Chapter 13

Learning Outcomes: The Students will learn the following;

 Definition of DNA?
 Facts about DNA
 Guidelines for documentation of DNA Evidence
 DNA Analysis
 How DNA test is done

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

During the mid-1980’s DNA analysis was first recognized as having application to
forensic science by the British molecular biologist Alex Jeffreys. From work in his laboratory, as
well as from others, it was realized that DNA at a vast number of sites was unique between
individuals.
DNA has been utilized as a new powerful tool for human identification. It offers the
following advantages.
 DNA IS STABLE – it can be isolated from material that is months or even years old.
 DNA can be destroyed from wide variety of biological resources like blood, semen, hair,
saliva, and bones.
 DNA can be replicated in the laboratory – from a very small amount of initial material
through the process of PCR ( POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION).
 DNA shows greater variability from one individual to the next.

WHAT IS DNA?

DNA is functionally the hereditary material that contains the genetic information
necessary for duplication of cells and for the production of proteins. Chemically, it is an acid,
is phosphorous rich, it contains a deoxyribose sugar, it contains the four (4) bases adenine
(A), THYMINE (T), CYTOSINE (C), and GUANINE (G), and that the bases shows the unique
property of pair wise equivalency. It is a double helix composed of two complimentary
strands.

Deoxyribose - is a monosaccharide with idealized formula H---(CHOH)3-H. Its name

indicates that it is a deoxy sugar, meaning that it is derived from the sugar ribose by loss
of an oxygen atom.
Adenine – a purine base that codes hereditary information in the genetic code
Thymine - a compound that is one of the four constituent bases of nucleic acids. A
pyrimidine derivative, it is paired with adenine in double-stranded DNA.
Cytosine - It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two
substituents attached.
Guanine - a compound that occurs in guano and fish scales, and is one of the four
constituent bases of nucleic acids. A urine derivative, it is paired with cytosine in double-
stranded DNA.

FACTS ABOUT DNA

DNA (de – oxy – ri – bo – nu – cle – ic acid) - is a chemical substance found in all cells whose
composition have been passed on from parents to their children. All cells in the body have the
same DNA composition except individual egg and sperm cells.

LINE – UP OF CASES WHERE DNA ANALYSIS CAN BE OF HELP

1. Sexual assault cases like rape
2. Murder
3. Homicide
4. Hit and run
5. Extortion
6. Paternity case
7. Identification of remains from mass
8. Robbery disaster cases and missing persons

HOW DNA ANALYSIS IS USED TO IDENTIFY WITH ACCURACY THE PERPETRATORS

OF CRIME:

Human tissues such as hair, blood, semen are often left in places where a crime has
been committed. By carefully collecting such bits of tissues, their owner can be identified from
the DNA pattern obtained. Semen in rape victims, hairs in kidnapper’s lairs, bloodstains in
clothing associated with murder, saliva stains in cigarette butts, stamps envelopes associated
with extortion have all been used to help identify criminals.

GUIDELINES FOR THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SAMPLE EVIDENCE FOR

DNA ANALYSIS

There are hundreds of varieties of physical evidence commonly submitted for

examination for forensic science laboratories by law enforcement agencies. Evidence that could
be subjected to DNA analysis is generally limited to substances that are biologically in nature.
The following is the list of biological materials from which DNA has been successfully isolated
and analyzed:
1. Blood and blood stain
2. Hairs and follicles
3. Semen and seminal stains
4. Tissues and cells
5. Saliva and buccal swab
6. Bones and organs

In addition, there are reports indicating that DNA has been isolated from urine samples
with nucleated cells; however, it is extremely rare to be able to obtain sufficient DNA to type
from urine samples. Other types of biological evidence, such as tears, perspiration, serum and
other body fluids without nucleated cells are not amenable to DNA analysis. It should be kept in
mind that not all biological materials listed above in case work submitted to a forensic
laboratory are in such a state that DNA can be successfully extracted and analyzed.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Ability to perform successful DNA analysis on biological evidence recovered from a crime
scene depends very much on the following and some are critical points for a forensic DNA
testing program.
1. what kinds of specimens were collected and how they were preserved.
2. The technique used to collect and document such evidence
3. The quantity and type of evidence that should be packaged, and
4. How the evidence should be preserved.

Unless the evidence is properly documented, collected, packaged and preserved, it will
not meet the legal and scientific requirements for admissibility into a court of law. If the DNA
evidence is not properly documented prior to collection, its origin can be questioned. If it is
improperly packaged, cross – examination may occur. And if the DNA evidence is not properly
preserved, decomposition and deterioration may well occur. Any of these effects will seriously
affect the outcome of DNA typing. The following are general guidelines for the documentation,
collection and packaging and preservation of DNA evidence.

GUIDELINES FOR DOCUMENTATION OF DNA EVIDENCE

The initial stages in physical evidence examination encompass activities that take place
at a crime scene as well as forensic laboratory. Documentation is important from two points of
view in forensic science: the legal one, and the scientific one. Nothing should ever be altered
until its original condition and positions have been recorded. Several different means of
documentation are available. Generally, the uses of more than one method are recommended.
Every major piece of evidence should be documented.

DNA ANALYSIS

There are many types of DNA testing that are presently available.

One detects the presence of RFLP’s (RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMOPHISM)

in the DNA. This commonly known as “DNA Profiling” or “DNA Fingerprinting” and in most cases
results in either a positive or exclusion of an individual as a donor. This analysis requires
approximately 100 Nano grams of high quality DNA for a successful determination. DNA
analysis in forensic casework was first performed using this technique.
The advent of PCR technology and its application to forensic science, brought a new way
of examining biological evidence and has paved the way for the other technique – the PCR
implication and typing of the HLA DQA1 AND 5 Polymarkers (PM) loci which requires only to 2
Nano grams of DNA. PCR analysis of biological evidence was first used in a criminal case in the
United States in 1986 and has been used in a large number of court cases and has proved a
reliable and widely accepted method for examination of human identity.
One of the most important developments in the field of human identity testing is the use
of DNA typing to analyze biological evidence. In particular, the powerful PCR is used to analyze
samples which cannot be typed by other methods, such as samples containing minute amounts
of human DNA and very old and/ or degrade DNA.

HOW DNA ANALYSIS IS DONE

DNA TYPING is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the evidentiary samples.
The DNA is then analyzed to give a particular pattern. The patterns are compared with that of
known individual to determine a match. In individual identification, the pattern obtained from
the evidentiary sample definitely has not originated from the suspect. If the DNA pattern of the
evidentiary sample is similar to that of sample obtained from the suspect, the probability that
the evidentiary sample arose from the suspect and from a random individual in the population is
calculated from a formula based on well accepted concepts of statistical probabilities and
population genetics using an established population genetic database.
Probability calculations must show that no other person in the country or in the world
could possess such DNA pattern except the suspect. For example, the probability of a matched
DNA pattern being present in the Philippines indicates how many people are expected to
possess such pattern. If probability of pattern is 1 per 20, 000, this means that there could be
as many 3, 600 (72 million/20, 000) people having that pattern. Therefore, the DNA test is
inconclusive. However, if DNA pattern has probability of 1 to 100 million, since there are only 72
million people in the Philippines, then the forensic sample must have come from the suspect.