Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

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Journal of Water Process Engineering

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A critical analysis of the alternative treatments applied to effluents from

Brazilian textile industries
Márcio Daniel Nicodemos Ramos a, Juan Pablo Pereira Lima a, Sérgio Francisco de Aquino b,
André Aguiar a, *
a
Instituto de Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal de Itajubá, 37500-903 Itajubá, MG, Brazil
b
Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, 35400-000 Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The textile industry wastewater is highly harmful to the environment when it is discharged in its raw state, since
Textile effluent it might contain dyes, surfactants, and other dissolved compounds that adversely affect the aquatic ecosystems.
Reuse Based on the low biodegradability of textile effluents, physicochemical processes (e.g. coagulation-flocculation)
Toxicity
are usually indicated and eventually combined with biological treatment, which is applied at full scale due to
Polishing
lower costs. However, the conventional processes have limitations, of which it can highlight the low color
Environmental legislation
removal and formation of residual sludge. The present work consists of a critical analysis about the alternative
processes evaluated to treat effluents generated by mills of the Brazilian textile sector, an important industrial
segment of this country. It was verified that the advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), as the electrooxidation,
photo-Fenton and classical Fenton oxidation have been the most effective in reducing color (average above 90%),
and organic matter (average above 78%) from such effluents. In addition, coagulation-flocculation with plant-
derived inputs, electrocoagulation and unconventional bacterial systems are alternatives that have also been
quite efficient. Analyzing the characteristics of secondary effluents of biological systems normally used to treat
textile effluents, it was observed that some still have relevant concentrations of pollutants. Therefore, AOPs have
been also evaluated as a polishing step to treat them, which were effective to comply with the Brazilian envi­
ronmental agencies for its disposal in water bodies. Some works described the possibility of reusing the treated
effluents, showing that many of the alternative processes are also promising in this regard.

1. Introduction
The textile industry is an important sector in Brazil, which has been
operating for almost 200 years. The country represents the largest
complete textile chain in the West, with all stages of production, from
the cultivation of cotton to obtaining the fiber, then spinning, weaving,
fabric production, finishing, sewing, up to retail sales. In 2018, the
sector had 25.5 thousand formal companies and produced an average of
1.2 million tons of fabrics which positioned itself as the 2nd largest
employer in the converting industry in Brazil [1].
The manufacturing process is based on the preparation of the fibers
that are transformed into threads, followed by the production of the
fabric, wet processing and manufacturing of pieces. Each mill uses
different raw material and steps, generating effluents with very different
characteristics [2–4]. In this sector there is a subdivision: the textile
industry in general, which includes all steps of the process, and the
industrial textile laundry, which focuses on finishing the pieces [4]. For
both types, the demand for water is expressive (average of 200 m3 of
water per ton of textile artifact), thus generating a lot of effluent [3,4].
Due to the input chemicals used in manufacturing, textile effluents
are rich in pollutants, mainly organic matter. In addition, this residue is
usually turbid due to the significant presence of suspended solids, such
as spent fibers [4]. Complex and recalcitrant substances such as dyes are
also present, which did not stick to the fabric fibers during the dyeing
stage, corresponding to a loss of up to 15% to the effluent [5]. They are
responsible for the strong coloration of the final textile effluent,
impairing the passage of light in receiving water bodies and, conse­
quently, hindering the photosynthesis of aquatic organisms [3,6].
Additionally, they can be toxic and have a carcinogenic, teratogenic
and/or mutagenic potential [6,7]. Such compounds can also result in
unsafe concentrations of heavy metals, mainly chromium, copper, lead
and cadmium in the effluent, because they are used in the production of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aguiar@unifei.edu.br (A. Aguiar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102273
Received 31 May 2021; Received in revised form 9 August 2021; Accepted 13 August 2021
Available online 20 August 2021
2214-7144/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

some dyeing agents [7,8]. Table 1

Due to their complex composition, which can cause damages to the Characterization of raw effluents from the Brazilian textile sector [4].
environment as well as to humans, textile effluent treatment before Parameters Textile industry Textile industrial laundry
disposal is essential to abide with the environmental legislation. In
Average Range Average Range
addition, adequate textile effluent treatment may even generate an
effluent capable of being reused in certain cases [3,8], thereby helping pH – 5.1–11.8 – 5.0–12.5
BOD5 (mg⋅L− 1) 1004.1 ± 22–2692 185.9 ± 12–387
to relieve stress on water demand. In Brazil, the treatment must be 812.5 137.0
performed to comply with the legislations established by the federal [9] COD (mg⋅L− 1) 3222.6 ± 280.1–10,488 527.9 ± 150–1636
or state environmental agencies [10] for discharging in water bodies. 3088.8 369.8
Most of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Brazil makes use of Turbidity (NTU) 467.5 ± 0.2–1600 178.0 ± 47.2–686.9
604.4 182.5
sieving, followed by coagulation-flocculation as the preferred choice for
Total solids 7921.4 ± 1187–15,148 2167.0 ± 179–497.7
treating textile effluents in small industries, whereas aerobic biological (mg⋅L− 1) 5558.9 1661.6
processes, preceded or not by physicochemical treatment, are the main
choice of larger industries [4,11]. Although these conventional forms of
treatment are relatively well efficient (and cheaper in case of biological generally higher than those reported for industrial laundries, as the
systems), there is a major problem arising from them, which is the former makes use of more steps and chemical inputs and, consequently,
generation of chemical (coagulation-flocculation) and/or biological their effluents are more concentrated and complex [4]. Based on the
(activated sludge) sludge. These solid residues are hazardous and must National Council for the Environment - Conama [9] and state environ­
be separated, compacted, dried and disposed of at an industrial landfill mental agencies [10], such effluents cannot be disposed of in the envi­
or incinerated, thereby increasing treatment costs and environmental ronment without proper treatment.
impacts [3,6]. There is a recent report on the improper disposal of these When proposing a treatment scheme, one must initially know the
residues in common waste landfill [12]. In addition to sludge, other composition of the wastewater being studied. An important indicator
disadvantages of coagulation-flocculation are low efficiency in that can guide this decision is the COD/BOD5 ratio that estimates the
removing reactive dyes, and the cost of chemical supplies [3,6]. Addi­ biodegradability of effluents. When the ratio is lower than 2.5, the
tionally, biological processes, such as activated sludge, are also not effluent has at least 40% biodegradable organic matter, being then
effective for azo dye degradation (most of discoloration is due to dye susceptible to biological treatments, which are quite efficient and have a
adsorption onto the aerobic sludge), microorganisms are inhibited by relatively low cost. If the ratio is between 2.5 and 3.5, a comparative
some pollutants, needs artificial aeration and normally requires nitrogen study should be made in relation to the efficiency of biological and
and phosphorus supplementation, due to the lack of nutrients in textile physicochemical treatments and when it is above 3.5, physical-chemical
effluents [4,8]. processes are more indicated (at least as a pretreatment of biological
Thus, alternative treatments or polishing steps (to enhance the processes) due to the high fraction of recalcitrant substances [16].
quality of secondary effluents) have been widely studied. Oxidative, Table 2 shows that almost 50% of the reported raw effluents (both
physical and biological processes, or their combination, are gaining from the textile industries and from industrial laundries) had a COD/
prominence as more efficient and economical technologies for the BOD5 ratio above 3.5. This shows that these wastewaters are composed
treatment of textile effluents [3,8]. Although effective, some oxidative of many recalcitrant substances, so physicochemical treatments, alone
and physical treatments (e.g. Fenton reaction and use of membranes, or combined with biological treatment, are more appropriate. It was also
respectively) are not yet implemented on a large scale. Nonetheless, possible to notice that treatment schemes proposed by published works,
such processes have been researched in order to be optimized and in general, are supposedly in accordance with the COD/BOD5 ratio. For
applied industrially [13–15].
Knowing the significance of the textile sector in Brazil and Table 2
acknowledging the large amount of effluents generated, and that the COD/BOD5 values and alternative treatment technologies applied to raw efflu­
conventional treatments have disadvantages/limitations, this study ents from the Brazilian textile sector.
aims to survey the alternative processes and their efficiencies to remedy
COD/BOD5 Process Reference
effluents from Brazilian textile companies (industries and industrial
laundries). This work was based on a bibliographic research between the ≤2.5 2.5–3.5 ≥3.5

years 2009 and 2018 (10 years) through the Scopus, Scielo, Google – – 4.4 Microfiltration + classical Fenton or [17]
Scholar and Web of Science platforms. Tables addressing the biodegrad­ photo-Fenton
3.0 H2O2/UV [18]
ability of textile effluents and the efficiency of alternative processes
– –
– – 12.5 Heterogeneous photocatalysis [19]
applied to raw effluents have been prepared with data from several – – 51.2 H2O2/UV [20]
studies (scientific articles, book chapters, and master theses). In addi­ – 2.8 – H2O2/UV [21]
tion, it has been registered the characteristics of real secondary effluents – – 4.2 Gamma radiation + Fenton, gamma [22]
(which have undergone previous treatments) as well as alternative radiation + H2O2
– 2.6 – Anaerobic biodegradation [23,24]
processes for polishing them to meet the discharge limits according to – 3.1 – Photo-Fenton [25]
current legislation. Another aspect covered was the possibility of reusing – 3.1 – Ultrafiltration + adsorption [26]
either raw or secondary effluents that had been treated by the different 2.1 – – Fungal biodegradation [27]
alternative processes reviewed here. – 2.8 – H2O2/UV, UV [28]
– – 6.2 Electrocoagulation, solar photo- [29]
Fenton (alone or combined)
2. Characteristics of textile effluent and the choice of an – – 6.2; 6.6; Heterogeneous photocatalysis [30]
alternative treatment 7.9
2.2 – – Fluidized bed bioreactor [31]
5.0 Electrocoagulation + heterogeneous [32]
It is known that the effluents from textile mills are very heteroge­ – –
photocatalysis
neous [2,3]. As can be seen in Table 1, the characteristics of effluents – 3.3 – Heterogeneous photocatalysis [33]
from Brazilian mills vary significantly. Concerning the organic matter – – 59 Fungal biodegradation [34]
concentration through data from BOD5 and COD, there is effluents 70 2.0 – – Fungal biodegradation [35]
and 200 times more concentrated than others, respectively. COD, BOD5, – 2.6 – Adsorption [36]
1.4 4.8 Heterogeneous photocatalysis [37]
turbidity, and total solids parameters for textile industry effluents are
–

2
M.D.N. Ramos et al.
example, unconventional biological processes have been more applied
to effluents with a ratio of less than 2.5. On the other hand, AOPs were
the main choice to treat effluents with a low fraction of biodegradable
organic matter.
3. Efficiency of alternative treatments for textile effluents
Several technologies have been studied to treat textile effluents.
Fig. 1 shows the diverse alternative treatments and the number of times
each of them has been evaluated to treat raw textile effluents from
Brazilian industries. Such processes can be subdivided into physical and
physicochemicals, which are based on unit operations to separate pol­
lutants from the liquid phase or chemical reactions to transform the
pollutants, respectively. For instance, AOPs are based on oxidation of
pollutants through free radicals (mainly HO•) whereas adsorption relies
on the transfer of pollutants from the liquid phase to the surface of a
material (adsorbent). In its turn, biological processes are dependent on
microbial metabolism, which can be aerobic, anaerobic or a combina­
tion of them [3,16]. Table 3 shows the compilation of the fundamentals,
some advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly investigated
technologies to treat textile effluents, as reported in the literature.
Data from several works on the efficiency of treatment technologies
applied to textile effluents from Brazilian industries are shown in
Table 4, while Table 5 contains data referring to treated effluents from
industrial textile laundries. Some processes were studied by different
research groups that obtained different results, since each one used a
specific sample of effluent which was treated using different experi­
mental conditions. Therefore, when the studies investigated a single
treatment, but under different experimental conditions, the data were
reported in the form of a range. When researchers evaluated more than
one form of treatment, as well as combinations of them, the data ob­
tained were reported separately.
Among the alternative or emerging processes, it is possible to verify
that AOPs are the most studied to treat textile effluents. They can pro­
mote the degradation of organic pollutants into smaller molecules, even
mineralizing them. Fig. 2 shows the features of HO• radical generated by
AOPs [40,44,95,96]. Considering the different types of AOPs, the most
of the works covered the heterogeneous photocatalysis, photo­
peroxidation (H2O2/UV) and photo-Fenton process (Fe/H2O2/UV).
Unlike coagulation-flocculation with Fe or Al salts, already implemented
Fig. 1. Processes evaluated to treat raw textile effluents on a laboratory scale.
3
Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273
in many WWTPs [5,8,97], some recent studies have tested natural co­
agulants such as tannins. Although the compounds considered green are
attractive, there is still the generation of residual sludge, however less
toxic and which can be used in the production of fertilizers or soil
amenders [98]. Electrocoagulation has been considered as another
alternative to conventional coagulation-flocculation. The main differ­
ence is the in situ generation of coagulant species [39].
It is known that the pH of the effluent from Brazilian textile in­
dustries varies from 5 to 12 [4]. Most of the treatments proposed in the
literature reported the need to adjust the pH so that the treatment
applied became more effective. A minority did not report such infor­
mation or performed the treatment with the inherent characteristic of
the wastewater, which is attractive because it does not generate ex­
penses with acids or alkalis. It was observed that unconventional bio­
logical treatments are generally evaluated at a pH close to 7. This is
because values that are distant from neutrality affect the microorgan­
isms involved in the treatment, especially bacteria, and favor the growth
of other unwanted ones [16]. On the other hand, Fenton processes are
evaluated in effluents with the pH changed to near 3, in order to avoid
precipitation of the iron-based catalyst [40,95,96]. The other AOPs were
commonly studied at different pH values, as a means of optimization.
Usually, many of the works presented here made use of experimental
design methodology, in which they studied the effect of variables such as
pH, concentration of reagents and/or time.
Hydrogen peroxide is the main source of reactive radicals in AOPs,
and the pH is an important parameter since at alkaline conditions H2O2
is easily decomposed in oxygen and water. Therefore, H2O2-based
treatments usually require a pH control [95,96]. Besides that, its con­
centration is another relevant aspect to be considered. When treating a
textile effluent with H2O2/UV, Nagel-Hassemer et al. [21] found that
H2O2 doses above 500 mg⋅L− 1 did not increase effluent discoloration,
but decreased the reaction rate constant. Mounteer et al. [18] suggested
that adding above 170 mg⋅L− 1 of H2O2 would be a waste of oxidizing
agent when using the same treatment. According to the literature, excess
hydrogen peroxide can scavenge hydroxyl radicals, decreasing the
oxidation rate of target pollutants [96]. Other AOPs can be also affected
negatively by high concentrations of H2O2, such as Fenton and photo-
Fenton systems [96,99].
3.1. Efficiency of the treatments and environmental legislation
Based on Conama Resolution 430 [9], that establishes a minimum
reduction of 60% of BOD5 for an industrial effluent discharge, it is
perceived from Tables 4 and 5 that 50% of the processes investigated
comply with this legislative standard. However, the COD parameter is
not regulated by Conama Resolution 430, and it is up to the state
agencies establish maximum values for COD-based discharge or mini­
mum removals of BOD5 and COD. The agencies establish standards
varying from 40 to 180 mg⋅L− 1 for BOD5 and from 60 to 400 mg⋅L− 1 for
COD, depending on each state. Minimum efficiency also varies, with 30
to 95% for DBO5 and 60 to 90% for COD [10]. Most of the treatments
reviewed here report data that meet the minimum removals of COD and
BOD5 according to Brazilian legislation. For treated effluents that do not
meet the disposal standards, it is often necessary to apply a tertiary
treatment (polishing).
Total organic carbon (TOC) is another common parameter to mea­
sure organic matter concentration in water and effluents, but it is not
regulated by any environmental agency in Brazil. Even so, this param­
eter has been used by research groups to evaluate the efficiency of the
treatments. 72% of these studies have shown that TOC was reduced by
more than 60% with the treatment technologies tested. The processes
based on the Fenton reaction (Fe2+ + H2O2 → Fe3+ + HO− + HO•) were
the ones that led to the highest TOC reduction.
Although the Brazilian environmental agencies do not regulate
discharge limits for turbidity and color, the routine evaluation of such
parameters is important for considering alternative or polishing
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

Table 3
Fundamentals, advantages and disadvantages of processes tested for the treatment of textile effluents.
Process Definition Advantages Disadvantages References

Adsorption with Ions or molecules have a tendency to
activated carbon accumulate and concentrate on the reactive
and microporous surface of the coal.
Electrocoagulation Use of current between metallic electrodes
generating coagulant species in solution.
Reverse osmosis Membrane filtration to remove dissolved
solids alongside ions and larger species from
the effluents. Pores smaller than 0.001 μm.
Nanofiltration Filtration through membranes with pores
from 0.001 to 0.07 μm.
Ultrafiltration- Filtration through membranes with pores
microfiltration (UF- from 0.002 to 0.1 μm (UF) and from 0.007 to
MF) 2.0 μm (MF).
Fenton reaction Generation of OH• radicals from H2O2 and
Fe2+.
Ozonation Generation of HO• radicals.
H2O2/UV Generation of HO radicals.
•
Electrooxidation Generation of oxidants on the electrode
surface or from chemicals in solution
Heterogeneous Use of radiation to activate the
photocatalysis semiconductor catalyst.
Bacterial (aerobic) Aerobic bacteria use organic matter as a
source of energy and nutrients, transforming
it into CO2 and water and degrade
nitrogenous organic matter into ammonia.
Bacterial (anaerobic) Anaerobic bacteria metabolize organic
matter.
Fungal Aerobic process dependent on the production
and action of oxidative enzymes to increase
the assimilation of organic matter.
Extended surface area, high capacity of
adsorption, high degree of reactivity.
Removal of various dyes.
Dispenses chemicals. Removal of
different compounds. Produces less
sludge.
Total removal of mineral salts,
hydrolysis of reactive dyes and
chemical auxiliary.
Separation of low molecular weight
organic compounds and divalent ions
from monovalent salts. Treatment of
high concentrations.
Low pressures.
Oxidation of complex organic
pollutants. Efficient discoloration of
soluble and insoluble dyes. Relatively
cheap supplies.
There is no change in volume. No
sludge generation.
No sludge generation. Effective in
removing organic matter. UV acts as a
disinfectant. Generation of H2O2 in
situ.
Easy operation. Little or no use of
chemicals.
Simple, efficient process and
possibility of using sunlight.
Discoloration of azo and
anthraquinone class dyes.
Easy operation. Reductive
transformation of azo dyes.
High rates of discoloration of
anthraquinone and indigo dyes.
Fast saturation, cost of the adsorbent and [38]
difficulty in its regeneration.
Periodic replacement of the sacrificial anode. [39]
Low content of dissolved solids is a limiting
factor. Formation of toxic substances.
High pressures, high cost and possible [2,3,8]
incrustations.
High cost of membranes and possible
incrustations.
Treated water does not present a good quality.
High cost of membranes and possible
incrustations.
Production of iron sludge. Operation in acidic [3,8,40]
conditions.
Short half-life (20 min) of O3. Formation of toxic [3,8]
by-products.
Formation of secondary products. Energy [2,3,8,41]
consumption.
Formation of toxic by-products. Periodic [42,43]
replacement of electrodes due to passivation,
inactivation, and polarization problems. Energy
consumption.
Cost of artificial radiation. [44,45]
Affected by toxic substances. Low rate of [2,8]
discoloration. Need for aeration. Requires
additional carbon and energy sources.
Affected by toxic substances and generates other [6,8]
toxic substances. Low rate of discoloration of
azo dyes. Need for post-treatment.
Low rate of discoloration of azo dyes. Need for [3,8]
specific bioreactors and external carbon source.
Need a nitrogen-restricted environment. Acidic
medium (pH 4.5–5). Inhibition by mixing dyes
and chemicals.

treatments for textile effluents. 89% and 91% of the treatments reviewed
here were able to reduce turbidity and color above 60%, respectively.
Electrocoagulation, anaerobic (UASB) and combined anaerobic-aerobic
(UASB+SAB) bioreactors, microfiltration, solar photo-Fenton, photo­
oxidation with semiconductors, and electrooxidation were very effective
in removing color, with efficiencies up to 100%. Commonly, the tradi­
tional biological processes, mainly the aerobic ones, are not efficient in
discoloration [6]. In the present survey, this was not noticed, since most
biological treatments reduced the color of effluents from industries in
general and laundries by more than 80%. Anaerobic processes can be
effective in promoting azo dye reduction, mainly in the presence of
redox mediators, but have the disadvantage of producing an effluent
loaded with aromatic amines [100,101], whereas the removal of dyes in
aerobic processes are mainly related to their adsorption onto biological
flocs [102].
With regard to the AOPs, the treatments based on the Fenton reaction
and its variations have proven to be very effective. When comparing the
classical Fenton oxidation alone, chelator-aided classical Fenton and
zero valent Iron (ZVI)-Fenton processes for a same effluent, no great
differences have been observed between them. Such processes have the
ability of promoting COD, TOC, turbidity and color reductions from 80
to 90% [82,83]. When treating a textile laundry effluent, Salgado et al.
[78] observed that classical Fenton and H2O2/UV were more efficient
than UV alone. In another comparative study, the conventional photo-
Fenton system led to better results in the removal of COD than H2O2/
UV and photo-Fenton-oxalate, which was more efficient only in
removing turbidity [74]. When evaluating microfiltration followed by
photo-Fenton system, Alvarenga [17] did not observe significant dif­
ferences between the two catalysts tested, Fe2+ salt and ZVI. On the
other hand, Lima et al. [72] found that the classical Fenton reaction was
more effective than TiO2/UV, H2O2/UV, even when compared with the
treatment applied by company that supplied the effluent. Turbidity, for
example, was reduced by 82% through Fenton reaction, while TiO2/UV,
H2O2/UV, and the company WWTP decreased by 0%, 51%, and 66%,
respectively.
In the study developed by Cardoso et al. [66], they compared direct
ozonation with UV, TiO2/UV or TiO2/UV/electricity using a bubbling
reactor. Among the gases evaluated, O3 was more effective than O2.
Regarding O3, color reduction was high, above 95%, for all treatments
tested after 60 min, while COD removals were less than 35%. A signif­
icant difference between the treatments was observed regarding
turbidity removal, with the UV/O3 system being the most effective.
When evaluating heterogeneous photocatalysis, it has been reported
that TiO2-based catalysts are quite efficient [33,37,94]. The main ad­
vantages of using TiO2 are that it is a non-toxic and of low-cost, besides
being a highly active and stable semiconductor [44]. On the other hand,
the main drawback to the wide application of TiO2 to treat industrial
wastewaters is related to the difficulties in efficiently immobilize and/or

4
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

Table 4
Reported results from processes tested for the treatment of effluents from textile industries.
Process Initial pH Final BOD5 Final COD COD COD/ TOC Turbidity Color Reference
BOD5 removal (mg O2⋅L− 1) removal BOD5 removal removal (%) removal
(mg (%) (%) (%) (%)
O2⋅L− 1)

Microfiltration membrane 7.9a – – 55 80.3 – 37.9 83 40.9 [17]

Microfiltration + Photo-Fenton 3 – – 0 100 – 54.6–76 86.6 50.9–92.5
Microfiltration + Photo-Fenton 3 – – 0 100 – 49.9–83.5 89.3 52.8–95.3
with ZVI
Photo-electrooxidation with 6.1a – – 1408 40 – 64 7.6 60 [46]
Ti/TiO2 anode
Electrocoagulation with Fe 7 – – – ~40–71 – – ~92–98 ~66–95 [47]
electrode
Electrocoagulation with Al 5 – – – ~ 46–87 – – 90–98 ~68–90
electrode
Electrocoagulation with Fe-Al 6 – – – ~30–55 – – ~60–98 ~0–90
electrode
H2O2/UV 4; 7; 10 280.1 6 702–864 4–22 2.4 10 – 8–72 [18]
Photooxidation with TiO2 3.5 – – 50.2 88.3 – 66.7 – – [48,49]
Photooxidation with TiO2/ 3.5 – – 0 100 – 79.8 – –
H2O2
Solar photooxidation with 3.5 – – 0–119 62.1–100 – – – – [50]
TiO2/H2O2
Photooxidation with Ti/ 4; 7; 9; 12 – – 197.6–473.3 1.8–59 – – – 33–72 [51]
Ru0.3Ti0.7O2
a
Adsorption (sugarcane or 10.3 – – 2859.1–3911.5 10.8–34.8 – – 7.4–82.3 90.4 [52]
coconut bagasses)
H2O2 9.5a; – – 3832.5 12.6 – – 8.8 11.7
10.2a;
10.3a
H2O2/UV 9.5a; – – 935–2922 50.3–73.3 – – 80.7–91.1 54.6–73.2
10.2a;
10.3a
H2O2/UV + adsorption 9.5a; – – 942.8–1127 74.3–78.5 – – 90.9–94.2 89.1–91.1
10.2a;
10.3a
Electrooxidation with boron- 7.1a – – 7.3–145.8 80–99 – – – 55–98 [53]
doped diamond anode or Ti-
Pt/PbO2
Photo-Fenton 2–8 – – 98.2–890 45.6–94 – 92 97 44.2–99.8 [54]
Solar photo-Fenton 2–8 – – 98.2–1174.6 28.2–94 – 89 98 38.3–95.9
H2O2/UV 5 – – 462.1–619.8 45–59 – – – 74–92 [20]
H2O2/UV 10a – – – – – – – 33.3–73 [21]
Coagulation (with Al2O3)- 9 – – 2035–2590 30–45 – – 96.2–98.9 92.8–99.7 [55]
flocculation + dissolved air
flotation
Submerged anaerobic 6.8–7.2 – – 128 79 – – 68 86 [56]
membrane bioreactor
Submerged anaerobic 6.8–7.2 – – 59 90 – – 83 94
membrane bioreactor with
powdered activated carbon
Photo-Fenton 3 1410.8 19.2 3135.8 41.8 2.2 – – 80.2 [25]
Coagulation-flocculation with 3–12 – – 4006–2283.4 0–43 – – ~2–92 – [57]
Al2(SO4)3
Coagulation-flocculation + 3 – – 320.5 92 – – 99.6 –
H2O2/UV
Electrooxidation with boron- 10.2a – – 0 100 – – – ~50–100 [58]b
doped diamond anode
Classical Fenton 2–3 – – – 12.1–46.7 – – – 6.7–61.4 [59]
Biodegradation with aeration 7.5 – – – – – – – 15–93 [27]
by the fungus Curvularia
luneta URM 6179
Biodegradation with aeration 7.5 – – – – – – – 48–98
by the fungus Phanerochaete
chrysosporium URM 6181
Biodegradation without 7.5 – – – – – – – 38–95
aeration by C. luneta URM
6179
Biodegradation without 7.5 – – – – – – – 35–95
aeration by P. chrysosporium
URM 6181
Electrooxidation with boron- 12.4a – – 0–890 12.5–100 – – – ~21–100 [60]
doped diamond anode
Electrooxidation with Ti-Pt/ 3; 7; 11 – – 55–275 40–95 – – (− 20) – 70 – [61]
β-PbO2 or Ti/Ti0.7Ru0.3O2
anodes
(continued on next page)

5
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

Table 4 (continued )
Process Initial pH Final BOD5 Final COD COD COD/ TOC Turbidity Color Reference
BOD5 removal (mg O2⋅L− 1) removal BOD5 removal removal (%) removal
(mg (%) (%) (%) (%)
O2⋅L− 1)

UV 12.3 172 18.9 497 17.2 2.9 ~6 – ~75 [28]

H2O2/UV 12.3 158 25.5 552 8 3.5 ~6 – ~80
Electrocoagulation with Fe 7 – – 344 79.0 – 60.0 95 95 [29]
electrodes
Solar photo-Fenton 2.8; 3.6; – – 99 93.9 – 88.9 99 99
4.5
Electrocoagulation with Fe 7; 2.8 – – 9 99.4 – 95.9 99.9 99.9
electrodes + solar photo-
Fenton
Adsorption with calcined 7 – – 160–400 50–80 – – – 40–68 [62]
layered double
Hydroxides
Photo-electrooxidation with 2 – – 203 73 – 66.7 0 90 [63]
TiO2 anode
Fluidized bed bioreactor with 8.2a – 27.8–80.2 – 13–63.8 – – – 3.5–35 [31]b
mixed culture
Coagulation with Al2(SO4)3 4–11 – – – – – 10–46 75–100 – [64]b
Coagulation + electrooxidation 3; 7; 8.8a; – – 96.3–529.6 45–90 – 90–95 – –
with boron-doped diamond 10
anode
Submerged anaerobic 6.5–7.5 – – 130.8–544.5 9.7–78.3 – – – 20.9–87.3 [65]
membrane bioreactor
Submerged anaerobic 6.5–7.5 – – 70.1–541.5 10.2–88.6 – – – 22–94.3
membrane bioreactor with
activated carbon
Ozonation 3; 8 – – 100–101 32.7–34 – 7 12.6–21.7 95.7–99.1 [66]
UV/O3 3; 8 – – 101–108 29.4–33.4 – 5 13.7–76.9 98–99.8
Photooxidation with TiO2/O3 3; 8 – – 100–103 32.7–34.6 – 6 13–51.3 97.2–99.4
Photo-electrooxidation with 3; 8 – – 100–102 32.7–33.3 – 9 13.4–16.2 96.9–99
TiO2/O3
Adsorption with orange albedo 1.9–12.2 – – 360–2763 (− 22.8) – – – – (− 50.6) – [67]
powder 84 87
Coagulation-Flocculation with 5–7 – – – 11.8–61.4 – – 72.6–98.7 – [68]
Cereus peruvianus extract +
FeCl3
Microfiltration membrane 7–11 – – 612 65.4 – – – 100 [69,71]
Microfiltration + nanofiltration 7–11 – – 47.2 97.3 – – – 100
Microfiltration + membrane 7–11 – – 164 90.7 – – – 96
bioreactor
Microfiltration + membrane 7–11 – – 25.9–84.3 515.8 – – – 100
bioreactor + nanofiltration
H2O2/UV 4.5 – – – – – 69 51 85 [72]
Classical Fenton 3 – – – – 90 82 98
Photooxidation with TiO2 4.5 – – – – 25 0 29
Biodegradation by the fungus 5.1a – – – – – – – 0–85 [34]
Trametes asperellum URM
4926
Biodegradation by T. atroviride 5.1a – – – – – – – 20–42
URM 3735
Biodegradation by T. atroviride 5.1a – – – – – – – 0–83
URM 4950
a
Biodegradation by T. erinaceum 5.1 – – – – – – – 35–65
URM 3881
Biodegradation by T. harzianum 5.1a – – – – – – – 0–60
URM 2842
Biodegradation by T. virens 5.1a – – – – – – – 22–61
URM 4996
a
Electrocoagulation with 7 – – 152 81.2 – – 85.9 98.9 [73]
stainless steel electrodes
a
Biodegradation by the fungus 5.2 – – 12,199 (− 1751.1) – – – 91.3 [35]
Lasiodiplodia theobromae
MMPI
Photo-Fenton 3 – – 30 87.6 – – 91 95 [74]
Photo-Fenton/oxalate 5 – – 36 85.1 – – 94.9 –
H2O2/UV 8.2a – – 40 83.5 – – 84 –
Solar photo-Fenton 3 – – 0–221.5 47–100 – – 34.8–77.3 80–100 [75]
Heterogeneous photo-Fenton 3–7 – – 815 64 – 78.6 65.5 42 (AC) [76]
(Fe3+ impregnated in
cigarette filter)
a
Without adjustment.
b
Effluent previously filtered. UV: ultraviolet radiation; AC: apparent color.

6
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

Table 5
Reported results from processes tested for the treatment of effluents from industrial textile laundries.
Process Initial pH Final BOD5 Final COD (mg COD COD/ TOC Turbidity Color Reference
BOD5 removal O2⋅L− 1) removal BOD5 removal removal removal (%)
(mg (%) (%) (%) (%)
O2⋅L− 1)

Electrocoagulation with Fe 3; 7; 11 – – 191.4–963.6 41.1–88.3 – 41–55 92–97 5.8–100 [77]

electrodes
UV 3 – – 763 17 – – 94 64 [78]
H2O2/UV 3 – – 610 33 – – 98 99
Classical Fenton 3 – – 458 50 – – 94 99
Photooxidation with TiO2 7.5a – – – – – – – 48.2–100 [19]
UASB – – – 167.4–225.7 69–77 – – – 10–100 [24]
Photo-Fenton 2; 5; 8 – – 98.2–886.7 45.8–94 – 92 97 44.2–99 [54]
Solar photo-Fenton 2; 5; 8 – – 98.2–1174.6 28.2–94 – 89 98 38.3–99
Gamma radiation + H2O2 7.5 200 (− 20.5) 1872 (− 168.1) 9.4 – – – [22]
Gamma radiation + Fenton 7.5 150 9.6 1442.3 (− 106.5) 9.6 – – –
Coagulation-flocculation 7.2a; 7.4a; 60 92.7 – 86.7–94.8 – – 98.6–99.6 98.8–99.2 [79]
with tannin 7.5a
Photo-Fenton 3 – – – 94 – – 97 99 [80]
Photo-Fenton 2; 5; 8 – – 299.4–890 45.6–81.7 – – – 44.2–99.8 [81]
Solar photo-Fenton 2; 5; 8 – – 186.5–1174.6 28.2–88.6 – – – 38.3–95.9
Ultrafiltration membrane 10.4a 51 86.8 210 82.6 3.1 – 95 70.9 [26]
Ultrafiltration + adsorption 3 126 67.4 350 71.1 2.8 – 97.7 84.4
with orange pomace
Classical Fenton 1–13 – – 63.7–944.5 18.5–94.5 – 4.8–92.3 69–99.9 70.5–99.3 [82,83]
Classical Fenton/chelators 1–13 – – 42.9–1088.2 6.1–96.3 – 5.1–82.3 77.8–99.3 63.1–99.5
Fenton-ZVI 3 – – 24.3–728.9 37.1–97.9 – 36.5–98.1 60.7–99.1 50–99.3
Anaerobic biodegradation – – – 538–1027.9 26–65 – – – 23–38 [23]
Two horizontal anaerobic 6.7a–8.4a – – 234.3 70.8 – – 87.3 90.1 (AC) [84]
fixed bed bioreactors 40.7 (TC)
Sequential horizontal 6.7a–8.4a – – 188.1 76.5 – – 98.2 93.7 (AC)
anaerobic-aerobic fixed 49.1 (TC)
bed bioreactors
Sequential horizontal 6.7a–8.4a – – 130.1 83.8 – – 91.5 75.7 (AC)
anaerobic-anoxic fixed bed 66.4 (TC)
bioreactors
Coagulation with Moringa 6.9a – – 551.9–553.8 (− 12.8) – – 69.5–78.8 64.3–73.5 [85]
oleifera –(− 12.4)
a
Coagulation with tannin 6.9 – – 193–194.9 60.3–60.7 – – 98.2–98.5 94.9–95.7
UASB – – – 627–728 34–43 – – – 30–88 [86]
UASB-SAB – – – 331.5–459.8 56–71 – – – 68–100
Microfiltration membrane – – – 8–232 82–99 – – – ~99.1–99.6 [87]
Coagulation-flocculation 4–9 – – 43–157.8 45–85 – – 29–97 45–90 [88]
with FeSO4 + classical
Fenton
Coagulation with PAC and 8.3a – – 113–163 41.9–59.6 – – 28.1–89.9 54.6–87.1 [89]
flocculation with anionic
polymer + dissolved air
flotation
Coagulation with FeCl3 + 5; 6; 7 – – – 43.5–88.6 – – 64.1–99 – [90]
Opuntia ficus-indica
Photooxidation with ZnO 4–10 – – 121.7–130.4 44.8–49.3 – – – 62–97 [30]
Coagulation-flocculation 6 – – – 28.5–57.2 – – 13.5–94.2 – [91]
with FeCl3
Coagulation-flocculation 6 – – – 65.1–85.7 – – 96.8–98.1 93–96.9
with FeCl3 + Abelmoschus
esculentus mucilage
Electrocoagulation with Fe 7 – – 366 77.6 – 54.2 96.7 100 [32]
electrodes
Electrocoagulation with Fe 3 – – 3.5 99.8 – 66.2 99.9 100
electrodes +
photooxidation with TiO2/
H2O2
Photooxidation with TiO2 2–7 – – 164.8–497.1 11.0–70.5 – – – 84.5–97.8 [33]
Photooxidation with ZnO 2–7 – – 277.6–473.0 15.3–50.3 – – – 67.8
Photooxidation with Nb2O5 2–7 – – 191.0–465.2 16.7–65.8 – – – 86.0
Coagulation with tannin 3–8 – – 207 49.2 – – 92.1 76.1 (AC) [92]
72 (TC)
Coagulation with PAC 3–8 – – 73.1 82.1 – – 94 91.6 (AC)
56.2 (TC)
Coagulation with Al2(SO4)3 3–8 – – 144.8 64.5 – – 88.3 81.1 (AC)
88.2 (TC)
Electrocoagulation with Al 6 – – 176.6–203.9 50–56.7 – – 70.7–75.5 53.5–63(AC)
electrodes 63.9–95
(TC)
3; 6; 9 – – – 62.9–87.1 – – 90.5–98.2 – [93]
(continued on next page)

7
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

Table 5 (continued )
Process Initial pH Final BOD5 Final COD (mg COD COD/ TOC Turbidity Color Reference
BOD5 removal O2⋅L− 1) removal BOD5 removal removal removal (%)
(mg (%) (%) (%) (%)
O2⋅L− 1)

Coagulation with FeCl3 +

Sechium edule SW.
Solar irradiation 3 – – 530.6 ~5 – – – 13.6 [94]
Solar photooxidation with 3 – – 178.7–223.4 60–68 – – – 96.7–99.1
TiO2
Solar photooxidation with 3 – – 323.9 42 – – – 64.2
ZnO
Solar photooxidation with 3 – – 223.4 60 – – – 93.1
Nb2O5
Adsorption with graphene 5.5 – – – – – – 84.7 60.4 [36]
oxide
Photooxidation with TiO2 2.5 82–87 63–65.1 210–242.8 78.7–81.6 2.4–2.9 – 93.4–95.3 93.3–93.6 [37]
Photooxidation with ZnO 8 20–22 94.2–94.7 104–112 79.4–80.8 5–5.3 – 87.6–90.3 87.2–88.9
a
Without adjustment. UV: ultraviolet radiation; UASB: upflow anaerobic sludge blanket; SAB: submerged aerated biofilter; AC: apparent color; TC: true color; PAC:
poly aluminum chloride.

thereby affecting the adsorption of the pollutants for further degradation

Fig. 2. Main features of hydroxyl radical.
recover catalyst from treated effluents [103,104].
Comparative studies involving different semiconductors observed
that the TiO2 and Nb2O5 were more efficient than ZnO [33,94]. The
same research group has found a similar effect between artificial and
solar light sources for the different semiconductors in optimized con­
ditions of treatment [33,48–50,94]. For photo-Fenton oxidation, the two
irradiation sources tested also presented similar effects [54,81].
Considering that operating cost with sunlight is lower, its use is more
attractive, besides it being a clean and renewable source of energy [44].
The influence of pH on heterogeneous photocatalysis was evaluated by
Tavares et al. [30] and Souza et al. [33] using ZnO. The optimum pH
found was 4.0 and 3.0, respectively, while higher values of this
parameter reduced the discoloration efficiency. For TiO2 and Nb2O5,
Souza et al. [33] observed similar effect of pH in discoloring the same
effluent. It is known that the pH influences the dissociation of com­
pounds in solution and surface charge properties of the semiconductors,
[45].
In works involving electrooxidation and photo-electrooxidation, the
most used materials were boron-doped diamond and TiO2 anodes,
respectively. These treatments promoted varied removal efficiencies of
COD and color, which were up to 100%. Evaluating the effect of current
density, Martínez-Huitle et al. [58] observed an increase from 50% to
100% of discoloration, increasing from 20 mA⋅cm− 2 to 60 mA⋅cm− 2. A
similar result was obtained by Solano et al. [60], which evaluated the
same current density change and observed an increase of approximately
40% in the COD removal efficiency. Both works suggested that a greater
charge passing into the system improves the electrogeneration of hy­
droxyl radicals.
As mentioned earlier, some studies have evaluated alternative in­
puts, e.g. plant extracts, in coagulation-flocculation to mix or replace
conventional coagulants (e.g. FeCl3). Fig. 3 summarizes conventional,
alternative inputs and their mixtures, as reported in the literature.
Natural coagulants are biodegradable, safer to human health, and hence
cause smaller environmental impacts than metallic or polymeric co­
agulants [5,98]. As an example of the efficiency of natural coagulants,
Freitas et al. [91] verified a 50% reduction of COD using 320 mg⋅L− 1 of
FeCl3⋅6H2O. By adding 3.2 mg⋅L− 1 of okra mucilage as a coagulation aid,
it was possible to decrease the concentration of FeCl3⋅6H2O to 88 mg⋅L− 1
while attaining a higher reduction of COD (86%). Opuntia ficus-indica
cactus was tested by Souza et al. [90] to treat jeans washing laundry
effluent. By using 160 mg⋅L− 1 of FeCl3⋅6H2O, 2.6 mg⋅L− 1 of cactus
extract, at pH 5 led to the removal of 65% of COD and 91% of turbidity.
The same study tested the cactus extract to treat a fabric dyeing effluent
and obtained removals of 87% for COD and 94% for turbidity at the
optimal conditions (FeCl3⋅6H2O 640 mg⋅L− 1, cactus extract 160 mg⋅L− 1,
pH 6). When using 10 mg⋅L− 1 of Cereus peruvianus cactus mucilage with
320 mg⋅L− 1 of FeCl3⋅6H2O at pH 5, Souza et al. [68] observed removals
of 58.3% for COD and 85.4% for turbidity. Chayote residue was also
evaluated and high removals (~98% of turbidity and ~84% of COD)
were observed in presence of 15 mg⋅L− 1 of this natural coagulant com­
bined with 47.4 mg⋅L− 1 of FeCl3 at pH 6.14 [93]. In general, when
conventional and natural coagulants are mixed, the amount of the
former can be reduced.
On the other hand, some works studied commercial tannins as the
only coagulant of textile effluents and observed reductions above 90%
for both color and turbidity [79,85]. When natural coagulant is used
only, less sludge is generated, which is more susceptible to biological
treatment [5]. The use of Moringa oleifera seeds (which contains cationic
proteins) was also tested as coagulant by Ströher et al. [85], and led to
removal efficiencies lower than tannin, 74% for color and 79% for
turbidity. Unlike conventional coagulants, tannins and M. oleifera

8
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

Fig. 3. Coagulants tested for coagulation-flocculation of raw textile effluents.

proved to be efficient in removing color and turbidity without pH (1600 mg⋅L− 1). Souza et al. [92], in turn, compared tannin with
adjustment. However, the COD parameter increased by 12.4% with the aluminum sulfate and poly aluminum chloride (PAC), and found the
latter due to organic matter from a high concentration of seeds evaluated latter was the most effective to coagulate a textile effluent. Such study

Fig. 4. Scheme of the submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactor in bench-scale (Adapted from Baêta et al. [56]). Yeast extract was used as nitrogen and vita­
mins source.

9
M.D.N. Ramos et al.
also evaluated the use of aluminum electrodes, and found that electro­
coagulation was the least effective. Iron [32,77] and stainless acid
electrodes [73] were used by other authors in electrocoagulation
treatments. Cerqueira et al. [47] compared different electrode compo­
sitions (iron, aluminum, or iron-aluminum) under varied experimental
conditions, and reported that the best removal efficiencies were attained
with aluminum. Although it is a very studied technique in bench-scale, a
Brazilian textile company makes use of sieving followed by electro­
coagulation as the main treatment step of its effluent [105].
For the treatment of textile effluents employing adsorbents, different
materials have been tested as a single treatment or as a polishing step.
Ribeiro et al. [52] evaluated three agro-industrial residues, sugarcane
and coconut bagasses as well as orange pomace, to adsorb pollutants of
raw textile effluent. The first material removed 79% of the effluent color,
the second 48%, while orange pomace was not effective. Silva et al. [67]
verified that only for the effluent diluted (60% v/v), color and COD
removals above 80% were obtained through adsorption with orange
waste powder. On the other hand, when applying adsorption process to
polish an effluent that had been treated with ultrafiltration, the discol­
oration increased from 70.9% to 84.4% [26]. Interestingly, the addition
of the most known adsorbent, powdered activated carbon, in submerged
anaerobic membrane bioreactor improved COD and color removals from
textile effluents. This was supposedly due to a combined effect of
adsorption of toxic and recalcitrant compounds and the presence of
redox mediators (e.g. quinone groups) on the activated carbon surface.
Fig. 5. Removal of COD and color from raw textile wastewater treated with different alternative processes.
10
Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273
Such a system, evaluated by Baêta et al. [56,65] is outlined in Fig. 4.
A small percentage (<20%) of the works reviewed here studied
biological processes. Knowing that textile effluent do not have signifi­
cant amounts of N, P and other micronutrients [4,106], some works
reported the need to supplement them prior to the use of biological
processes. In addition to N and P, organic redox mediators have also
been tested for different research groups to accelerate color removal
[27,56,65]. It is worth to mention that supplementing an effluent can
increase its organic content, which may become a problem if the treat­
ment is not effective. Unfortunately, Pizato et al. [35] verified that
nutrient and carbon source supplementation (with magnesium sulfate,
potassium phosphate, sucrose and ammonium nitrate) followed by
fungal treatment discolored above 90%, but dramatically increased the
COD and total phenols of the tested effluent. On the other hand, the
addition of wheat bran (0.5% m/v) or yeast extract (0.05% m/v) as a
source of nitrogen promoted different effects in discoloring a textile
effluent, dependent of Trametes strains as tested by Lisboa et al. [34]. For
example, they verified that the yeast extract stimulated the discoloration
by T. asperellum, but inhibited T. virens.
In order to have an overview of the efficiency of the treatments
reviewed, box-plot graphs were assembled with the COD and color
removal data (Fig. 5), since these are the parameters mostly reported in
the tables aforementioned. Only treatments studied more than twice
were considered, with the number on top of the boxes corresponding to
the amount of times each system was tested. When a study varied
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

operating parameters, the data of the optimized system were considered
here. When analyzing data on COD removal, electrooxidation was
shown to be the most efficient treatment, reducing this parameter by an
average of 98%. The photo-Fenton system, membranes, and classical
Fenton were also very efficient, whose average reductions were 86%,
80%, and 78%, respectively. According to discoloration data, it was
observed that all treatments reduced color with an average higher than
70%. Electrooxidation, electrocoagulation, classical Fenton, and photo-
Fenton, for example, were the treatments that exhibited average color
removals above 90%. Therefore, when comparing both COD and color
removals, the electrooxidation, photo-Fenton, and modified bacterial
treatments deserve to be highlighted, as they exhibited low variability
between different studies for the two parameters, despite having a larger
amount of data. This is very interesting because it shows that these
treatments are efficient when applied to effluents from different com­
panies that produce different fabrics, use different inputs, and are
located in different regions of the country.
Table 6 shows the physicochemical characteristics of secondary
textile effluents, that is, which have undergone previous biological
treatment. Even with a limited number of data, there are samples with a
higher concentration of organic matter than others. All works using
secondary effluents reported here were also treated by using an alter­
native process. Most studied AOPs, mainly based on the Fenton reaction.
The minority did not adjust the pH or did not mention this aspect.
Considering the Brazilian environmental agencies [10], it is seen that
secondary effluents treated by the investigated technologies comply
with the standards for disposal of effluents in water bodies. It is note­
worthy that it is not possible to compare these data with legislation
regarding the percentage of BOD5 and COD removal since raw effluent
data is not available. Nevertheless, it can be seen that more than half of
the processes led to COD removals higher than 60%. Enough data on
COD5 has been reported, and it is seen that there are effluents that fell
within the limits by Brazilian legislation [10]. Regarding the color, most
studies have reported reductions over 80%.
The works published by Nagel-Hassemer et al. [21], Guimarães et al.
[25], and Teixeira et al. [62] were the only ones that treated both raw
and secondary effluents through H2O2/UV, photo-Fenton and adsorp­
tion, respectively. The treatments were more efficient in removing
pollutants from raw effluents which are more concentrated. The first
study observed that the application of conventional secondary treatment
before H2O2/UV enabled the use of a lower concentration of oxidizing
agent. The other two works reported that secondary treatment with
activated sludge efficiently reduced organic matter from the effluent,
but not its color. When a polishing step was evaluated, the discoloration
was above 70%, thus complementing the conventional biological
treatment.
In general, the vast majority of the studies reviewed here evaluated
the treatments in bench-scale (up to 10 L) either with raw or secondary

Table 6
Some characteristics of secondary textile effluents and results of processes employed for their polishing.
Process Initial Initial Initial BOD5 Initial Final COD COD TOC Turbidity Color References
pH treatment BOD5 removal COD (mg (mg O2⋅L− 1) removal removal removal removal
pH (mg (%) O2⋅L− 1) (%) (%) (%) (%)
O2⋅L− 1)

Photooxidation with 7 7 – – 112 89 20.5 – – 62–84 [107]

CoFe2O4@TiO2
Photooxidation with 7 7 – – 112 87 22.3 – – 49–77
TiO2
UV 7 7 – – 112 84 25 – – 60–82
H2O2/UV 7.5 7.5a 9 – 193 – – 15–56 3–23 20.8–96 [21,108]
Coagulation- – 7a – – 174 – – – 93.9–97.5 – [97]
flocculation with
Al2(SO4)3
Coagulation- – 7a – – 174 43 75.3 34.2–64.9 95.8–98.4 23.6–48.5
flocculation with
FeCl3
Coagulation- – 7a – – 174 20 88.5 84.9 98.2 80.4
flocculation with
FeCl3+
ultrafiltration
Coagulation- – 7a – – 174 < 4.0 > 97.7 98.4 98.2 100
flocculation with
FeCl3+ reverse
osmosis
Photo-Fenton 6.2 3 144 11.9 1580 1102.8 30.2 – – 70.9 [25]
Adsorption with 7 7 – – 200–500 50–150 60–70 – – 45–72 [62]
calcined layered
double
hydroxides
UV – 7.7a; 8.1a 35–48 – 217–250 – – – – 2–3 [109]
H2O2 – 7.7a; 8.1a 35–48 – 217–250 – – – – 7–27
H2O2/UVC 7.7; 3–9 35–48 – 217–250 – – – – 68–90
8.1
H2O2/UV 7.8 3–7 – – 202 145.4–200 1–28 – – – [110]
Classical Fenton 7.8 3 – – 202 64.6–111.1 45–68 – 87.9 100
Photo-Fenton 7.8 3 – – 202 64.6–127.3 37–68 – – –
Photooxidation with 9 4–10 – – 78 62.4 20 – – 96 [111]
TiO2
Adsorption with 8.5 8.5a – – 78 27.3–50.7 35–65 – – 50–93 [112]
powdered
activated carbon
Photo-Fenton with 8.3 8.3 37.14 58 – – – – 31 90.6 [113]
Fe in chitosan
spheres
a
Without adjustment.

11
M.D.N. Ramos et al.
effluent. The few studies carried out in pilot-scale (50 to 500 L) tested
unconventional biological treatments [24,84,86] or AOPs [37,75]. As
far as reactor operation is concerned, most studies employed batch mode
while a few employed continuous flow systems. Bench-scale studies
operating in batch mode are essential for a parametric evaluation to find
optimum treatment conditions. However, scaled-up studies must be
encouraged aiming at real application. Continuous flow is also an
important way to treat large amounts of effluents generated uninter­
ruptedly as in big-size companies. An interesting pilot-scale reactor was
used by Starling et al. [75] when studying the solar photo-Fenton
oxidation. The photo-reactor constructed by them has a total volume
of 55 L, being composed of five borosilicate tubes that were connected in
series by polyvinylchloride junctions and a recirculation tank to operate
in batch mode. Below each tube there were anodized aluminum re­
flectors, which were oriented to the North and tilted 20◦ . An optimized
condition of this system was reached with 20 mg⋅L− 1 of Fe2+, 500
mg⋅L− 1 of H2O2, and pH 3, reducing (on average) 90% of the COD and
color of real effluent samples [75].
3.2. Toxicity of textile effluents treated by alternative processes
A major problem with textile effluent, besides the high color and
organic matter concentration, is its toxicity [2,4]. This parameter should
also be reduced when considering the discharge of treated effluents into
water bodies [9,10]. To verify whether an alternative treatment is effi­
cient in this regard, some authors usually report LC50 (lethal concen­
tration that causes the death of 50% of the organisms) values derived
from acute toxicity tests. In many of the studies reviewed here, the
germination of plant seeds or the quantity of surviving organisms/col­
onies after exposure to effluents was analyzed.
Regarding textile effluents treated by AOPs, Garcia et al. [48] used
Lactuca sativa seeds and verified that the effluent treated by TiO2/UV or
TiO2/H2O2/UV did not have its toxicity reduced significantly after 6 h.
On the other hand, in experiments with Artemia salina, such authors
found that the treated effluents were less toxic, since they increased the
percentage of live microcrustaceans from 67% (raw effluent) to 100%
and 90%, respectively [49]. The treatment with H2O2 exhibited a
toxicity reduction lower than the treatment in its absence. This might
have happened due to residual H2O2, since the authors do not report its
elimination. Only one research group [74,75], reported the use of the
catalase enzyme to remove the residual H2O2. Starling et al. [75] used
Aliivibrio fischeri and observed that an effluent treated by solar photo-
Fenton had its acute toxicity reduced from 3 to 1, which is equivalent
to the absence of toxicity according to the authors. With A. salina, the
photocatalytic treatment of a laundry effluent completely eliminated its
acute toxicity, since the LC50 of the treated effluents was greater than
100%, no matter the semiconductor tested [94]. Daphnia similis was used
to evaluate the toxicity of an industrial effluent treated with H2O2/UV.
Less toxicity was observed when the treatment lasted longer, with higher
doses of H2O2 and pH below 7 [18]. Nagel-Hassemer et al. [21] also
studied H2O2/UV to treat textile effluents and used Daphnia magna for
acute toxicity and Tilapia cf. rendalli for mutagenicity tests. No toxicity
was observed in the treated effluents, since LC50 increased from 26.8%
to 82% and 100% when using 750 mg⋅L− 1 and 1000 mg⋅L− 1 of H2O2,
respectively. In addition, the treated effluents did not exhibit
mutagenicity.
When investigating the effect of electrocoagulation, the lowest
toxicity level of a laundry effluent for L. sativa and A. salina was reached
in shorter treatment times. LC50 of the effluent was increased from 21%
to 41% after 5 min and reduced to 29% after 30 min. According to the
authors, more toxic forms of nitrogen were generated as the treatment
time increased [77]. Using the same microcrustacean, Palácio et al. [32]
analyzed electrocoagulation, heterogeneous photocatalysis and the
combination of both. They found that the toxicity of the laundry effluent
treated by the tandem processes (electrocoagulation-photocatalysis)
reduced more than the separate processes. A LC50 of 94% was observed
12
Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273
after 6 h of combined electrocoagulation-photocatalysis, while the iso­
lated treatments generated an effluent with LC50 of 70% (electro­
coagulation after 1.5 h) and 75% (photocatalysis after 6 h). In another
study, electrocoagulation was slightly more effective than conventional
coagulation (with aluminum sulfate) since the mortality of 100% for
A. salina was reduced to 0% and 6.9%, respectively [64].
Using the test organism D. magna, it was found that using sequential
anaerobic-aerobic biological treatments decreased the toxicity of textile
laundry wastewaters [24,86]. Treatment in a fluidized bed bioreactor
also significantly decreased by 87% the acute toxicity of an effluent to
D. magna [31]. When treating an effluent with fungi, Miranda et al. [27]
found that C. lunata removed toxicity for Allium cepa, while with
P. chrysosporium an increase in the toxicity was observed. According to
the authors, the mutagenic effects were probably associated with the
oxidized metabolite found in the effluent treated by this fungus. The
biological treatment evaluated by Pizato et al. [35] also increased
toxicity for A. salina, since the LC50 decreased from 14.7% to 5%. The
authors also attributed their results to the possible generation of toxic
metabolites, in addition to the partial degradation of dyes and the
decrease in the pH of the medium to near 2.0.
On the other hand, increased toxicity has also been observed in some
studies, which treated textile effluents by AOPs. For example, the H2O2/
UV system proved to be inefficient when the algae Pseudokirchneriella
subcapitata was tested, since the LC50 decreased from 2.50% to 0.05% v/
v after treatment. The increased toxicity of the treated effluent was
probably due to the residual H2O2 and the presence of Cu2+ ions formed
during the degradation of a dye used by the industry under study, ac­
cording to the authors [20]. Franco and Azevedo [28] also noticed a
small increase in the toxicity of the effluent treated by H2O2/UV or UV
alone. The LC50 decreased from 49.5% to 39.9% and 39.1%, respec­
tively, using L. sativa. In testing this same organism, the electrooxidation
and photo-electrooxidation treatments increased the toxicity of a textile
effluent from 26% to 1.5% and 1.7%, respectively [51]. The last two
studies suggested the formation of products more toxic than their pre­
cursors, which were not identified.
Arcanjo et al. [111] used D. similis and verified that photocatalysis
(with TiO2 or hydrotalcite/Iron/TiO2) of a secondary textile effluent
reduced its toxicity since the LC50 value went from 70.7% to 95% and
78.6%, respectively. Likewise, Dalari [113] found that heterogeneous
photo-Fenton process decreased the toxicity of a secondary textile
laundry effluent, but it was still considered slightly toxic since it did not
allow L. sativa germination above 80%, according to the authors.
3.3. Cost analysis
Although it is a very important aspect in choosing a treatment for
real application, few studies reviewed here have performed cost anal­
ysis. For example, the integration of microfiltration with ultrafiltration
was the least costly process, reaching 0.31 $ m− 3 [69]. Starling et al.
[74] compared the cost of three oxidative treatments, being the photo­
peroxidation the most expensive (2.24 $ m− 3) due the longtime tested of
artificial light irradiation. Photo-Fenton cost was $ 0.91 m− 3, lower than
photo-Fenton/oxalate, $ 1.07 m− 3, due to addition of the chemical. As
Brazil is a very sun-irradiated country, employing natural light could
reduce the cost of photo-oxidation treatments. Electro-oxidation with
boron-doped diamond anode is a more expensive treatment when
compared to the other aforementioned, ranging from 3.28 to 20.99 $
m− 3 depending on the energy consumed, type of salt added (NaCl,
Na2SO4) and its concentration. For the highest tested NaCl concentra­
tion (30 g⋅L− 1), it was observed the lowest cost of treatment due to the
lower consumption of energy, although the undesired production of
chloroform occurred from this electrolyte [60].
4. Reuse of textile effluents submitted to alternative treatments
In addition to the discharge into water bodies, another goal of a
M.D.N. Ramos et al.
treatment is the possibility of reusing water resources, demanding less
fresh water. Some industrial textile laundries in the country have
already been doing this. The laundries cited by Lenhard et al. [19], and
Viana et al. [114] reuse the effluent conventionally treated by physi­
cochemical and biological processes, while the companies approached
by Marcelino [84] and Porto and Schoenhals [115] reuse a physico­
chemically treated effluent. However, such works do not report how
these wastewaters are reused. In a recent survey carried out in the
Brazilian state of Pernambuco, it was found that 89% of laundries are
reusing treated effluent, but in small quantities, since it is difficult to
store the effluent or carry out direct reuse [116].
Unfortunately, Brazilian legislation has not yet set standards for in­
dustrial reuse of effluents, although there are a few laws, which are not
specific for industrial effluents [10,117]. Therefore, research usually
draws arbitrary conclusions about reuse based on the reduction of
certain physicochemical parameters. The reviewed works have consid­
ered that when the percentage of removal of some characterization
parameter is high, the treated effluent is suitable for reuse.
It is seen that color and turbidity are the most relevant parameters for
industrial reuse, since the treated effluent should not interfere with the
dyeing of the fabrics. Alvarenga [17], for example, mentions that it may
be feasible to reuse membrane-treated effluent followed by photo-
Fenton oxidation due to observed high reduction in color and organic
matter. Photocatalysis with immobilized TiO2 has proven to be a
promising alternative for the generation of an effluent proper to reuse,
since it often leads to high discoloration [19]. Baêta et al. [56] suggested
that it is possible to reuse wastewater treated by membranes coupled to
bioreactors based on observed removals of color, turbidity and COD.
Coagulation-flocculation followed by flotation, in their turn, proved to
be viable for the generation of reuse water based on color and turbidity
removals according to Gonçalves et al. [89]. Souza et al. [90] showed
that PAC-based coagulation removed 90% of the color of an effluent,
indicating high potential of recycling water with such technology.
Besides color, turbidity and COD, other characterization parameters
of treated effluent should also be paid attention when considering its
reuse. Electrocoagulation, for example, did not reduce NaCl concentra­
tion of textile effluent, and this was considered an attraction for its
reuse, as it would be a way to save this chemical input in the dyeing
stage [73]. Microfiltration alone or followed by nanofiltration or a
microfiltration membrane bioreactor also proved to be efficient in
retaining another chemical input, the indigo dye, which is widely used
in dyeing jeans [69–71,87].
Some works have specified at which step the treated wastewater
should be reused. Permeates from micro- and nanofiltered effluents has
been indicated to be reused in less demanding processes as washing of
equipment and floors [69,71]. Since the treated effluent can be used in
the dyeing step with a new dye load, some works have evaluated this
approach. Fenton and photo-Fenton processes proved to be viable,
because they did not affect the quality of dyeing when using treated
effluent, according to Ribeiro et al. [110]. A jeans laundry effluent
treated by photocatalysis was used to manufacture cotton fabric, which
went through the desizing, bleaching, dyeing and softening steps. The
treated effluent did not interfere with the quality of the fabric, as it
remained unstained and with color intensity similar to the control [37].
Starling et al. [74] compared an effluent from light tissues dyeing step,
which was treated by photo-Fenton, photo-Fenton-oxalate, H2O2/UV,
and a reclaimed effluent (chlorination-filtration). The authors found
similarities between the characteristics of AOP-treated effluents and
reclaimed water and considered all them suitable for reuse in dark tissue
dyeing. The same group [75] evaluated an effluent treated by solar
photo-Fenton in the dyeing and washing stages, and the fabrics obtained
did not exhibit spots, stains or change of tone.
For a secondary effluent, Fortino [97] mentions that the high color
reduction of the effluent treated by reverse osmosis (with spiral module)
indicates the possibility of reusing it in the dyeing stage. On the other
hand, two other forms of treatment tested were not effective. According
13
Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273
to the author, ultrafiltration did not reduce enough color and the
osmosis treatment with a flat module was not considered viable, since it
recovered small volumes of water.
5. Concluding remarks and perspectives
Textile sector is one of the main sources of environmental pollution.
Knowing that the effluent generated by Brazilian textile industries is rich
in pollutants, besides being highly coloured, its treatment before
disposal is essential. Since conventional biological processes and
coagulation-flocculation have limitations in treating such effluents,
alternative technologies have been researched and reviewed here. These
attempts are important to treat textile effluents so that environmental
discharge limits or reuse standards are met. AOPs (mainly electro­
oxidation, photo-Fenton and classical Fenton oxidation) are physico­
chemical processes widely studied to treat textile effluents which seem
promising due to reported high reduction of color and COD (average
above 90 and 78%, respectively). Electrooxidation was shown to be the
most efficient treatment by reducing the COD, with an average of 98%.
Considering the different photooxidation treatments reviewed, the
similar efficiency between artificial and solar light indicates the use of
the latter is more attractive because it employs a clean and renewable
source of energy. Besides that, the use of sunlight can minimize the high
requirement of energy by AOPs. Coagulation with tannins and electro­
coagulation are treatments that have also been extensively investigated
with competitive results when compared with conventional coagulants,
reaching average COD reductions around 68 and 74%, respectively. It
has also been verified that the addition of different plant–derived inputs
can decrease the requirement for conventional chemicals without any
loss of efficiency in the coagulation-flocculation processes. Thus, the use
of them must be encouraged because of their eco-friendly nature. Con­
trary to conventional activated sludge, modified bacterial processes (i.e.
with addition of redox mediators and activated carbon) were efficient in
removing above 80% the color of effluents, while those based on fungus
can increase adversely the toxicity of the treated effluents due the
excreted metabolites. For secondary effluents (generated after conven­
tional biological treatment), it is observed that their physicochemical
characteristics do not meet current Brazilian environmental standards,
indicating the need for a tertiary treatment. The most studied polishing
techniques researched for this are the ones based on AOPs, which seem
quite effective to comply with the current legislation. Different re­
searches have described reduction of toxicity and production of an
effluent adequate for industrial reuse, hence indicating many of these
emerging technologies are promising and should be further evaluated
for their economic and environmental sustainability. For future studies,
it is recommended further tests on a pilot scale, cost analysis of different
technologies, as well as continuous flow operation for real application.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Márcio D. N. Ramos: Data curation; Formal analysis; Writing -
Original Draft; Juan P. P. Lima: Data curation; Formal analysis; Sergio
F. Aquino: Conceptualization; Writing - Review; André Aguiar:
Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Project administration; Super­
vision; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do
Estado de Minas Gerais (Fapemig, process number APQ-01898-17),
CNPq, and CAPES (Brazil).
M.D.N. Ramos et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 43 (2021) 102273

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