires less energy to be removed from B. Thus, the first IE of B is lower than
the first IE of Be.

From N to O/ P to S:
Coulombic repulsion between the paired 2p electrons in O makes it easier to remove one of the paired
2p electrons from O as compared to the unpaired 2p electron from N. Less energy is required. The first IE
of O is lower than the first IE of N.