David, Henry Philip - Relationship of Szondi Picture Preferences To Personality

RELATIONSHIP OF SZONDI PICTURE PREFERENCE TO PERSONALITY
by
Henry P. David
This dissertation has been approved for final examination by

the Student’s Dissertation Committee whose written approval
is on file in the Advanced School
Dissertation Committee:
Prof. Irving D. Lorge, Chairman
Prof. Laurance F. Shaffer
Prof. Edward J. Shoben, Jr.
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University
1951
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The cooperation and suggestions of many persons made this
dissertation possible. The Szondi test was originally sent to the
writer by the Psychological Abstracts. Professor Laurance F. Shaffer
encouraged early research efforts and aided materially in the planning
phase of the study. Permission to test sexual offenders at Sing Sing
Prison was granted by Dr. David Abrahamsen, Director of the Research
Project of the New York State Psychiatric Institute. Additional
homosexual records were contributed by Mr. William Trembath, Chief
Psychologist of the Ionia State Hospital, Michigan. The staff of the
Caro State Hospital, Michigan, greatly facilitated the selection of
epileptic subjects. Mrs. Ona Margules and Mr. Richard Benjamin aided
the writer in the collection of Szondi profiles.
The analysis of the data was greatly facilitated by the very
able assistance of Mr. William Rabinowitz. The endless hours of tabu
lation were smoothed by Sylvia Viera de Reviera. Professor Edward J.
Shoben, Jr. contributed a host of fruitful suggestions. The disser
tation is in great measure attributable, however, to the many insights
gained from the writer's association with Professor Irving D. Lorge.
To the 200 men who willingly contributed their Szondi profiles,
and thereby made the project possible, the writer acknowledges his
greatest debt.
May 1951 Henry P. David
To This Country
Which Opened Its Portals
And Offered Opportunity
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I INTRODUCTION ....................................... 1
The Szondi T e s t .................................. 1

Szondi Theory .................................... 3
Szondi Literature ................................ 9
A Rationale for this Study......................... 10
II PROCEDURE OF INVESTIGATION.......................... 13
Selection of Epileptic Subjects .................... 13

Selection of Homosexual Subjects .................... 14
Comparison of Epileptics andHomosexuals .............. 15
Test Administration ............................... 17
III ANALYSIS OF R E S U L T S ............................... 18
Inter-Group Analysis ............................... 18

Postulated Sign Analysis ........................... 20
Factorial Changes Analysis ......................... 28
Individual Picture Analysis ....................... 36
Some Observations on the Szondi Test ................ 44
IV SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS............................ 47
Summary.......................................... 47
Implications ..................................... 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... 51
APPENDIX................................................... 52
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Distribution of Possible Choice Reactions in the Szondi

Factorial Scoring System ............................. 4
2 Summary of Deri’s Interpretation of the Szondi Factors . . 8
3 Comparisons Between 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals

for Age, Intelligence, and Education .................. 16
4 Comparison of Factorial Directions for 100 Epileptics

and 100 Homosexuals on Administrations I and V I ....... 19
5 Frequency of Deri’s Postulated Signs for Homosexuality

as Observed in 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals on
Administrations I and V I ................... 22
6 Frequency of Deri's Postulated Signs for Epilepsy as

Observed in 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals on
Administrations I and V I ............................. 23
7 Frequency of Szondi's Postulated Signs for Homosexuality

as Observed in 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals on
Administrations I and V I ............................. 24
8 Frequency of Szondi's "Classical Post-Paroxysmal Syn

drome" as Observed in 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals
on Administrations I and V I ......................... 25
9 Frequency of Szondi’s "Classical Inter-Paroxysmal Syn

drome" as Observed in 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals
on Administrations I and V I ......................... 26
10 Comparison of 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals on the

Szondi Tension Index ................................ 27
11 Total Number of Changes in Factorial Direction by 100

Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals over Six Test Adminis
trations ........................................... 30
12 Number of Subjects Whose Factorial Directions Did NOT

Change Between Each of Six Separate Szondi Test
Administrations.................................... 31
13 Amount and Kinds of Changes in Factorial Directions

Between Administrations I and VI for 100 Epileptics and
100 Homosexuals.................................... 32
iv
LIST OF TABLES— -Continued
Table Page
14 Total Number of Changes in Factorial Directions

Arranged According to the Several Kinds of Possible
Changes for 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals over
Six Administrations................................. 34
15 Comparison of "Liked,'* "Disliked," and "Ignored" Choice

Reactions to the 48 Individual Pictures by 100 Epileptics
and 100 Homosexuals on Administration I .................. 37
16 Comparison of "Liked," "Disliked," and "Ignored" Choice

Reactions to the 48 Individual Pictures by 100 Epileptics
and 100 Homosexuals on Administration V I ................ 39
17 A Summary of Individual Pictures Which Discriminate

Significantly Between 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals
on Administrations I and V I ............................. 41-
Appendix
18-29 Comparison of Individual Picture Preferences, Liked and

Disliked, for Each of the 48 Szondi Pictures, Arranged
by Set, Between Administrations I and VI for 100 Epilep
tics and 100 Homosexuals............................... 53
30-35 Summary of Individual Picture Preferences for Each of

48 Szondi Pictures Between Administrations I and VI
for 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals.................. 65
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In recent years the field of clinical psychology has seen a
steady growth of projective techniques. Critical evaluation has often
lagged behind enthusiastic application. It is the purpose of this dis
sertation to attempt to close the gap on one such method, the Szondi
test.”*-
The Szondi Test
Materials;- The Szondi test consists of 48 pictures, 2 by 3
inches in size, divided into six sets of eight pictures each. Every
photograph reproduces the face of a mental patient. Within every set
there is one picture representing each of the following eight clinical
syndromes (hereafter referred to as Szondi Factors); homosexual (h),
sadist (s), epileptic (e), hysteric (hy), catatonic schizophrenic (k),
paranoid schizophrenic (p), manic-depressive depressive (d), and manic-
depressive manic (m). In the total test, every disease entity is repre
sented by six pictures, one of which appears in each of the six sets.
The origins of the Szondi pictures have been previously described
by the writer.^ Most of them stem from German textbooks in psychiatry,
■4.. Szondi, Szondi Test; Test Band (Bern, Huber Verlag, 194-7).
^enry P. David, "An Inquiry into the Szondi Pictures," Journal

of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 45:735-37, 1950.
2
some published as early as 1892. Many of the reproductions are indis
tinct and photographically poor in quality. The number of men and
women represented is not equal and the sex of the persons pictured is
not clearly indicated. Dress and appearance are predominantly late
19th century European.
Test Administration:- The six Szondi sets, each containing eight
pictures, are presented to the subject consecutively. Every picture has
an assigned number and is always shown in the same, standardized order.
The subject's task is to choose from each set the two pictures he likes
most and the two he dislikes most. According to Deri, "It is impossible
to give the exact wording of the instructions since in administering a
projective technic one always has to allow for some individual variations
as the case might require."•*- In actual practice, the subject is forced
to make four choices, and it becomes the examiner's task to encourage
quick and unhesitating decisions. The subject is not allowed to change
the order of the pictures or to pick up any one of them for closer inspec
tion.
Test Scoring;- Essentially, interpretation of the Szondi test
profile rests upon the factorial scoring system. Every one of the eight
Szondi factors must be scored in one of four ways, depending upon the
distribution of "liked" and "disliked" choice reactions within a given
factor. These factorial scores, or directions, are: plus, minus, ambi
valent, and open. A direction of plus is assigned to a factor when a
subject likes two or more of the pictures within that factor, and the
liked choices are at least twice as numerous as the disliked choices.
^Susan K. Deri, Introduction to the Szondi Test: Theory and

Practice, p. 9.
3
If the reverse occurs, the factor is given a minus direction. A factor
is ambivalent, when more than one picture is either liked or disliked,
but the ratio of likes to dislikes or the reverse is less than 2:1. A
factor is considered open, when not more than one of its pictures is
either liked or disliked, or both. It will be noted in Table I that
the same factorial direction may be assigned to a number of different
distributions of picture preferences. The function of the individual
pictures within a given factor is believed to be relatively unimportant,
on the implicit assumption that all pictures within that factor are equal
representatives of that disease entity.
Szondi Theory
The emergence and development of Szondi theory may be traced in
Szondi's German publications*^ and in Deri's introductory volume. ^ Orig
inally interested in the genetics of mental disease, Szondi developed
the theory that man's "fate” was largely determined by the latent reces
sive genes, which, he asserted, exercised their influence through the
unconscious. Believing that these latent recessive gene3 represented an
individual's "hidden ancestors," Szondi termed their sphere of influence
the "familial unconscious," thus hoping to bridge Freud's "individual un
conscious" and Jung's "collective unconscious." He further postulated
1L. Szondi, Schicksalsanalyse (Basel, Switzerland, Schwabe and

Co., 1948)J aud, L. Szondi, Szondi Test: Experimentelle Trlebdiapnostik
(Bern, Switzerland, Huber Verlag, 1947).
2
Susan K. Deri, op. cit.
u
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF POSSIBLE CHOICE REACTIONS IN THE

SZONDI FACTORIAL SCORING SYSTEM*
A scorei of "plus" is given when there are:
2 Likes 2 Likes 3 Likes 3 Likes

0 Dislikes 1 Dislike 1 Dislike 0 Dislikes
4 Likes 4 Likes 4 Likes

2 Dislikes 1 Dislike 0 Dislikes
5 Likes 5 Likes 6 Likes

1 Dislike 0 Dislikes 0 Dislikes
A score of "minus" is given when there are;
0 Likes 1 Like 1 Like 0 Likes

2 Dislikes 2 Dislikes 3 Dislikes 3 Dislikes
0 Likes 1 Like 2 Likes

4 Dislikes 4 Dislikes 4 Dislikes
0 Likes 1 Like 0 Likes

5 Dislikes 5 Dislikes 6 Dislikes
A score of "ambivalent" is given when there are;
2 Likes 3 Likes 2 Likes 3 Likes

2 Dislikes 3 Dislikes 3 Dislikes 2 Dislikes
A score of "open" is given when there are;
0 Likes 0 Likes 1 Like 1 Like

0 Dislikes 1 Dislike 0 Dislikes 1 Dislike
* Based on Deri, op. clt.. pp. 33-34*
5
that a number of clinical manifestations (which subsequently became the
eight Szondi Factors) followed Mendelian laws, and were transmitted from
generation to generation by the latent recessive genes. Devoting an
entire volume-*- to a report of his genealogical research, Szondi announced
that his major assumptions were essentially "proved," an attitude not
shared by most contemporary geneticists.
It soon became apparent to Szondi that genealogical research was
exceedingly cumbersome and time-consuming. He reasoned that if individ
uals were attracted by persons of their own genealogical circle, then it
was also likely that these individuals would select from a series of
photographs those persons also belonging to their own genealogical circle.
Toward this end he experimented with many pictures over a number of years,
finally emerging with the present form bearing his name. In his report^
Szondi states that the test has been administered to over 4000 persons
of varied ages and nosological classification, both normal and patholog
ical. Unfortunately, the exact statistics have not been reproduced.
Clinicians in the United States have been influenced primarily
by Deri’s introductory text in English,^ which stresses a non-genetic,
more psychoanalytically oriented rationale. Susan Deri, one of Szondi's
original students and later co-workers, came to this country following
the outbreak of World War II. Trained in European psychoanalytic tradi
tions and influenced ty her studies with Lewin at Iowa State University,
T.. Szondi, Schicksalsanalyse. op. cit.
^L. Szondi, Szondi Test: Experimentelle Triebdiaenostik. op. cit.
^Deri, op. cit.
6
she developed a different orientation for the Szondi test. In her volume
she attempts "to construct and present a series of psychologic assump
tions from which the interpretation of the test profiles can be derived,
as well as "to make verbally explicit the basic psychological assumptions
implicit in the interpretation of the single test factors".^ It is
Deri’s basic contention that the eight drive factors described by Szondi
"correspond to eight different need-systems in the organism...expressing
certain psychological mechanisms in extreme form, which to some degree
exist in everybody."3 She assumes that subjects do not consciously recog
nize the stimulus in the individual pictures, but rather that in respond
ing to the test, the subject unconsciously identifies with or rejects
those latent characteristics in himself. She thus assumes that the selec
tion of pictures is determined by the subject's tensions system which
establishes a valence between him and the photograph, and thus determines
his spontaneous choice. The purpose of object-choices on the part of the
subject, therefore, is to reduce the tension arising from an unfulfilled
need. Dependent upon the state of tension in the various need-3ystems
of the organism, environmental objects acquire valence character. As
Lewin has indicated, such valence may be negative or positive relative to
whether the need requires approach to or avoidance of the object. It is
in this manner that a subject is thought to select pictures as "liked"
or "disliked." What the original intensity and quality of the need depend
1
Deri, op. cit.. p. 3.
2Ibid.. p. 3. 3Ibid.. p. 26.
7
on, Deri does not say.
A schematic presentation of the Szondi factors, as interpreted
by Deri is given in Table 2. The direction of the factorial choice
reactions Deri believes to be dependent upon the subject's conscious
or unconscious attitude towards his particular need. "A positive re
sponse for pictures of a certain factor indicates a conscious or uncon
scious identification with the motivational processes as depicted by
the photographs of the respective factor. A negative response indicates
the existence of a counteridentification with the psychologic processes
as depicted in the respective stimulus pictures."^ Deri feels that an
"ambivalent" response implies that both identification and counteridenti
fication are present simultaneously in regard to the same psychological
need. Basic ambivalence toward a given emotional need is believed to be
experienced at times as conflict, "almost to the extent of forming a
conscious source of a psychologic dilemma." It should be noted that
within the framework of Deri's interpretation, "need" is defined in a
broader sense than is generally the case in Lewinian psychology. The
term is used in reference both to inhibition and control of emotional
manifestations, as well as to "living-out" such drives in an uninhibited
manner. An "open" reaction is interpreted in one of two ways - either
there is an original weakness of the need in question, or a release of
tension has been achieved through "living-out" the need, ranging from
normal to pathological.
■4>eri, op. cit.. p. 34.
s
TABLE 2
A SUMMARY OF DERI'S INTERPRETATION OF THE SZONDI FACTORS*
I. The Sexual Vector (S) consists of:
a. the h factor (represented by pictures of homosexuals),

corresponding to the need for "passive" tenderness and
yielding;
b. the s factor (represented by pictures of sadists), corre

sponding to the need for physical activity and aggressive
manipulation of objects.
II. The Paroxysmal Vector (P) consists of:
a. the e factor (represented by pictures of epileptics),

describing the subject's way of dealing with aggressive,
hostile emotions.
b. the hy factor (represented by pictures of hysterics), in

dicating the way the person deals with his more tender
emotions.
III. The Schizophrenic, or Ego, Vector (SCH) consists of:
a. the k factor (represented by pictures of catatonic schizo-

phrenics), representing the need to keep up the ego's nar
cissistic integrity and separateness from environmental
objects;
b. the p factor (represented by pictures of paranoid-schizo-

phrenics), showing the expansive needs of the ego, the
tendency to fuse into objects of the environment.
IV. The Circular, or Contact, Vector (C) consists of:
a. the d factor (represented by pictures of depressed pa

tients), reflecting the passive, "anal" type of rela
tionship;
b. the m factor (represented by pictures of manic patients),

indicating the "clinging, oral" type of object relation
ship.
Based on Deri, op. cit.. pp. 65-66.
9
The major portion of Deri's volume is devoted to an elaboration
of the general implications of her assumptions as well as to their spe
cific meaning in the different factorial constellations. There are no
statistical validational data, however, and the reader is asked to keep
his "judgment suspended until he can convince himself about the clinical
validity of the statements by the actual use of the test."'*'
Szondi Literature
A review of the literature has been presented by the writer
elsewhere. Essentially, Szondi research has been of two kinds - efforts
at clinical validation by comparing the Szondi profiles of individual
patients to their psychiatric diagnoses or to results from the Rorschach
test, and more quantitatively oriented studies dealing with specific
aspects of the Szondi. The former may be questioned on the grounds that
interpretation is highly personal and largely dependent upon the training
and intuition of the individual clinician. Quantitative studies have
clearly shown that the photographs within a given factor are not equal
in their attraction and that certain pictures are consistently preferred
by most subjects. There is considerable doubt that day-to-day fluctua
tions in factorial directions reflect basic shifts in a subject's need-
tensions and that six te3t administrations are minimal for clinical
interpretation. Questions have been raised regarding the role of cultural
determinants, and the function of the individual pictures themselves.
■*Deri, op. cit.. p. xi.
^Henry P. David,"The Szondi Test - a Review of the Literature."

Psychol. Serv. Ctr. J.. 1951 (in press).
10
Reviewers have been most concerned, however, over the lack of systematic
validation. While interest in the Szondi has been considerable, respon
sible clinicians have adopted a "wait-and-see" attitude.
A Rationale for this Study
The Szondi test has been described as a new projective technique,
designed to aid in clinical diagnosis and in the understanding of per
sonality dynamics. Both Szondi and Deri have worked out a rationale based
upon the factorial scoring system. They discuss the meaning of the sev
eral factorial directions and postulate specific diagnostic indicators
or "signs." Both writers hold that six test administrations are minimal
for the interpretation of individual profiles. The amount and kinds of
changes in factorial directions observed from one administration to the
next are asserted to be of considerable importance in establishing a
diagnosis. One of the purposes of this study is to test empirically the
assertions made concerning diagnostic signs and factorial changes over a
series of administrations.
Neither Szondi nor Deri specifically discuss the function of the
4.8 individual pictures which constitute the test. It is their implicit
assumption that the six photographs within every factor are equated and
that preference for one or the other is relatively unimportant. Rather,
they say, it is the distribution of likes and dislikes within a factor,
regardless of the actual pictures selected, that determines a given sub
ject's factorial direction, as prescribed by the factorial scoring system.
However, neither the specific diagnostic signs nor the factorial changes
in direction necessarily reflect an individual's reaction to the 48 pic
tures over a series of administrations. Thus, while the factorial
11
direction nay not change from one administration to the next, the actual
pictures selected as liked or disliked may be quite different, or even
reversed. Similarly, two persons whose Szondi test profiles reveal
identical factorial directions may have made different picture choices.
An attempt will be made in this study to determine the function of the
4# individual pictures, as well as the consistency of choices over a
series of test administrations.
It will be recalled that each of the eight Szondi factors cor
responds to a specific disease entity. Deri states: "Without the as
sumption that these eight types of mental disturbances imply well
definable extreme manifestations of generally known psychologic mechan
isms, the functioning of the test would be inconceivable."^ It appears,
therefore, that one way of testing the validity of some of Szondi's and
Deri's assertions would be to administer the test to two well-established,
clearly delineated clinical groups. Idiopathic epileptics and overt
homosexuals were selected for study because their diagnoses were rela
tively well-established in comparison to Szondi's other six disease
entities.
It is the central purpose of this investigation to determine
whether the Szondi test differentiates according to theoretical expecta
tion between 100 idiopathic epileptics and 100 overt homosexuals, in
terms of diagnostic signs, changes in factorial directions, and the 48
individual pictures. The test was administered individually six times
> op» cit.. p. 66.
12
to every subject following standard directions. The procedure of select
ing and testing the subjects will be described in the next section. In
the analysis of the results attention will be focused upon the role of
the factorial scoring system and the function of the 48 pictures in
discriminating between the two groups. The two groups will be contrasted
in terms of the four directions of the factorial scoring systems plus,
minus, ambivalent, and open. Specific diagnostic indicators, or wsigns,n
postulated by either Szondi or Deri will be listed with appropriate
quotations and a record of the total number of subjects in either group
whose profiles actually yielded these signs. The amount and kinds of
changes in factorial directions in every factor from one administration
to the next, as well as between specific administrations, will be con
sidered. The role of each of the 1$ Szondi pictures in discriminating
between the two groups will be determined, as well as the consistency of
individual picture preferences between administrations.
To evaluate the results obtained on every one of the six test
administrations in terms of the proposed analyses appeared to be an un
economical procedure. It was assumed that Administration I was of major
importance since the subject’s initial choice reactions to the first
exposure of the photographs were here recorded. Any practice effect
which might occur in subsequent administrations would, of course, not be
operative on Administration I. It was similarly assumed that whatever
practice effect and changes would take place from one administration to
the next, should be most operative in Administration VI, the final test
ing. On the basis of these assumptions it was decided to utilize
primarily the data obtained, on both Administrations I and VI.
CHAPTER II
PROCEDURE OF INVESTIGATION
Selection of Epileptic Subjects
Through the cooperation of the Caro State Hospital for Epilep
tics in Caro, Michigan, epileptic patients and their records were made
available for the investigation. Each patient had been carefully
examined prior to commitment and periodically following admission. The
examination included both psychiatric and psychological screening and
testing. Wechsler-Bellevue results were available for all patients
selected. The 100 subjects chosen for investigation were, in so far as
it was possible to ascertain, non-psychotic, non-homosexual, non-deterior-
ated single white males, between the ages of 18 and 49. All had a
documented history of epileptic seizures since early childhood and all
were under anti-convulsive drug treatment. Since the vast majority of
the patients had been restricted in the amount of education obtained and
had been unable to follow a trade, their socio-economic status was gen
erally considered either "dependent” or "marginal.11 Mean age was 32.5
years and mean Wechsler-Bellevue intelligence rating was 89.7. None had
more than a high school education, with the majority having attended
school for eight years or less. Frequency distributions for age, intel
ligence, and education will be found in Table 3.
13
K
Selection of Homosexual Subjects
For the purposes of this investigation "overt homosexuality" was
defined in terms of Kinsey's rating scale.^ A man was considered an
overt homosexual when he had openly stated, at any time, that his sexual
experiences were either exclusively homosexual or very predominantly so.
Unusual difficulties were encountered in attempts to obtain either homo
sexual subjects or the records of individuals tested by others. Clinical
centers were reluctant to cooperate in a research undertaking concerning
homosexuality. Some refused permission to test while others imposed re
strictions that were likely to prejudice results. Despite concerted
efforts of other workers in the field it was not possible to secure 100
subjects from a single source. Instead, a number of different resources
were utilized, some of which stipulated complete anonymity before permit
ting the release of records.
The records of 50 subjects were obtained in the greater New York
area. Of these, ten were tested at Sing Sing Prison through the coopera
tion of the Research Project of the New York State Psychiatric Institute,
itself engaged in a study of sexual offenders. The other Jfi records were
gathered through sources to whom pledges of anonymity were given. Al
though seeking psychotherapeutic attention, these men were neither hos
pitalized nor imprisoned. A number had had past difficulties with the
authorities and had been given suspended sentences.
A. C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy, and C. E. Martin, Sexual Behavior

in the Human Male (Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Co., 194-8).
15
The remaining 50 subjects were secured through the cooperation
of the Chief Psychologist of the Ionia State Hospital, Ionia, Michigan.
Sexual deviants may be committed to this institution, according to
Michigan Law, when their deviant behavior has existed for more than one
year, and when wfound by two or more psychiatrists not to be insane,
epileptic, nor feeble-minded."
All 100 homosexual subjects, whether hospitalized, imprisoned,
or neither, fulfilled the basic criterion of overt homosexuality accord
ing to Kinsey's rating scale. All were single white males, between the
ages of 18 and U9, and, on the best evidence available, non-psychotic,
non-epileptic, and non-deteriorated intellectually. Full scale Wechsler-
Bellevue results were available for each subject. Mean age was 30.5
years and mean Wechsler-Bellevue intelligence rating was 99.1. Education
ranged from no schooling to post-graduate training, with about half the
subjects having had some high school or college work. Frequency distri
butions for age, intelligence, and education will be found in Table 3.
About 75$ of the homosexual subjects were either skilled or unskilled
workers with the occupations of the remainder ranging into the profes
sions.
Comparison of Epileptic and Homosexual Subjects
It will be noted in Table 3 that the epileptic mean age was 32.5
years while that of the homosexuals was 30.5 years. The homosexual sub
jects had had more education than the epileptics and were also somewhat
more intelligent. None of the epileptic subjects went beyond high school,
whereas 23$ of the homosexuals had had some college training. Mean IQ
on the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale was 89.7 for the epileptics as compared
15
The remaining 50 subjects were secured through the cooperation
of the Chief Psychologist of the Ionia State Hospital, Ionia, Michigan.
Sexual deviants may be committed to this institution, according to
Michigan Law, when their deviant behavior has existed for more than one
year, and when "found by two or more psychiatrists not to be insane,
epileptic, nor feeble-minded.”
All 100 homosexual subjects, whether hospitalized, imprisoned,
or neither, fulfilled the basic criterion of overt homosexuality accord
ing to Kinsey's rating scale. All were single white males, between the
ages of 18 and 49, and, on the best evidence available, non-psychotic,
non-epileptic, and non-deteriorated intellectually. Full scale Wechsler-
Bellevue results were available for each subject. Mean age was 30.5
years and mean Wechsler-Bellevue intelligence rating was 99.1. Education
ranged from no schooling to post-graduate training, with about half the
subjects having had some high school or college work. Frequency distri
butions for age, intelligence, and education will be found in Table 3.
About 15% of the homosexual subjects were either skilled or unskilled
workers with the occupations of the remainder ranging into the profes
sions.
Comparison of Epileptic and Homosexual Subjects
It will be noted in Table 3 that the epileptic mean age was 32.5
years while that of the homosexuals was 30.5 years. The homosexual sub
jects had had more education than the epileptics and were also somewhat
more intelligent. None of the epileptic subjects went beyond high school,
whereas 2J% of the homosexuals had had some college training. Mean IQ
on the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale was 89.7 for the epileptics as compared
16
TABLE 3
COMPARISONS BETWEEN 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS

FOR AGE, INTELLIGENCE, AND EDUCATION
Age Intelligence
Age E=100 HslOO IQ S=100 H=100
18-21 18 17 60- 69 7 0
22-25 12 19 70- 79 22 16
26-29 9 13 80- 89 28 22
30-33 20 21 90- 99 18 17
34-37 7 7 100-109 11 13
38-41 9 7 110-119 9 14
42-45 13 7 120-129 4 13
46-49 12 9 130-139 1 5
Mean 32.5 30.5 Mean 89.7 99.1
Median 31.10 29.69 Median 87.00 96.56
S.D. 9.52 8.78 S.D. 16.0 18.2
Ql 23.83 23.18 Ql 77.68 83.59
q3 41.50 36.36 q3 99.50 114.5
Education
Grade felOO H=100
None 0 2
Less than 5th Grade 12 12
More than 5th but less
than 8th Grade 33 21
Completed 8fch Grade 21 10
Some High School 27 19
High School Graduate 7 13
Some College 0 10
College Graduate 0 7
Post-Graduate Training 0 6
Mean 8.1 9.7
Median 8.2 9.1
17
to 99.1 for the homosexuals. Socio-economic status, judged in terms of
education and occupation, was somewhat higher for the homosexuals.
Test Administration
The Szondi test was individually administered, on six different
occasions, to each of 100 idiopathic epileptics and 100 overt homosexuals
according to standard directions. Individual administrations were pre
ferred to the group method because the original work done by Szondi and
the diagnostic indicators cited by Deri were similarly based upon individ
ual test administrations. At least 24 hours elapsed between testings.
Inquiries concerning the repeated administrations were answered in a
manner stressing the general lack of knowledge in the areas of epilepsy
and homosexuality, respectively, and the possible contribution the sub
ject's participation might make. The words "research" and "experiment"
were purposely avoided. When individuals stated that they either liked
or disliked all the pictures within a given set, or when they found it
especially hard to make choices, they were urged by the examiner to make
a decision anyway.
The first session lasted somewhat longer than each of the re
maining ones. An effort was made to establish rapport and get acquainted
with the subject. On the whole, excellent cooperation was elicited,
which, to a large degree, may be attributed to the break in the daily
routine offered to the hospitalized or imprisoned subjects.
CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Inter-Group Analysis
Whether the Szondi test discriminates adequately and meaning
fully between two extreme clinical groups may be ascertained most
directly by contrasting their respective obtained factorial directions.
A comparison of factorial directions between the 100 idiopathic epilep
tics and the 100 overt homosexuals is presented in Table 4 for both
Administrations I and VI.
Inspection of Table 4 indicates that one-half of the factors
(h, s, p, and d) do show differences significant at the .05 or .01
level between the two groups on Administration I. Not all of these
factors show significant differences on Administration VI, however.
Thus, factor d is significant at the .01 level on Administration I, but
is not at all significant on Administration VI. Similarly, factor e is
significant at the .05 level on Administration VI, but is not signifi
cant on Administration I.
The next question concerns the meaningfulness, in terms of
Szondi theory, of the statistical differences observed. On the surface
the findings on factors.h, s, and p seem to lend some credence to the
relationship thought by some to exist between paranoia and homosexuality.
Inspection of the data, however, does not support this first impression.
On both administrations the homosexual factorial directions are much
18
19
TABLE 4
COMPARISON OF FACTORIAL DIRECTIONS OF 100 EPILEPTICS AND

100 HOMOSEXUALS ON ADMINISTRATIONS I AND VI
Factor Direc Administration I Administration VI

tions .00 BslOO Chi Square BslOO BslOO Chi Square
93 62 34 62
2 17 28.67*** 4 13 15.4***
4 11 3 14
1 10 9 11
68 33 45 29
15 30 25.2*** 27 24
20 8.4*
7 17 13
10 17 11 14
21 30 33 26
28 28 3.6 16 31 9.1*
13 15 12 17
38 27 39 26
10 8 ii 15
hy 58 61 1.7 61 53 2.2
7 11 10 15
25 20 18 17
7 16 11 16
67 49 3.9 57 45 3.3
9 10 8 12
17 25 24 27
15 40 22 38
43 23 44 20
22.9*** 27.0***
18 11 18 6
19 26 16 36
20 13 19 24
44 33 12.6*** 34 39
6.9
2 14 5 11
34 40 42 26
32 36 36 45
m 38 34 36 25
0.5 3.6
9 9 6 9
21 21 22 21
Note: For 3 degrees of freedom;
X .05 = 7.8* X .02 = 9.8** X .01 = 11.3***
20
more evenly distributed among the four possible factorial directions in
factors h and s than are the epileptics. For example, 93# of the epi
leptics preferred the h pictures on Administration I, while only 62# of
the homosexuals reacted in a similar manner. Szondi theory for extreme
groups would have expected nearly the reverse. Similarly, the data ob
tained on factor e are not in accord with theoretical expectations. It
may be assumed that when 100 idiopathic epileptics are tested on one day,
there is likely to be a distribution of varied epileptic pre- and post
seizure stages. If the Szondi test is sensitive to these cyclic exper
iences of tension commonly observed in epileptics, an even distribution
on factor e might have been anticipated. Inspection of the data obtained,
however, will show that the homosexuals were more evenly distributed on
factor e than were the epileptic subjects.
The remaining statistically significant differences noted between
the two groups on either Administration I or on Administration VI could
also not have been predicted on the basis of theoretical expectation.
It seems likely that a part of the differences may be the result of in
tellectual factors. It must be concluded, however, that although differ
ences between the two groups did emerge, they could not have been pre
dicted on the basis of Szondi theory.
Analysis of Postulated Signs
There has been considerable interest concerning the use of
"signs" as diagnostic aids in psychological tests. The Szondi test is
not without such "signs" and the question arises to what extent do postu
lated signs, either singly or in combination of patterns, discriminate
21
between idiopathic epileptics and overt homosexuals?
Deri offers six diagnostic indicators for homosexuality and
eight for epilepsy. Szondi suggests five signs for homosexuality and
offers what he believes to be "classic" patterns for the identification
of post-paroxysmal and inter-paroxysmal epileptic syndromes. The lat
ter is thought especially valuable in the diagnoses of patients under
anti-convulsive drug treatment, a situation prevalent in this investiga
tion. It may be assumed that well-established cases of idiopathic
epilepsy and overt homosexuality should show a considerable number of
diagnostic signs or classic patterns, if sign diagnosis is a valid pro
cedure.
In all, 23 diagnostic signs or patterns were elicited from
Szondi’s and Deri’s volumes. Together with pertinent, descriptive quota
tions, they have been listed in Tables 5 through 1CI The number of homo
sexual and epileptic subjects whose profiles actually revealed these
signs, either on Administration I or on Administration VI, has also been
recorded in these tables. It will be noted that whatever differences do
exist, are not always in the direction expected by theory, and do not
necessarily appear in both administrations. When the individual signs
are grouped into patterns, as has been done in each table, the results
also fail to discriminate between the two groups. Not more than 6$ of
either group, on Administration I or on Administration VI, showed the
appropriate "classic" syndrome or pattern.
An additional rough diagnostic indicator is the Szondi Tension
Index. It is a ratio based upon the sum of open reactions on all the
factors divided by the sum of ambivalent reactions on all factors over
22
TABLE 5
FREQUENCY OF DERI'S POSTULATED SIGNS FOR HOMOSEXUALITY

AS OBSERVED IN 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS
ON ADMINISTRATION I AND ADMINISTRATION VI*
Adm. I Adm. VI
Sign Comment
E=100 H=100 E=100 H=100
oh "overt passive homosexuals"-*- 1 10 9 11
4k, 4p "There is usually a deep underly 0 6 1 5

ing sexual frustration and a
strong latent or open homosexu
ality" (decreases beyond age 30)
4m "frequent in homosexuals"3 32 36 36 9
-hy "Many times only latent but felt 58 61 61 53

as dynamically strong homosexual
drives"4
4h changing "When this is noted" one can think 4 7 4 7

to oh with of manifest homosexuality11^
steady -s in
a series
A Combination of Deri's Signs:

(oh, -hy, 4k, 4p, 4m)
All 5 Signs Observed in: 0 0 0 0

4 Signs Observed in: 0 2 l 4
3 Signs Observed in: 2 16 10 18
1 Sign Observed in: 45 36 42 37
No Sign Observed in: 25 12 17 14
■*Deri, op. cit.. p. 72.
2Ibid., p. 255. 3Ibid.. p. 138.
4Ibid.. p. 105. 3Ibid., p. 85.
23
TABLE 6
FREQUENCY OF DERI'S POSTULATED SIGNS FOR EPILEPSY AS

OBSERVED IN 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS
ON ADMINISTRATION I AND ADMINISTRATION VI
Sign
Adm. I Adm. VI
Comment
E*100 0*100 B=100 0=100
4b, 43 "indicative of strong need for 6A 25 40 22
motor discharge"!
i* "Found relatively most frequently 2 1A 5 11

in epileptics which may account
for the general slowness and
'stickness1 of the epileptic char
acter "2
ok "breaking down of Ego functions... 9 1A 1A 11

op or -p seen in deteriorated epileptics"^
-m "epileptic patients approaching 38 3A 36 25

outbreak of seizure"*
4s, any e, "Real epilepsy is associated with 2 3 5 3

ok, -m, 4s, -m, and a weak Ego in addition
op or -p to its association with a changing
e constellation"5
4d, -m "seen in epileptics" 10 11 A 7
-e, 4hy "epileptics near seizure"^ 3 2 A 9
4h, -3 "counterindication for real epilepsy 15 15 20 22

great motoric seizures"®
Deri's Ma.lor Signs for Epilepsy

(43, ok, -m, 0 or -p)
All A Signs Observed in: 2 3 5 3

2 Signs Observed in: AO 26 31 19
1 Sign Observed in: 32 32 32 A3
^Deri, op. cit.. p. 31. 2Ibid., p. 128.
3Ibid.. p. 215. ^Ibid.. p. 141.
5Ibid., p. 96. 6Ibid.. p. 150.

7 8
Ibid.. p. 111. Ibid., p. 85.
24
TABLE 7
FREQUENCY OF SZONDI'S POSTULATED SIGNS FOR HOMOSEXUALITY

Sign Comment* Adm. I Adm. VI

E-100 H=100 E-100 H-100
-s, -hy "Inversion of drive goal"-*- 7 21 9 18
ip "Inversion of identification"2 18 11 18 6
4d, 4m "Inversion of object choice"^ 3 0 7 4
-s, -hy, -p "Passive-homosexual 'E' shows 1 2 1 0

predisposition, and not neces
sarily open manifestation."4
4h, -s "Inversion of sexual goal"'’ 15 15 20 22
-s, -hy, fp, Szondi's "Typical Syndrome of

4d, 4m Homosexuality"”

The Comments have been translated from the German.
L. Szondi, Szondi Test: Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik. op. cit..

p. 98.
2Ibid., P« 123. 3Ibid., p. 123.
4-Ibid.. P. 98. 3Ibid.. p. 98.
6Ibid., P. 123.
25
TABLE 8
FREQUENCY OF SZONDI*S ‘'CLASSICAL POST-PAROXYSMAL SYNDROME"

Adm. I Adm.. VI
Sign uvwuwuu” E=100 BslOO felOO BslOO
ok "Disintegrated Ego following 67 25 24 27
stupor of (epileptic) attack"1
+3 "Urge to satisfy aggressive drives"^ 68 33 45 29

3
oe "release of need" 38 27 39 26
op "Part of Epileptic Ego"^ 19 26 16 36
ok, op "Epileptic Ego Picture"'* 1 8 3 7
4s, oe, -hy "Classical Post-paroxysmal Syndrome

ok, op
4. Signs Observed in: 5 2 8 5
1 Sign Observed in: 22 A3 27 41
*The Comments have been translated from the German.
"hj. Szondi, Szondi Teat: Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik. op. eit0.

p. 93.
cit. ^Loc. cit.

O
o
•
^Loc. cit. ^Loc. cit.

6tLoc. cit.
26
TABLE 9
FREQUENCY OF SZONDI'3 "CLASSICAL INTER-PAROXISMAL SYNDROME"

Sign Comment* Adm. I Adm. VI

E=100 H=100 E=100 H=100
4s indicative of "strong aggressive 68 33 45 29

impulses
-k Part of Syndrome 67 49 57 45
-hy Part of Syndrome 58 63 61 53
-e indicative of release of tension 28 30 16 31

following drug therapy
4s, -e "Classical Inter-paroxvsmal Syndrome n2

-hy, -k
£
The comments have been translated from the German.
•k.. Szondi, Szondi Te3t: Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik. op. cit..

p. 94.
27
TABLE 10
COMPARISON OF 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS

ON THE SZONDI TENSION INDEX
Index Comment* E=100 H=100
Less than 1 Seen in cases of anxiety, 9 13

obsession-compulsion, and
in rigid individuals
1, 2, 3 Considered "Normal" 55 64
4 No comment 6 3
More than 5 Seen in epileptics, and in 30 20

very tense, agitated persons
£
The comments are free translations from Szondi's
German text, Szondi Test: Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik. op. cit.
28
all six administrations. A high index value is considered indicative
of low tension in the sense that whatever tension has been accumulated
is being released. The respective index values together with some per
tinent comments l?y Szondi have been listed in Table 10. Also recorded
there are the actual distribution of index values among the epileptic
and homosexual subjects. Inspection will show that although differences
obtained are in the direction expected by theory, they are not of suf
ficient size to discriminate adequately between the two groups.
On the basis of all the findings it can only be concluded
that postulated signs, either singly or in pattern combination, failed
to differentiate adequately between the populations sampled. Szondi
sign diagnosis cannot be recommended for clinical application.
Factorial Changes Analysis
It will be recalled that the Szondi test was individually
administered six times. Both Szondi and Deri consider six testings
minimal for the interpretation of individual test profiles. It is their
contention that the number of changes as well as the specific kinds of
changes noted over a series of six administrations are of considerable
importance. Most workers have found, however, that recalling a client
six times creates administrative burdens, and have thus, on occasion,
reduced the number of testings. It is the purpose of this section to
determine (1) whether the total number of changes over six administra
tions, and (2) the specific kinds of changes observed, discriminate be
tween idiopathic epileptics and overt homosexuals in a meaningful manner.
Total Number of Changes:- Theoretically it is possible for
any one subject to change factorial directions, on any given factor,
29
five times over a series of six administrations. According to Deri, the
more changes the greater the likelihood of pathology. The specific num
ber of changes observed in the two groups studied has been recorded in
Table 11. It will be noted that although there are some differences
among the several factors, there are only minor differences between the
two groups. Not more than 856 of either group had a3 many as five changes
on any one factor. More than 50$ had two changes or less on all factors
except e.
It was believed that tabulation of changes might also yield some
data concerning possible practice effects. To explore this area, as well
as to discern the changes from one administration to the next, the number
of subjects who did not change in factorial reaction between each of the
six testings, respectively, were recorded in Table 12. It will be observed
that the number of individuals who did not change is about the same be
tween any two administrations on any of the factors. While considerable
differences exist among the factors, there are no meaningful discrimina
tions between the two groups. In addition, the number of stable factorial
reactions between Administration V and Administration VI is not always
greater than the number of stable choices between Administrations I and
II. Thus, while a practice effect may be operative, it does not manifest
itself on all factors.
Further study was made of the changes noted between Administra
tion I and Administration VI, as well as the total changes from Adminis
tration I through Administration VI. These have been recorded in Table 12
and 13, respectively. Again, while there are fluctuations among factors,
they fail to discriminate between the two populations sampled. Where the
30
TABLE 11
TOTAL NUMBER OF CHANGES IN FACTORIAL DIRECTIONS BI 100 EPILEPTICS

AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS OVER 6 TEST ADMINISTRATIONS
Factor No Change 1 Change 2 Changes 3 Changes k Changes 5 Changes

_________E H E H E H E H E H E H
h 65 56 8 12 21 21 3 7 3 3 0 1
s 43 26 13 20 11 24 15 16 17 10 1 4
e 11 17 11 11 20 25 33 33 17 7 8 7
hy 22 29 12 18 31 20 19 18 12 13 4 2
k 30 31 11 12 21 23 19 18 17 14 2 2
P 26 25 18 16 20 26 22 18 12 13 2 2
d 15 16 18 21 22 23 20 23 19 13 6 4
m 33 38 15 17 19 22 20 8 10 14 3 1
Note: A subject may have from one to five changes over six administrations.
31
TABLE 12
NUMBER OF SUBJECTS WHOSE FACTORIAL DIRECTIONS DID NOT CHANGE BETWEEN

EACH OF SIX SEPARATE SZONDI TEST ADMINISTRATIONS
(Based on a comparison between 100 epileptics and 100 homosexuals)
Administrations
Factor I - II II -III III -IV IV - V V - VI No Changes
I thru VI
E H E H E H E H E H E H
h 91 76 85 81 83 80 85 83 85 86 65 56
s 57 51 71 64 71 60 72 71 76 77 43 26
e 44 53 49 46 40 55 51 60 58 63 11 17
hy 61 62 55 65 56 64 63 63 65 71 22 29
k 61 55 58 62 63 61 63 69 60 74 30 31
P 51 52 57 63 68 69 72 65 69 67 26 25
d 45 49 54 57 52 62 59 56 62 68 15 16
m 62 62 65 69 62 69 74 75 70 79 33 38
32
TABLE 13
AMOUNT AND KINDS OF CHANGES IN FACTORIAL DIRECTIONS BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION I

AND ADMINISTRATION VI FOR 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS
Amount of Change Kinds of Change

Factor No Change Some Change (a) (b) (c)
E H E H E H E H E H
h 84 75 16 25 4 10 a 12 4 3
s 62 50 38 50 13 17 13 26 12 7
e 39 44 61 56 13 20 40 30 a 6
hy 59 54 a 46 7 15 27 24 7 7
k 54 62 48 38 13 13 27 22 6 3
P 49 55 51 45 19 10 25 25 7 10
d 54 47 48 53 2 10 37 39 7 4
m 55 65 45 35 a 9 30 21 7 5
33
epileptics are lovr, the homosexuals are low also, and vice versa.
Specific Kinds of Changes:- Essentially there are three major
kinds of changes which may be noted on any one factor over a series of
administrations:
Type (a): a one-step change of direction:
4 to i - to f
4 to 4 4 to -
Type (b): a "drainage" change:
4 to 0 - to 0 4 to 0
0 to 4 0 to - 0 to 4
Type (c): a factorial reversal:
4 to -
— to 4
The clinical importance of the changes dependsuponactual reversalsof
opinion from one administration to thenext, withtype (c) changescon
sidered most indicative of pathology.
The kinds of factorial changes observed over six administrations
in the two groups have been listed in Table 14. It will benoted that
there are fluctuations among the several factors, and, in some instances,
also between the two groups. The differences between epileptics and
homosexual subjects diminish, however, when the kinds of changes are
summed into their major types, and no major pattern emerges. When all
the changes are totalled, it may be seen that less than 20% of the total
for any one factor is contributed by the factorial reversal type (c)
changes.
When the specific kinds of changes observed between Administra
tion I and Administration VI are contrasted in Table 13, nomeaningful
34
TABLE 14
TOTAL NUMBER OF CHANGES IN FACTORIAL DIRECTIONS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE

SEVERAL KINDS OF POSSIBLE CHANGES FOR 100 EPILEPTICS
AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS OVER 6 ADMINISTRATIONS
(a) (b) (c)

4 to 4 - to + 4 to 0 - to 0 4 to 0 - to 4 Totals
Factor 4 to 4 4 to - 0 to 4 0 to - 0 to 4 4 to -
E H E H E H E H E H E H E H
h 27 25 4 24 20 36 10 10 0 1 8 6 69 102
s 52 35 22 43 26 30 12 54 6 6 24 8 142 176
e 59 49 20 25 48 38 74 76 14 10 33 25 248 223
hy 15 32 15 43 26 16 103 61 20 8 23 15 202 175
k 14 29 42 34 17 30 95 63 9 4 13 17 190 177
P 47 44 48 13 19 45 48 55 9 6 9 21 180 184
d 18 35 12 27 50 41 119 71 7 13 22 20 228 207
m 30 17 12 23 39 40 51 45 14 8 23 12 169 145
CHANGES SUMMED ACCORDING TO KIND
Change (a) Change (b) Change (c) Totals

Factor
E H E H E H E H
h 31 49 30 47 8 6 69 102
s 74 78 44 90 24 8 142 176
e 79 74 136 124 33 25 248 223
hy 30 75 149 85 23 15 202 175
k 56 63 121 97 13 17 190 177
P 95 57 76 106 9 21 180 184
d 30 62 176 125 22 20 228 207
m 42 40 104 93 23 12 169 145
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
35
discriminations between the two groups emerge. The majority of changes
on any one factor for both groups are of the type b, "drainage" variety.
No more than 12$ of either group show pathological reversal, type c
changes on any one factor. While there is more change on some factors
than on others, there is no discrimination between the groups.
Finally, a statement by Deri regarding changes appears particu
larly appropriate to this investigation.
The fewer the changes in the direction of the h factor within a

series of ten profiles, the more the probability that there are
no really pathologic symptoms in this area. On the other hand,
frequent changes of direction indicate the presence of a patho
logic process in the sphere of sexuality. Frequent changes in the
h, involving occasional "open" reactions, are characteristic for
manifest homosexuals. This is a statement which holds actually
for each factor. The most characteristic reaction for patients
with identical diagnosis with the particular stimulus pictures of
the given factor is that the greatest variability of reactions is
found in the factor corresponding to their own diagnosis.^
When the results obtained for factors h and e, respectively, in Table U
and in Table 14 are compared for the two populations sampled, it will be
noted that the observed differences are not all in the expected direction
and do not significantly differentiate between the epileptics and homo
sexuals.
On the basis of the evidence presented, it can only be concluded
that neither total amount nor specific kinds of factorial changes were
effective in discriminating between idiopathic epileptics and overt homo
sexuals. The six test administrations did result in changes of choice
reactions, of varied amount and kind among the factors, but these changes
failed to differentiate between the two groups.
^Deri, op. cit.. pp. 72-73.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36
Individual Picture Analysis
It will be recalled that the factorial scoring system is con
cerned only with a subject's summary reaction to the pictures constitut
ing a given factor. It disregards, to a considerable degree, the role of
the individual pictures on the implicit assumption that the pictures of
a given factor may be equated. Since, in the final analysis, the Szondi
test rests upon its pictures, an effort will here be made to determine
the role of each of the 4-8 photographs, as well as the consistency of
choices given by the subjects over the series of test administrations.
The role of the individual pictures in discriminating between
100 idiopathic epileptics and 100 overt homosexuals may be ascertained
most directly by contrasting the two groups according to their choice
reactions to each of the 1$ photographs. Table 15 lists the number of
subjects in both groups who either "liked,” "disliked," or "ignored"
each one of the pictures on Administration I. Table 16 records the same
data for Administration VI. A summary of pictures discriminating sig
nificantly between the two groups of subjects on either administration
is given in Table 17. It will be noted that 21 of the 48 pictures dis
criminate significantly between epileptics and homosexuals on Administra
tion I, and that 18 of the 48 pictures differentiate similarly on
Administration VI. However, only 12 of the 48 photographs discriminate
between the two groups on both administrations. It appears that the pic
tures of certain factors are more successful than others. Thus, only one
of the m pictures differentiates between the two groups whereas all of
the h pictures discriminate on either one or both administrations. The
vacillation of the h pictures is of interest in that although all of the
37
TABLE 15
COMPARISON OF "LIKED," "DISLIKED," AND "IGNORED" CHOICE REACTIONS

TO THE 4$ INDIVIDUAL PICTURES HI 100 EPILEPTICS
AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS ON ADMINISTRATION I
kTClr riuuiu c Epileptics Homosexuals

Chi Square
Liked Disliked Ignored Liked Disliked Ignored
h 50 9 41 31 32 37 17.52***
3 36 20 44 15 41 44 15.88***
e 47 6 47 62 12 26 10.12***
1 hy 16 27 57 16 11 73 8.68**
k 1 74 25 2 51 47 11.20***
P 7 25 68 9 22 69 0.48
d 16 25 59 18 27 55 0.32
m 27 14 59 47 4 49 11.88***
h 58 9 33 34 16 50 11.68***
s 57 13 30 34 19 47 10.68***
e 1 38 61 7 28 65 8.84**
2 hy 3 61 36 3 68 29 1.12
k 10 19 71 36 10 54 18.80***
P 29 22 49 24 27 49 1.00
d U 15 71 35 9 56 12.24***
m 28 23 49 27 23 50 0.00
h 52 4 44 37 10 53 5«92
s 52 12 36 30 29 41 13.24***
e 10 31 59 15 17 68 5.72
3 hy 14 52 34 5 66 29 6.32*
k 3 40 57 10 34 56 4.16
P 17 26 57 43 7 50 22.64***
d 12 12 76 23 8 69 4.56
o 40 23 37 37 29 34 0.88
h 48 6 46 28 23 49 15.28***
s 67 8 25 68 3 29 2.56
e 7 31 62 14 31 55 2.72
A hy 10 27 63 14 21 65 1.48
k 8 32 60 20 28 52 5.96
P 45 11 44 39 16 45 1.36
d 6 53 41 9 52 39 O .64
m 9 32 59 8 26 66 1.04
.05* = 7.8*
.02** = 9.8**
.01*** - 11.3***
38
TABLE 15— Continued
Enileotics Homosexuals
o6X> rlCLuT6 Chi Square
h 87 2 11 75 1 24 10.04***
3 16 18 66 12 36 52 8.20**
e 37 16 47 26 33 41 8.20**
5 hy 8 30 62 16 24 60 3.4D
k 7 38 55 15 26 59 5.28
P 9 53 38 32 25 43 23.28***
d 12 20 68 7 27 66 2.40
m 24 23 53 17 28 55 1.72
h 36 6 58 46 11 43 4.96
s 41 27 32 28 37 35 4.12
e 17 14 69 17 25 58 4*04
6 hy 21 16 63 38 11 51 7.08*
k 42 20 38 27 24 49 5.00
P 10 55 35 15 32 53 10.76***
d 18 22 60 9 34 57 5.64
m 15 40 45 20 26 54 4.48
.05* = 7.8*
.02** = 9.8**
,01***=11.3***
39
TABLE 16
COMPARISON OF "LIKED," "DISLIKED," AND "IGNORED" CHOICE REACTIONS

TO THE 48 INDIVIDUAL PICTURES BY 100 EPILEPTICS
AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS ON ADMINISTRATION VI
Epileptics Homosexuals
oeT. riciiure Chi Square
h 46 9 45 24 36 40 23.40***
3 33 28 39 11 40 49 14.24***
e 46 11 43 58 6 36 3.52
1 hy 16 27 57 14 20 66 1.80
k 2 59 39 2 48 50 2.48
P 12 35 53 14 21 65 4.92
d 12 21 67 23 26 51 6.16*
m 33 10 57 54 3 43 10.80***
h 54 14 32 44 20 36 2.32
s 47 21 32 29 29 42 6 .88*
e 11 28 61 9 28 63 0.20
2 hy 3 61 36 2 60 38 0.24
k 14 15 71 29 10 61 7.00*
P 30 25 45 24 24 52 1.16
d 15 14 71 36 9 55 11.72***
m 26 22 52 27 20 53 0.08
h 55 8 37 37 10 53 6.56*
s 33 25 42 27 37 36 2.56
e 15 15 70 11 14 75 0.80
3 hy 10 57 33 6 63 31 1.32
k 8 38 54 11 36 53 0.62
P 28 20 52 39 8 53 6.92*
d 15 10 75 34 7 59 9.80***
m 36 27 37 35 25 40 0.20
h 51 3 46 33 19 48 15.52***
s 62 13 25 61 5 34 4.92
e 13 24 63 12 36 52 3.48
4 hy 10 22 68 27 23 50 10.56***
k 9 44 47 22 22 56 13.56***
P 37 8 55 27 11 62 2.44
d 8 52 40 5 63 32 2.60
m 10 34 56 13 21 66 4.28
.05* = 7.8*
.01*** = 11.3***
TABLE 16--Continued
Q6a 4* D4 Epileptics Homosexuals

0 0 rlCvllTc Chi Square
h 81 2 17 74 3 23 1.40
s 17 29 54 11 38 51 2.56
e 34 22 44 33 43 24 12.68***
5 hy 11 24 65 21 19 60 3.88
k 12 32 56 14 35 51 0.52
P 6 55 39 33 18 49 38.56***
d 11 15 74 8 17 75 0.60
m 28 21 51 16 27 57 4.36
h 46 3 51 46 16 38 10.76**#
s 28 38 34 18 45 37 2.88
e 25 12 63 22 21 57 2.96
6 hy 16 16 68 43 10 47 17.60***
k 41 23 36 30 20 50 4.20
P 17 52 31 11 33 56 12.68***
d 15 25 60 11 32 57 1.52
m 12 31 57 19 23 58 2.80
.01*** s 11.3*#*
41
TABLE 17
A SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES WHICH DISCRIMINATE SIGNIFICANTLY

BETWEEN 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS ON
ADMINISTRATIONS I AND VI
Total Total
Set h 3 e hy k P d m
I VI
1 * * I I I VI # 6 A
2 I * I « « 5 3
3 VI I I # VI 3 3
A # VI VI 1 3
5 I I # * A 2
6 VI * # 2 3
Total I A A 3 3 2 3 1 1 21
Total VI A 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 18
Code: * Significant both on Adm. I and VI = 12
: I Significant only on Adm. I = 9
: VI Significant only on Adm. VI r 6
Significant at .05 level of significance.
42
photographs are significant, only two discriminate between the groups
on both administrations. It must be considered that some of the 4-8 pic
tures may be significant by chance alone. Consequently, less than 25%
of the Szondi pictures successfully discriminated between epileptics
and homosexuals on both Administration I and Administration VI.
The consistency of picture choices from Administration I to
Administration VI may be determined for each one of the 48 photographs
from the tables recorded in the appendix. It will be noted whether a
picture liked, or disliked, on Administration I is also liked, or dis
liked, on Administration VI, whether it was ignored, and if so, which
picture was selected in its stead. It wd.ll be seen from the summary
tables that there is considerable consistency of choice for both groups.
The actual numher of reversals, from liked to disliked or vice versa,
does not exceed &% of either group on any one of the 4B pictures. There
are 12 pictures which did not experience any reversal of opinion on the
part of any one of the 200 subjects. It may be concluded that the actual
changes in picture preferences are not as pronounced as asserted by Deri,
and that the factorial scoring system does not adequately reflect individ
ual picture preferences.
My44
Some Observations on the Szondi Test
The analysis of the data gathered in this investigation was
guided by a number of considerations. Of major importance was the
appropriateness of specific statistical procedures. Unlike most
other projective techniques, the Szondi test presents the subject with
a "finite" task. On every set of eight pictures placed before him the
subject is forced to choose the two photographs he likes most and the
two he dislikes the most. The administrative procedure does not per
mit either fewer or more choices. Consequently, every subject who
completes a single Szondi administration will have selected 12 pictures
as •’liked” and 12 pictures as "disliked” while ignoring the remaining
24- photographs. These limitations constitute a source of both conven
ience and difficulty in quantitative analysis.
Statistical treatment of data is facilitated by the fact that
all Szondi test performances are comparable. The actual number of pic
tures selected are identical for any subject at every stage of Szondi
administration. A source of difficulty will be noted, however, when it
is considered that the Szondi test is similar in some respects to
sampling without replacement. The very limitations placed upon a sub
ject’s performance produce non-independence of test results in some
instances. Thus, the scores on the several factors are not independent
of one another. For example, strong positive reactions on one or more
factors must be balanced by primarily negative reactions or very weak
positive reactions in some other factor. As a consequence, the problem
45
of utilizing appropriate and adequate statistics is not as simple as
it appears upon first contemplation. For the purpose of this study
it was felt that considerations in addition to strict adequacy of
statistical model were of some importance. Since it was hoped that
techniques applied here might be similarly employed by other clinical
workers, an effort was made to utilize statistics which were both
simple and meaningful as well as adequate.
A summary of the experimental findings emerging from this in
vestigation, to be specifically enumerated in the next chapter, indi
cates the failure of the Szondi test, as presently constituted, to
discriminate between two extreme clinical groups, idiopathic epileptics
and overt homosexuals. None of the postulated signs for epilepsy or
homosexuality, factorial directions, or changes in factorial directions
over a series of administrations succeeded in clearly differentiating,
in terms of Szondi theory, two groups whose diagnoses clinically were
well-established and relatively overt. Statistically significant dif
ferences that did emerge on one administration did not always persist
to the sixth administration, were contrary to theoretical expectations
in some instances, and could not have been predicted.
The investigation indicates that the factorial scoring system
of the Szondi test is not an adequately validated clinical tool, at
least in so far as the populations sampled are concerned. Scores that
appear to be equal for statistical computations do not necessarily
represent identical psychological implications. Factorial changes over
46
a series of administrations do not seem to reflect adequately choice
reactions made to the individual pictures constituting a given fac
tor. In the final analysis, interpretation of the Szondi will have
to be based upon the picture preferences or upon some other method
that truly reflects choice reactions.
CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS
Summary
In recent years the field of clinical psychology has seen a
steady growth of projective techniques. Critical evaluation has often
lagged behind enthusiastic application. It was the purpose of this
study to attempt to close the gap on one such method, the Szondi test.
The Szondi test consists of pictures of mental patients,
divided into six sets of eight pictures each. Within every set there
is one picture representing each of the following eight syndromes, or
Szondi factors: homosexual (h), sadist (s) epileptic (e), hysteric
(hy), catatonic schizophrenic (k), paranoid schizophrenic (p), manic-
depressive depressive (d), and manic-depressive manic (m). The subject
is asked to select the two pictures he likes most and the two he dis
likes the most within every set. On the basis of his picture prefer
ences a profile is constructed which is believed to be of diagnostic
value.
The general problem of this study was to determine whether the
Szondi test could differentiate in terms of Szondi theory between two
clearly different clinical groups. The test was individually adminis
tered six times to each of 100 idiopathic epileptics and 100 overt homo
sexuals. All of the epileptics had long histories of seizures, were
47
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
AB
under anti-convulsive drug treatment, and were considered non-homosexual.
All homosexuals fulfilled the basic criterion of having sexual histories
either exclusively homosexual in nature or very predominantly so. None
were epileptic. All the subjects were single white males between the
ages of 18 and 49, non-psychotic, and non-deteriorated intellectually.
Mean age of the epileptic subjects was 32.5 years while that of the homo
sexuals was 30.5 years. None of the epileptics went beyond high school
whereas 23 of the homosexuals had some college training. Mean IQ on the
Wechsler-Bellevue Scale was 89.7 for the epileptics as compared to 99.1
for the homosexual subjects. In regard to socio-economic status, the
homosexuals rated somewhat higher than the epileptic subjects. Standard
directions for the administration and scoring of the Szondi test were
followed.
In summary, the findings are:
1. Differences in factorial directions were noted between the
two groups, but were not identical for administrations I and VI. The
findings were contrary to Szondi theory in some instances and could not
have been predicted.
2. None of the 28 diagnostic indicators postulated by Szondi or
for Deri for epilepsy or homosexuality, either singly or in pattern com
bination, discriminated between the two groups on both Administration I
and Administration VI. Differences observed were not always in the
theoretically expected direction and did not always persist from Adminis
tration I to Administration VI.
3. Although differences among the several factors were noted in
regard to total amount and the specific kinds of changes in factorial
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
49
direction over all six administrations, they were largely the same for
both groups. Neither total amount nor kinds of changes in factorial
direction were effective in discriminating between the epileptic and
homosexual subjects.
4* Of the 48 Szondi pictures, 21 differentiated significantly
between the two groups on Administration I and 18 photographs performed
similarly on Administration VI. Only 12 pictures, however, discrimi
nated significantly between the epileptics and homosexuals on both
administrations I and VI.
5. A comparison of individual picture preferences, Liked and
Disliked, of each of the 4.3 Szondi pictures between Administrations I
and VI for all subjects revealed fairly consistent choice reactions.
Implications
On the basis of the findings reported, the following implica
tions may be considered:
1. Whatever significant findings did emerge from the study
may well have been a function of chance alone in view of the many com
parisons made and the lack of independence within the data.
2. The Szondi test, as presently constituted, is not a valid
clinical instrument, at least in so far as it fails to discriminate
between the idiopathic epileptics and overt homosexuals studied.
3. The Szondi factorial scoring system, crudely designed and
mechanistically constructed, does not reflect adequately the individual
50
picture preferences. Interpretations based upon the system and its
postulated signs cannot be recommended.
4* If used at all, the Szondi should be utilized only in con
junction with other clinical instruments of more demonstrated validity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
David, Henry P. "An Inquiry into the Szondi Pictures." Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology. 45:735-737, 1950.
_______ . "The Szondi Test - a Review of the Literature." Psychol.

Serv. Ctr. J.. 1951 (in press).
Deri, Susan K. Introduction to the Szondi Test: Theory and Practice.
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., and Martin, C. E. Sexual Behavior in

the Human Male. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1948.
Szondi, L. Schicksalsanalyse. Basel, Switzerland: Schwabe and Co.,

1948.
_______ . Szondi Test: Bxperimentelle Triebdiagnostik. Bern, Switzer

land: Huber Verlag, 1947.
_______ . Szondi Test: Test Band. Bern: Huber Verlag, 1947.
Zubin, Joseph. "Note on a Graphic Method for Determining the Significance

of the Difference Between Group Frequencies." Journal of Edu
cational Psychology. 17:431-444> 1936.
51
APPENDIX
1. Comparison of Individual Picture Preferences,

Liked and Disliked, for Each of the AS Szondi
Pictures, Arranged by Set, Between Administra
tions I and VI for 100 Epileptics and 100
Homosexuals (Tables 18 through 29).
2. Summary of Individual Picture Preferences for

Each of the 48 Szondi Pictures, Between Admin
istrations I and VI for 100 Epileptics and 100
Homosexuals (Tables 30 through 35).
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
53
TABLE 18
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "LIKED” ON SET 1

BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIONS I AND VI FOR
100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS
Set 1 Likes 100 Epileptics
Adm. VI
Adm. I
Set 1 Likes 100 Homosexuals
Adm. VI
10
Adm. I
TABLE 19
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "LIKED" ON SET 2

Set 2 Likes Epileptics
Adm. VI
Set 2 Likes Homoaerual a
Adm. VI
55
TABLE 20
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "LIKED” ON SET 3

Adm. VI
27
Set 3 Like3 Homosexuals
Adm. VI
56
TABLE 21
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "LIKED" ON SET U

Set L Likes Epileptics
Adm. VI
Set L Likes Homosexual a
Adm. VI
57
TABLE 22
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "LIKED" ON SET 5

Adm. VI
22
Set 5 Likes Homosexuals
Adm. VI
58
TABLE 23
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "LIKED** ON SET 6

Adm. VI
Set 6 Llkea Homosexuals
Adm. VI
59
TABLE 24
COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "DISLIKED" ON

SET 1 BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIONS I AND VI FOR
Set 1 Dislikes Epileptics
Adm. VI
12
12
Set 1 Dislikes Homosexuals
Adm. VI
60
TABLE 25
Adm* VI
12
Adm. VI
10
61
TABLE 26

Adm. VI
Adm. VI
62
TABLE 27

Set L Dislikes Epileptics
Adm. VI
Adm. I
Set L Dislikes Homosexuals
Adm. VI
Adm. I 11
63
TABLE 28

Adm. VI
Adm. I
Adm. VI
Adm. I 12
17
12
64
TABLE 29
COMPARISON OP INDIVIDUAL PICTURES "DISLIKED" ON

Adm. VI
22
12
Adm. VI
65
TABLE 30
SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL PICTURE PREFERENCES ON

SET 1 BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIONS I AND VI
FOR 100 EPILEPTICS AND 100 HOMOSEXUALS
Epileptics
Set 1 Liked Liked Ignored Disliked Disliked Disliked Ignored Liked

I VI VI VI I VI VI VI
h 50 37 10 3 9 2 7 0
s 36 19 12 5 20 10 9 1
e 47 31 13 3 6 1 5 0
hy 16 9 5 2 27 16 10 1
k 1 0 1 0 74 49 24 1
P 7 4 2 1 25 12 12 1
d 16 4 11 1 25 12 13 0
m 27 13 8 1 14 3 9 2
Totals 200 122 62 16 200 105 89 6
Homosexuals
Liked Liked Ignored Disliked Disliked Disliked Ignored Liked

h 31 19 10 2 32 26 6 0
s 15 7 8 0 41 33 8 0
e 62 47 14 1 12 4 8 0
hy 16 10 6 0 11 9 2 0
k 2 1 1 0 51 40 10 1
P 9 4 4 1 22 16 6 0
d 18 13 5 0 27 19 7 1
m 47 43 4 0 4 3 1 0
Totals 200 144 52 4 200 150 48 2
66
TABLE 31

Epileptics

h 58 a 15 2 9 6 2 1
s 57 37 12 8 13 9 2 2
e 1 0 1 0 38 15 21 2
hy 3 1 2 0 61 47 13 1
k 10 2 7 1 19 11 6 2
P 29 16 U 2 22 9 11 2
d 14 5 7 2 15 4 11 0
m 28 12 12 4 23 12 8 3
Totals 200 1H 67 19 200 113 74 13
Homosexuals

h 34 26 6 2 16 10 5 1
s 34 20 10 4 19 14 5 0
e 7 4 1 2 28 15 13 0
hy 3 1 1 1 68 51 16 1
k 36 20 14 2 10 4 6 0
P 24 13 6 5 27 16 10 1
d 35 25 10 0 9 6 3 0
m 27 18 8 1 23 15 6 2
Totals 200 127 56 17 200 131 64 5
67
TABLE 32
SUMMARY OP INDIVIDUAL PICTURE PREFERENCES ON

Epileptics
Ignored Disliked Disliked Disliked Ignored Liked

Set 3 Liked Liked
h 52 32 16 4 4 3 1 0
s 52 28 19 5 12 9 2 1
e 10 4 5 1 31 10 19 2
hy H 7 5 2 52 41 9 2
k 3 1 1 1 40 24 14 2
P 17 11 5 1 26 11 12 3
d 12 3 9 0 12 5 6 1
m 40 21 15 4 23 13 5 5
Totals 200 107 75 18 200 116 68 16
Homosexuals

h 37 32 5 0 10 7 3 0
s 30 15 11 4 29 19 8 2
e 15 7 8 0 17 6 11 0
hy 5 2 2 l 66 52 14 0
k 10 5 5 0 34 21 13 0
P 43 33 9 l 7 3 4 0
d 23 18 5 0 8 3 5 0
m 37 25 9 3 29 16 11 2
Totals 200 137 54 9 200 127 69 4
68
TABLE 33

Epileptics
Set A Liked Liked Ignored Disliked Disliked Disliked Ignored Liked

h A* 35 12 1 6 2 4 0
s 67 52 11 A 8 3 5 0
e 7 3 A 0 31 16 13 2
hy 10 A 6 0 27 11 13 3
k 8 A A 0 32 20 10 2
P A5 31 14 0 11 3 7 1
d 6 2 3 l 53 34 16 3
m 9 A 3 2 32 22 9 1
Totals 200 135 57 8 200 111 77 12
Homosexuals

h 28 22 6 0 23 15 7 1
s 68 49 17 2 3 0 3 0
e 14 8 6 0 31 20 11 0
hy 14 12 1 1 21 11 9 1
k 20 14 6 0 28 14 13 1
P 39 23 16 0 16 10 5 1
d 9 2 4 3 52 38 14 0
m 8 3 3 2 26 14 11 1
Totals 200 133 59 8 200 122 73 5
69
TABLE 34
SUMMARY QF INDIVIDUAL PICTURE PREFERENCES ON

Epileptics

h 87 77 9 1 2 0 2 0
s 16 11 2 3 18 8 8 2
e 37 22 12 3 16 7 6 3
hy 8 3 5 0 30 18 11 1
k 7 3 4 0 38 21 14 3
P 9 1 7 1 53 39 12 2
d 12 5 5 2 20 4 16 0
m 24 15 9 0 23 15 6 2
Totals 200 137 53 10 200 112 75 13
Homosexuals

h 75 70 5 0 1 0 1 0
s 12 6 6 0 36 24 10 2
e 26 18 7 1 33 26 5 2
hy 16 14 1 1 24 12 11 1
k 15 10 4 1 26 17 8 1
P 32 22 9 1 25 12 11 2
d 7 4 2 1 27 10 17 0
m 17 13 4 0 28 18 10 0
Totals 200 157 38 5 200 119 73 8
70
TABLE 35
Epileptics

h 36 20 15 1 6 1 5 0
s 41 22 14 5 27 22 3 2
e 17 16 1 0 14 8 6 0
hy 21 8 11 2 16 5 10 1
k 42 31 10 1 20 12 6 2
P 10 5 3 2 55 40 10 5
d 18 7 10 1 22 12 10 0
m 15 6 8 1 40 19 18 3
Totals 200 115 72 13 200 119 68 13
Homosexuals

h 46 38 8 0 11 8 1 2
3 28 13 11 4 37 24 9 4
e 17 12 5 0 25 11 12 2
hy 33 30 8 0 11 5 6 0
k 27 15 11 1 24 12 9 3
P 15 6 4 5 32 20 11 1
d 9 5 4 0 34 18 14 2
m 20 11 8 1 26 15 10 1
Totals 200 130 59 11 200 113 72 15

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RELATIONSHIP OF SZONDI PICTURE PREFERENCE TO PERSONALITY

This dissertation has been approved for final examination by

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

The cooperation and suggestions of many persons made this

dissertation possible. The Szondi test was originally sent to the

writer by the Psychological Abstracts. Professor Laurance F. Shaffer

encouraged early research efforts and aided materially in the planning

phase of the study. Permission to test sexual offenders at Sing Sing

Prison was granted by Dr. David Abrahamsen, Director of the Research

Project of the New York State Psychiatric Institute. Additional

homosexual records were contributed by Mr. William Trembath, Chief

Psychologist of the Ionia State Hospital, Michigan. The staff of the

Caro State Hospital, Michigan, greatly facilitated the selection of

the writer in the collection of Szondi profiles.

The analysis of the data was greatly facilitated by the very

able assistance of Mr. William Rabinowitz. The endless hours of tabu­

lation were smoothed by Sylvia Viera de Reviera. Professor Edward J.

Shoben, Jr. contributed a host of fruitful suggestions. The disser­

tation is in great measure attributable, however, to the many insights

gained from the writer's association with Professor Irving D. Lorge.

To the 200 men who willingly contributed their Szondi profiles,

May 1951 Henry P. David

Which Opened Its Portals

And Offered Opportunity

The Szondi T e s t .................................. 1

Selection of Epileptic Subjects .................... 13

III ANALYSIS OF R E S U L T S ............................... 18

Inter-Group Analysis ............................... 18

IV SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS............................ 47

1 Distribution of Possible Choice Reactions in the Szondi

2 Summary of Deri’s Interpretation of the Szondi Factors . . 8

3 Comparisons Between 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals

4 Comparison of Factorial Directions for 100 Epileptics

5 Frequency of Deri’s Postulated Signs for Homosexuality

6 Frequency of Deri's Postulated Signs for Epilepsy as

7 Frequency of Szondi's Postulated Signs for Homosexuality

8 Frequency of Szondi's "Classical Post-Paroxysmal Syn­

9 Frequency of Szondi’s "Classical Inter-Paroxysmal Syn­

10 Comparison of 100 Epileptics and 100 Homosexuals on the

11 Total Number of Changes in Factorial Direction by 100

12 Number of Subjects Whose Factorial Directions Did NOT

13 Amount and Kinds of Changes in Factorial Directions

14 Total Number of Changes in Factorial Directions

15 Comparison of "Liked,'* "Disliked," and "Ignored" Choice

16 Comparison of "Liked," "Disliked," and "Ignored" Choice

17 A Summary of Individual Pictures Which Discriminate

18-29 Comparison of Individual Picture Preferences, Liked and

30-35 Summary of Individual Picture Preferences for Each of

In recent years the field of clinical psychology has seen a

steady growth of projective techniques. Critical evaluation has often

lagged behind enthusiastic application. It is the purpose of this dis­

The Szondi Test

Materials;- The Szondi test consists of 48 pictures, 2 by 3

photograph reproduces the face of a mental patient. Within every set

there is one picture representing each of the following eight clinical

syndromes (hereafter referred to as Szondi Factors); homosexual (h),

sadist (s), epileptic (e), hysteric (hy), catatonic schizophrenic (k),

paranoid schizophrenic (p), manic-depressive depressive (d), and manic-

The origins of the Szondi pictures have been previously described

by the writer.^ Most of them stem from German textbooks in psychiatry,

^enry P. David, "An Inquiry into the Szondi Pictures," Journal

some published as early as 1892. Many of the reproductions are indis­

tinct and photographically poor in quality. The number of men and

able assistance of Mr. William Rabinowitz. The endless hours of tabu

Shoben, Jr. contributed a host of fruitful suggestions. The disser

8 Frequency of Szondi's "Classical Post-Paroxysmal Syn

9 Frequency of Szondi’s "Classical Inter-Paroxysmal Syn

lagged behind enthusiastic application. It is the purpose of this dis

some published as early as 1892. Many of the reproductions are indis

factor. These factorial scores, or directions, are: plus, minus, ambi

Szondi's German publications*^ and in Deri's introductory volume. ^ Orig

the "familial unconscious," thus hoping to bridge Freud's "individual un

exceedingly cumbersome and time-consuming. He reasoned that if individ

of varied ages and nosological classification, both normal and patholog

the outbreak of World War II. Trained in European psychoanalytic tradi

she attempts "to construct and present a series of psychologic assump

exist in everybody."3 She assumes that subjects do not consciously recog