Chapter 8

Kirchhoff’s Rules

The purpose of this experiment is to verify Kirchhoff’s rules by taking measurements of

unknown currents in complex circuits. We will be calculating theoretical values for the
currents and comparing these to measurements taken using a multimeter.

8.1 Theory

In very simple cases, you can tell what’s happening in a circuit without too much
trouble. If you have a battery hooked up to a resistor using wire of negligible resistance,
the current in the circuit is given by Ohm’s law, V = IR. Once you’ve calculated the
current in the circuit, you know just about everything there is to know about its
behavior. But more useful circuits involve many components and have a more
complicated architecture. To understand the behavior of these circuits, you need to use
Kirchhoff’s rules, which are rules that all circuits must follow in order to obey basic
physical principles.

8.1.1 The Junction Rule

The first of Kirchhoff’s rules is the junction rule, derived from the conservation of
charge. This law tells you what must happen if you have many separate currents
entering a junction, or a location in a circuit where three or more lines come together, as
in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: Examples of Junctions in Circuits

The junction rule says that the sum of all currents entering a junction minus the sum of
all currents leaving the junction must equal zero. Why must this be true? First of all,
you know that charge carriers cannot build up on the junction - you can’t have a group
of electrons bunched together on the junction because they will repel one another. If
you have more current flowing into the junction than flowing out, then you have
positive charge that goes into the junction but doesn’t leave. Since you also know that
charge can’t build up at the junction, this means that charge would simply be vanishing,
which is forbidden by charge conservation.

To understand how this works a little more clearly, imagine you work for the
department of transportation and your job is to study traffic behavior at a certain fork in
the road, where First street becomes Second and Third streets. These are one-way roads,
so on First street cars can only drive into the fork in the road, and on Second and Third
streets cars can only drive away from the fork. You first observe that, fortunately, traffic
jams never occur at this particular fork. You make some observations of traffic flow and
discover that 10 cars per minute drive to the fork on First Street, 1 car per minute drives
away on Second, and 2 cars per minute drive away on Third. Adding these up, you
discover that ten cars per minute arrive, but only 3 cars depart per minute! Since you
won’t see a massive pile-up of cars when you look at the fork itself, you would only be
able to conclude that seven cars are simply vanishing into thin air per minute! The
opposite situation would be equally ridiculous - if 5 cars were arriving per minute and
10 were leaving, then you’d have 5 cars suddenly appearing at the fork and driving
away per minute.

So, in the case of our charge carriers moving around the circuit, an imbalance of current
(the number of charges going by per unit time) at a certain point would mean that
charge is simply vanishing into or appearing from thin air. Therefore charge
conservation, the physical principle that tells us that charge cannot simply disappear,
implies that you must have exactly as much current flowing in as you have flowing out.

Figure 8.2: Conservation of Charge Implies the Junction Rule

 8.1.2 The Loop Rule

Kirchhoff’s second rule is the loop rule, derived from the conservation of energy.
Instead of applying to a certain point in the circuit, this one applies to a closed path. It
says that if you start at any point in the circuit and move around a closed path, adding
up the changes in potential as you go, the total potential change when you arrive back
at your starting point must be zero. First, recall that electric potential energy and electric
potential are two entirely different things - students often confuse these terms. Electric
potential energy is the positional energy of electric charges. Just like an object has
gravitational potential energy when you hold it in the air because the gravitational force
will cause it to start falling when you let it go, a positive charge you hold near a
negative charge has electric potential energy because the electric force will cause it to
start moving when you let it go. Electric potential is just the amount of potential energy
at a position per unit charge. You can find out how much electric potential energy a
charge Q has at a certain point if you take the electric potential at that point and
multiply it by Q. It may seem redundant to have both electric potential and electric
potential energy, but these concepts are useful in different situations. Electric potential
is analogous to electric field – it tells us what would happen if a charge were placed at a
particular location. Electric potential energy is a property of individual charges placed
in an electric potential.

So because there are many, many charges moving around a circuit and we don’t want
to consider any specific one, we use the electric potential to describe the situation in the
circuit. If we picked a point on a circuit, it would be at a certain potential V - at this
point, a charge q has potential energy qV. Now as the charge moves around the circuit,
its energy changes. Charges traverse resistors and use some of their energy to heat up
the resistor; charges traversing a battery receive an energy boost. Now imagine that
some charge started at a point, travelled around gaining and losing energy, and arrived
back at its original point at a higher potential than before. It would then have more
potential energy than it started with! Where could this energy have come from? You can
see the absurdity in this if you let the charge keep travelling around the same path
many times. Each time it will keep gaining the same amount of energy - you could
eventually get its energy as high as you like! Conservation of energy tells us that we
cannot have energy simply appearing out of nothingness like this, so the only way to
conserve energy is for each point on the circuit to be at one fixed potential. No matter
how you travel around the circuit, when you get back to your starting point, you must
end up at the same potential.
 8.1.3 Loop Rules for Circuit Elements

In order to apply the loop rule, we must be able to add up all the potential changes as
you go around the circuit. And in order to add up the changes in potential around a
closed path in a circuit, we must know how the potential changes when we move across
individual circuit elements. The two types of circuit elements we’ll be working with are
batteries and resistors; the next two sections will tell you how to find the potential
changes across them as you apply the loop rule.

Batteries

A battery, in the sense that we will use the term here, is anything that provides the
circuit with an emf- this can be an actual battery, a DC power supply, or an AC function
generator. Each of these will have a certain voltage V associated with it. If a charge
moves across the battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, its
potential increases by V. If its path takes it across a battery from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal, the potential decreases by V.

Figure 8.3: Potential Change across a Battery

Resistors

When an electron hits a resistor, it loses energy by colliding with the resistor’s atoms.
This energy causes the atoms to heat up, a phenomenon called joule heating. Because
charge loses energy when it crosses a resistor, the point where current enters the
resistor must be at a higher potential than the point where it leaves. The potential
difference is given by Ohm’s law: V = IR.

The first step in a circuit analysis problem is to define current directions (more on this in
the next section). So to determine how the potential changes due to a resistor, first
determine which direction you defined current to move across the resistor in question.
If your path takes you across the resistor against the current, you are moving from the
low potential end to the high potential end, so you are gaining a potential IR. If your
path takes you across the resistor with the current, you are going from high potential to
low potential - your potential decreases by IR.

One technique that may help you remember whether the potential is increasing or
decreasing is writing a plus sign, +, on the side of all your resistors where the defined
current enters and a - sign where the current leaves. Then if your path goes from + to -,
the potential decreases by IR, and if it goes from - to +, it increases by IR.

Figure 8.4: Potential Change across a Resistor

8.1.4 A General Method for Circuit Analysis

Now that you understand the basics, you’re ready to start analyzing circuits. The
general method you should use to analyze complicated circuits consists of the following
steps:

1. Label all currents, giving them a name and a direction

2. Use Kirchhoff’s Laws to generate equations for the unknowns
3. Solve the equations for the unknowns

It seems like a simple method, but following the steps can be tricky at times. Let’s go
through each step, and I’ll give you some specific pointers. I’ll be using the circuit
diagrammed in Figure 8.5 to show you how to follow each step.
 Figure 8.5: The example circuit

Labeling Currents

This step involves labeling each independent current in the circuit. What we’re really
doing here is defining a set of coordinate axes for the system. If we were solving a
ballistics problem involving a cannonball flying through the air, your first step would of
course be to choose an origin, an x axis, and a y axis. This makes statements like, ”the
cannonball is at x = 10 meters and y = 20 meters” meaningful; without an origin and
axes, we wouldn’t be able to figure out where the cannonball was from this
information. In the same way, you need to decide what each current is labeled and in
which direction it goes before you can figure out what ”Current 1 is 3 Amps” means.
The direction you give each current is not important; if the actual current is opposite
your chosen direction, you will simply get a negative value in your calculation.

So if you did this step for our example circuit, you might get something that looks like
Figure 8.6. Notice that each straight line not broken by a junction gets its own current,
since the current must be constant along these paths (otherwise, charge would have to
be disappearing somewhere along this line).
 Figure 8.6: The example circuit, after labeling currents

Obtaining the Needed Equations from Kirchhoff’s Rules

Assuming that we know the resistances and voltages in this circuit, we now have three
unknowns - the currents I1, I2, and I3. If we have three unknowns, we need three
equations in order to solve for them. We can get these equations through the application
of Kirchhoff’s Laws. First, we’ll apply the junction rule to the junction on the left-hand
side of 8.6. We’ll add up all the current that is entering the junction, subtract all the
current leaving the junction, and set the result equal to zero. In this case, we have the
equation

−I1 − I2 + I3 = 0

This is the first of the three equations we need. Be sure not to think of these I’s as
positive numbers. For instance, if you had three currents entering your junction, your
junction rule equation would be I1 + I2 + I3 = 0. That’s perfectly ok; it just means that one
of your currents will end up being negative.

We could try to apply the junction rule to the other junction to get our next equation,
but we will only get the same equation with a minus sign (try it yourself). In general,
the junction rule could be used several times, but in this case you only get repeat
equations that are not useful. So instead, we’ll apply the loop rule to the upper half of
the circuit, which contains R1 and R2. We could use any closed path around the circuit,
but we’ll choose this one. To use the loop rule, we need to pick a point and a direction
to go around the closed path (this choice is completely up to you). Let’s start at the
point just to the left of R1 and go around in the clockwise direction. The first circuit
element that we hit is R1; because we will go across R1 in the same direction as the
current I1, the potential drop is −I1R1. Next, we’ll hit the resistor R2. We’ll cross the
resistor in the same direction as the current I3, so the potential change is −I2R3. Then we
reach the battery V1 - since we go from the negative terminal to the positive terminal,
the potential change is 15V. Finally, we return to the point where we started. So we set
the sum of the potential changes around this path equal to zero in order to get our
second equation:
−I1R1 + −I3R2 + 15V = 0

−(100Ω)I1 − (250Ω)I3 + 15V = 0

We’ll get the third equation by applying the loop rule to the lower half of the circuit,
starting at the point just to the left of R2 and going clockwise. We’ll reach R2 first; this
time we’re going across the resistor against the direction of the assigned current, so the
potential change is I3R2. Next we get to the battery V2. Because we go across the battery
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal, the potential change is −10V.
Finally, we go across R3 against the assigned current, so the final potential change is
I2R3. Adding up these potential changes, we get

I3R2 − 10V + I2R3 = 0

(250Ω)I3 − 10V + (150Ω)I2 = 0

Figure 8.7: The Loop Rule Used to Generate an Equation

 Figure 8.8: The Final Equation from the Loop Rule

Solving the Equations

Using Kirchhoff’s Rules, we now have the system of equations

−I1 − I2 + I3 = 0

−(100Ω)I1 − (250Ω)I3 + 15V = 0

(250Ω)I3 − 10V + (150Ω)I2 = 0

The last step in the problem is to solve these equations to find the currents I1, I2, and I3.
Of course, these equations can be solved in many ways, but the best way to do this is to
find a current that occurs in all of the equations (it’s a good idea to pick your junctions
and loops so that you get a current that occurs in each one of your equations). We see
that I3 is in each one of our equations, so we’ll start by solving the junction rule equation
for I3:

−I1 − I2 + I3 = 0

I3 = I1 + I2
Now, if we can find I1 and I2 in terms of I3, we can substitute them into this equation and
solve for I3. So, from the second equation:

−(100Ω)I1 − (250Ω)I3 + 15V = 0

−(100Ω)I1 = (250Ω)I3 + 15V

And from the third equation, we get

(250Ω)I3 − 10V + (150Ω)I2 = 0

(150Ω)I2 = -(250Ω)I3 + 10V

So we put these expressions for I1 and I2 into the first equation to get

I3 = I1 + I2

I3 =

( ) ( )

I3 = 0.042 A = 42 mA

So the current I3 is 42mA. The positive value tells us that the direction that we gave
current I3 is the same as the direction in which the current actually flows.

Now, getting I1 and I2 is simply a matter of plugging in the value of I3. The current I1 is

= 45 mA
The current I2 is

= -3.0 mA

So we have successfully found all of the currents in the circuit:

I1 = 45 mA
I2 = −3.0 mA
I3 = 42 mA

There are two important things to notice about this solution. First, the current I2 is
negative, which simply means that the current actually travels in the direction opposite
to the current in our diagram. This is why it doesn’t matter which way we draw your
current initially - if we draw it the wrong way, we’ll just get a negative answer, which
will tell us that the current actually travels in the opposite direction. And secondly,
notice that I1 added to I2 gives us I3 as required by our junction rule equation; this is a
good final check of our solution.

8.2 Procedure
For this lab, you will need the following equipment:

• Breadboard
• Two 9V battery clips
• 150 Ω resistor
• 220 Ω resistor
• 270 Ω resistor
• Two digital multimeters
• DC Power Supply
• Wires, including 8 banana clip wires

The TA will draw two circuits on the board; you should start by building the first circuit
from your components and wires. Make sure that your 9V batteries are not connected to
their battery clips! You should not attach your batteries until you are ready to take
measurements, and you should immediately disconnect your batteries when you’re
finished. Also, try to be gentle with the battery clips - they can be delicate!
The procedure for this experiment is as follows:

1. Before assembling the circuits, measure the resistance across each of the resistors
using the multimeter. Insert one wire into the VΩ port, one into the COM port, set the
multimeter to the Ω setting, and then put these two wires into either end of each
resistor. Record these values on your data sheet for both circuit 1 and circuit 2.

8.2.1 First Circuit

2. Your TA will draw a circuit on the chalkboard. Build this first circuit on your
breadboard.

3. Have your TA check your circuit when you’ve finished.

4. Draw the circuit in the space provided on your data sheet. Label each resistor and
battery - you can assign the labels any way you want, but make sure each person in
your group uses the same convention. Then give each individual current a label and a
direction.

5. Attach the 9V batteries.

6. Set the multimeter to the DC Voltage setting and measure the potential across each
battery. If you get a negative number, simply use the absolute value. Record these
potentials on your data sheet.

7. You will need to take a current measurement for each of the currents in your circuit
diagram. Set the multimeter to the mA setting before attaching any wires to it. Because
current is measured in series, put the multimeter into the circuit so that the first
unknown current will flow through it. You should attach the multimeter so that the
current flowing in the assigned direction will enter the VΩ port and leave the COM
port. Please note that if you switch the multimeter to the mA setting while current is
going through it, you will blow a fuse in the multimeter. So make sure it is set before
you put the multimeter into the circuit!

8. Record the current on your data sheet (in Amps, not mA!).

9. Move the multimeter to the next position in the circuit at which you need to measure
the current.
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 until you’ve measured each of the currents. Disconnect your 9V
batteries when finished.

8.2.2 Second Circuit

11. Take apart the first circuit.

12. Build the second circuit as diagrammed on the board. Note that the V battery
represents the location of the DC power supply in the circuit. The power supply should
be connected to the Va and Vb terminals of the breadboard and from there to the
positive and negative columns. When finished, set one of your multimeters to DC
voltage and connect it in parallel to the power supply by running wires to the V a and Vb
terminals on the breadboard. This multimeter will give you an accurate measurement of
the power supply’s voltage.

13. Have your TA check your work when finished.

14. Draw the circuit in the space provided on your data sheet. Label each resistor and
battery and give each individual current a label and a direction.

15. Attach your 9V batteries and turn on your DC power supply. Set the amplitude of
the power supply to about five volts.

16. Measure the potential across each 9V battery using your multimeter.

17. You will need to take measurements of each unknown current at six different values
of V. Begin by setting the multimeter to the DC voltage setting, with the wires in the VΩ
and COM ports. Plug the multimeter into the two terminals of the DC power supply.
Set the DC power supply to its lowest amplitude (about 3 Volts).

18. Disconnect the multimeter and set it to the mA setting. Measure the unknown
currents in the circuit as you did for circuit 1. Remember that your multimeter should
be attached so that the assigned current direction flows into the VΩ port and out of the
COM port. When finished, turn the amplitude of the DC power supply down, then turn
it off and disconnect your 9V batteries.

19. When you get home, graph each of the currents on a separate graph as a function of
the power supply voltage. Include a linear curve fit and the linear equation. You’ll be
comparing the slopes and y-intercepts of each graph to the equations that you’ll
calculate using Kirchhoff’s rules.

8.2.3 Calculating Theoretical Values

22. Using the diagram you drew on your data sheet for the first circuit, calculate each
unknown current using Kirchhoff’s rules. You’ve already assigned your currents, so all
you need to do is apply the loop and junction rules to get as many equations as you
have unknowns, then solve these equations to find the currents. Then use the values of
resistance and voltage that you measured from your components to calculate the
currents. Have your TA check your work when you’ve finished.

23. The second circuit contains a changing potential created by the DC power supply. So
instead of putting a number in for V, leave it as a variable in your equations. Use your
diagram of circuit two to find the unknown currents as a function of the unknown
voltage. When you are finished, you should have a system of equations of the form:

I1 = AV + B
I2 = CV + D
I3 = EV + F

Here, A, B, C, D, E, and F are constants with the appropriate units and V is the potential
across the DC power supply. Have your TA check your calculation when you’re
finished.

24. You now have your theoretical values for the three currents in circuit 1 and the three
sets of slopes and y-intercepts for circuit 2. Find the percent error in each of your
theoretical predictions using the formula

| |

Your data section should contain:

• A table containing the measured values of the circuit elements.

• A table containing the theoretical values of the currents in circuit 1.
• A table containing measurements of the currents for circuit 1.
• A table listing the unknown currents as a function of the potential V in circuit 2.
• A table containing your current measurements for circuit 2 at each value of V.
Your results section should contain:

• Your step-by-step calculation for the unknown currents, which can be written on
notebook paper and attached to the back of your lab report.
• The percentage error in your theoretical values for circuit 1.
• Three graphs for circuit 2: I1 vs. V, I2 vs. V, and I3 vs. V, with linear curve fits and
equations on the graphs.
• The percentage error in your slopes and y-intercepts for circuit 2.

8.3 Questions
1. Are your theoretical values close to your experimental measurements for the
currents? Comment on the percentage errors you obtained, especially on measurements
that had especially large errors. Did your results verify Kirchhoff’s Rules? Comment on
whether or not your experimental and theoretical values for the currents added up
correctly as required by the junction rule.

2. What might cause the theoretical values to differ from the experimental? (i.e., what
real-world effects did the theoretical calculation fail to account for?) Are these effects
significant?

3. Sometimes you should look for simplifications before applying Kirchhoff’s rules to a
circuit. Given that, in the circuit diagram below, you want to find current I1, what
simplifications could you make before you start the circuit analysis? Is there a better
way to find I1 than to use Kirchhoff’s rules?

4. Can you make the same simplification if you are trying to find I2? Why or why not?

Figure 8.9: Circuit Diagram for Questions 3 and 4

5. What are two sources of error in this experiment? What are two things that could be
improved? Suggest another experiment that could be used to study Kirchhoff’s rules.
 8.4 Data Sheet
Measured Values of Circuit Elements

Circuit Element Measurement

V1
V2
R1
R2
R3

Unknown Current Calculation for Circuit 1

Circuit 1, with unknown currents and elements labeled for reference

Experimental Measurements for Unknown Currents

Unknown Current Measurement (mA)

I1
I2
I3
Measured Values of Circuit Elements

Circuit Element Measurement

V1
V2
R1
R2
R3

Unknown Current Calculation for Circuit 2

Circuit 2, with unknown currents and elements labeled for reference

Experimental Measurements for Unknown Currents

Unknown Current Measurement (mA)

I1
I2
I3

TA Signature