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 CONTENTS

Abstract 01
Contents 02
List of Table 05
List of Figure 07
Nomenclature & Symbols 08

Sr. No. Chapter Title Page No.

1. 1 Introduction 10
1.1 History 10
1.2 Physical Properties 11
1.3 Chemical Properties 13
1.4 Applications 13
2 2 Various Process and Process Selection 14
2.1 Different manufacturing processes 14
2.2 Selection of the suitable process 17
3 3 Process description 19
3.1 benzene hydrogenation 19
3.2 cyclohexane oxidation 20
3.3 cyclohexane distillation 20
3.4 anol dehydrogenation 21
3.5 oximation section 22
3.6 rearrangement and neutralization 22
3.7 evaporation and crystallization 23
4 4 Material balance 25
4.1 Capacity: 25
4.2 Calculations: 25
5 5 Energy balance 42

2
 5.1 Hydrogenator 42
5.2 Oxidizer 43
5.3 Distillation column (water separation) 45
6 6 Equipment design 48
6.1 heat exchanger 48
6.2 design of evaporator 53
6.3 reactor design 56
7 7 Cost estimation 68
7.1 estimation of capital investment 68
7.2 estimation of total product cost 70
7.3manufacturing cost 70
7.4 general expenses 72
7.5 total production cost, 73
7.6 profitability analysis 73
8 8 Plant location & layout 74
8.1 Plant location 74
8.2 Plant layout 76
9 9 Safety and pollution control 81
9.1 Introduction: 81
9.2 Safe operations: 81
9.3 Hazards in chemical plant operation: 82
9.4 Respiratory personnel equipment 84
9.5 Good manufacture techniques to prevent accidents 85
9.6 Fire fighting facilities
9.7 Fire prevention activities: 86
9.8 Safety in process design: 87
9.9 Safety precautions: 89
9.10 Enviornmental considerations 90
92

3
10 10 Instrumentation and control 96
10.1 why required? 96
10.2 typical monitoring systems: 96
References 101

4
 LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Description of Tables Page No.
Table-1.1 properties of caprolactam 11
Table-1.2 solubility of caprolactam 12
Table-4.1 molecular weight of components 25
Table-4.2 mass balance of hydrogenator 27
Table-4.3 mass balance of oxidation 29
Table-4.4 mass balance of distillation column 30
Table-4.5 mass balance of second distillation column 31
Table-4.6 mass balance of anol distillation column 32
Table-4.7 mass balance of separation column 32
Table-4.8 mass balance of dehydrogenator 33
Table-4.9 mass balance of oximation 34
Table-4.10 mass balance of separator 1 35
Table-4.11 mass balance of rearrangement 36
Table-4.12 mass balance of neutralizer 37
Table-4.13 mass balance of separator2 38
Table-4.14 mass balance of evaporator 39
Table-4.15 mass balance of crystallizer 40
Table-5.1 standard heat of formation of components 42
Table-5.2 standard heat of formation of components 44
Table-5.3 component heat balance 45
Table-6.1 properties of cold fluid 48
Table-6.2 properties of reactor component balance 56
Table-6.3 design components of reactor 60
Table-7.1 process equipment cost (pec) 68
Table-7.2 total direct cost 69
Table-7.3 total indirect cost 69
Table-7.4 total product cost 70

5
Table-7.5 raw material cost 70
Table-7.6 operating labour cost 71
Table-10.1 temperature range of measuring instruments 97

6
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Description of Figures Page No.

3.1 Process of Manufacturing - Flow sheet 24
4.1 Material Balance block diagram of Hydrolizer 41
8.1 Plant Lay out 80

7
 NOMENCLATURES & SYMBOLS

W = Weight flow of shell side fluid, (kg/hr)

C = Heat capacity of shell side fluid, (kJ/kg °C)
µ = Shell side fluid viscosity, (kg/m.hr)
K = Thermal conductivity of hot fluid, (kJ/m hr°C)
Rd1, Rd2 = Dirt factor, (hr ft2°F/Btu)
W = Weight flow of tube side fluid, (kg/hr)
c = Heat capacity of tube side fluid, (kJ/kg °C)
µ = tube side fluid viscosity, (kg/m.hr)
k = Thermal conductivity of cold fluid, (kJ/m hr°C)
LMTD = Log mean temperature difference, (°C)
R = Temperature group (dimensionless)
S = s1 = Temperature group (dimensionless)
T1 = Shell side inlet temperature, (°C)
T2 = Shell side outlet temperature, (°C)
t1 = tube side inlet temperature, (°C)
t2 = tube side outlet temperature, (°C)
¨7 = Temperature differences of table, (°C)
IDs = ID = Internal diameter of shell, (m)
Nt = Number of tubes
D = Inside diameter of tubes, (m)
Lt = Length of tubes, (m)
PT = Pitch, (m)
Qs = Shell side heat flow, (kJ/hr)
Qt = Tube side heat flow, (Btu/hr)
Ft = Temperature difference factor (dimensionless)
Ta = Average temperature of hot fluid, (°C)
Tb = Average temperature of cold fluid, (°C)
¨W = True temperature difference, (°C)

8
as = Area of Shell, (m2)
C' = Clearance,(m)
B = Baffle spacing, (m)
De = Equivalent diameter of heat transfer for shell side, (m)
Gs = Mass velocity, (kg/hr m2)
Res = Reynolds number for heat transfer (dimensionless)
jH = Factor for heat transfer (dimensionless)
Øs = Viscosity ratio (µ/µ w) (dimensionless)
Øt =Viscosity ratio (µ/µ w) (dimensionless)
ho = Heat transfer co-efficient for outside fluid, (kJ/m2 hr°C)
at¶ =Area of a tube, (m)
n = Number of passes
Gt = Mass velocity, (kg/hr m2)
at = Area of tube side, (m2)
V = Velocity, (m/s)
Ro = Density of cold fluid, (kg/m3)
Ret = Reynolds number of tube side for heat transfer (dimensionless)
hi = Heat transfer co-efficient for outside fluid, (kJ/m2 hr°C)
ID = Inside diameter of tube, (m)
OD = Outside diameter of tube, (m)
hi o = Value of hi when referred to tube side diameter, (kJ/m2 hr°C)
Uc = Clean overall heat transfer co-efficient, (kJ/m2 hr°C)
Ud = Designed overall heat transfer co-efficient, (kJ/m2 hr°C)
A = Heat transfer surface, (m2 )
D¶¶ = External surface per linear foot, (m2 )
f 1 , f2 = friction factor (dimensionless)
De1 = Equivalent diameter, (m)
S1 = specific gravity (dimensionless)
¨3s = Allowable pressure drop for shell side, (psi)
¨3t = Allowable pressure drop for tube side, (psi)

9
Specific Heat, kJ kg-1 at 150 °C 2.345
Heat of Fusion, kJ/kg 123.5
Heat polycondensation, kJ/kg 138
Heat of vaporization, kJ/kg at 268 °C 481
at 168 °C 574
at 105 °C 628
Vapor Pressure, kPa at 268 °C 101.3
at 168 °C 5.3
at 105 °C 0.25
Flash Point, °C 139.5
Ignition Temperature, °C 375
Lower Explosion Limit 1.4 vol% at 135 °C
Upper Explosion Limit 8.0 vol% at 180 °C
Thermal Conductivity Coefficient, 0.5
-1 -1 -1
kJm h K , at 76-183 °C
Coefficient of Volume Expansion, 0.00104
-1
K , at 80-90 °C

1.2.4 Solubility of Caprolactam in some specific solvents

Table-1.2 Solubility of Caprolactam
SOLVENT TEMPERATURE °C SOLUBILITY,
g/100g solvent
Water 25 525
1,2,3-trichloropropane 18 95
1,2-dichloroethane 18 95
1,4-dichlorobutane 10 85
1,1-dichloropropane 18 90
Cyclohexane 20 02
Toluene 20 35

12
Further if the plant is integrated with a fertilizer complex then it will be beneficial in
terms of men, materials and money as we are aware that raw materials like ammonia,
CO2, N2, H2, SO2 and oleum can be obtained readily and economically from a
fertilizer complex.
The major byproduct obtained from this process is Ammonium sulfate which is very
valuable fertilizer and it is having a good market in the country like India as a
fertilizer based on the nitrogen. So it can easily be sold.

18
Figure-3.1

24
 CHAPTER-4: MATERIAL BALANCE

4.1 CAPACITY:
4.1.1 CAPROLACTAM : 12440 MTPA
4.1.2 AMMONIUM SULFATE : 32840 MTPA
4.1.3 OPERATION DAYS PER YEAR : 330 DAYS
Before starting the material balance I would like to specify some assumptions which I
have to follow because of some unavailable data and for simplicity in the given task.
¾ The purity of Caprolactam is about 99 %.
¾ Hydroxylamine sulfate is used as 40 % solution.
¾ Oleum used for the Beckmann Rearrangement reaction is 26 %.
¾ Benzene used for the production of Caprolactam is already desulfurised.
¾ Hydrogen added to the hydrogenators is more than required.
¾ The activity of the catalysts used in the reactors is assumed to be constant
during the production period.
¾ For the neutralization after the rearrangement of Cyclohexanone Oxime 24.3 %
aqueous Ammonia solution is used.
¾ 100 % separation is assumed in the separator.
4.2 CALCULATIONS:
Basis:1000 kg/hr of Benzene as a raw material.
Molecular Weights of the substances are as follow:
Table-4.1 Molecular weight of components
Name Formula M. Wt. (Kg/Kmole)
Benzene C6H6 78
Hydrogen H2 2
Cyclohexane C6H12 84
Oxygen O2 32
Cyclohexanone C6H10O 98
Cyclohexanol C6H11OH 100

25
Anol produced = 1794807 × 200 ×0.06 / 252
= 854.7 Kg/hr.
H2O produced = 17948.7 ×18 × 0.06 / 252
= 76.923 Kg/hr.
O2 produced = 17948.7 × 32 × 0.06 / 252
= 136.751 Kg / hr.
Unreacted O2 coming out = 6837.6 - 412.307 + 136.751
= 6562.044 Kg/hr.
CX (Unreacted) coming out = 17948.7 - 1076.92
= 16871.78 Kg/hr.
Table-4.3 Mass balance of Oxidation
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Cyclohexane 17948.700 16871.780
O2 6837.600 6562.044
Anone 4.188 418.803
Anol 8.547 854.700
Water 0.000 76.923
Others 0.000 14.785
N2 22507.100 22507.100
Total 47306.135 47306.135

4.2.3 CYCLOHEXANE DISTILLATION

Assuming that Cyclohexane is separated from the mixture and it is recycled back to
the oxidizer. Along with the CX, Anone and Anol are also recycled to the oxidizer
and remaining mixture goes to the second distillation column. The amount of
separation required can be achieved by installing four distillation tower.
CX entering = 16871.8 Kg/hr.
H2O entering = 76.923 Kg/hr.
Anone entering = 418.803 Kg/hr.
29
Anol entering = 854.7 Kg/hr.
Other waste products = 14.785 Kg/hr.
CX , ANONE, ANOL
CX
H2O
ANONE
ANOL
OTHER H2O, ANONE, ANOL,
OTHERS
Consider that 1 % of the Anone and Anol mixture is recycled with CX from the
distillate.
CX present in the distillate = 16871.8 Kg/hr. (XD=0.9992)
Anone present in the distillate = 4.188 Kg/hr. (0.00025)
Anol present in the distillate = 8.547 Kg/hr. (0.00051)
Therefore material balance for the bottom of the distillation column,
H2O present in the residue = 76.923 Kg/hr. (0.0568)
Anone present in the residue = 418.803 ± 4.188 = 414.615Kg/hr. (0.3065)
Anol present in the residue = 854.7 ± 8.547 = 846.153 Kg/hr. (0.6256)
Other waste products in residue = 14.785 Kg/hr. (0.0109)
Table-4.4 Mass balance of Distillation column
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Top Bottom
Cyclohexane 16871.800 16871.800 0.000
H2O 76.923 0.000 76.923
Anone 418.803 4.188 414.615
Anol 854.700 8.547 846.153
Others 14.785 0.000 14.785
Total 18237.011 18237.011

30
4.2.4 SECOND DISTILLATION COLUMN
ANONE, ANOL, H2O

H2O
ANONE
ANOL
OTHER ANONE
ANOL
OTHERS
We can perform the material balance on this distillation as per the previous one. So I
have directly tabulated the values for the inlet and outlet from the column.
Table-4.5 Mass balance of second Distillation column
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Top Bottom
H2O 76.923 76.923 0.000
Anone 414.615 4.146 410.469
Anol 846.153 8.461 837.692
Others 14.785 0.000 14.785
Total 1352.476 1352.476

4.2.5 ANONE ± ANOL DISTILLATION

ANONE

ANONE
ANOL
OTHER
ANOL
Mass balance for the column can be written as,
31
 Table-4.6 Mass balance of Anol Distillation column
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Top Bottom
Anone 410.469 410.469 0.000
Anol 837.692 0.000 837.692
Others 14.785 0.000 14.785
Total 1262.946 1262.946

4.2.6 ANOL SEPARATION

ANOL

ANOL
OTHER
OTHER
Material balance on the Anol distillation column can be tabulated as,
Table-4.7 Mass balance of Separation column
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Top Bottom
Anol 837.692 837.692 0.000
Others 14.785 0.000 14.785
Total 852.477 852.477

4.2.7 DEHYDROGENATION
ANONE
ANOL DEHYDROGENATOR
H2

32
 = 410.469 + 820.938
= 1231.407 Kg/hr.
H.A.S. required = 1231.407 × 164 / 2(98)
= 1030.36 Kg/hr.
NH3 required = 1231.407 × 17 / 98
= 213.611 Kg/hr.
Anone Oxime produced = 1231.407 × 113 / 98
= 1419.887 Kg/hr.
A.S. produced = 1231.407 × 132 / 2(98)
= 829.315 Kg/hr.
H2O produced = 1231.407 × 18 / 98
= 226.176 Kg/hr.
The total mass balance can be tabulated as:
Table-4.9 Mass balance of Oximation
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Anone 1231.407 0.000
H.A.S. 1030.360 0.000
NH3 213.611 0.000
Oxime 0.000 1419.887
A.S. 0.000 829.315
H2O 0.000 226.176
Total 2475.378 2475.378
4.2.9 SEPARATOR 1
OXIME, H2O
OXIME
A.S. SEPARATOR
H2O
A.S.
H2O
34
H2O required = 2425.117 × 18 / 193
= 226.177 Kg/hr.
H2O required to be added externally = 226.177 ± 43.914
= 182.263 Kg/hr.
C6H11NO produced = 2425.117 × 113 / 193
= 1419.887 Kg/hr.
A.S. required = 2425.117 × 2(132) / 193
= 3317.258 Kg/hr.
Table-4.12 Mass balance of Neutralizer
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Caprolactam Sulfate 2425.117 0.000
H2SO4 1231.406 0.000
NH3 854.445 0.000
H2O 226.177 0.000
Crude Caprolactam 0.000 1419.887
Ammonium Sulfate 0.000 3317.258
Total 4737.145 4737.145

4.2.12 SEPARATOR 2
CRUDE CAPRO. +
H2O
CRUDE CAPRO.
SEPARATOR
A.S.
H2O
A.S. + H2O
Here to separate the Crude Caprolactam and A.S. we are adding water to the mixture
and due to the density difference we can separate this both solutions. Assume that
100 % separation is obtained.
Now the solubility of these two substances in water,
37
(NH4)SO4 = 76.7 wt %.
C6H11NO = 85.0 wt %.
To dissolve 1419.887 Kg of C6H11NO,
Amount of H2O required = 1419.887 × 100 / 85
= 1670.455 Kg/hr.
To dissolve 3317.258 Kg of (NH4) SO4,
Amount of H2O required = 3317.258 × 100 / 76.7
= 4324.978 Kg/hr.
Total amount of H2O required = 1670.455 + 4324.978
= 5995.433 Kg/hr.
Suppose, for better separation we are adding more amount of water than required.
Amount of water added = 6500 Kg/hr.
Water removed with C6H11NO = 1811.605 Kg/hr.
Water removed with (NH4)SO4 = 4688.395 Kg/hr.
Table-4.13 Mass balance of Separator2
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Top Bottom
Crude Caprolactam 1419.887 1419.887 0.000
A.S. 3317.258 0.000 3317.258
H2O 6500.000 1811.605 4688.395
Total 11237.145 11237.145
4.2.13 EVAPORATOR
H2O

CRUDE CAPRO.
EVAPORATOR

H2O
CRUDE CAPRO. + H2O

38
To obtain the better purity of Caprolactam it is necessary to remove great percentage
of water. So in evaporator almost above 99 % of water is removed.
Amount of Crude Caprolactam and H2O in the evaporator will be,
= 1419.887 + 1811.605
= 3231.492 Kg/hr.
Water evaporated = 1811.605 × 0.995
= 1802.547 Kg/hr.
Water with Crude Caprolactam = 1811.605 ± 1802.547
= 9.058 Kg/hr.
Table-4.14 Mass balance of Evaporator
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Crude Caprolactam + 3231.492 1428.945
H2O
H2O 0.000 1802.547
Total 3231.492 3231.492

4.2.14 CRYSTALLIZATION

CRUDE CAPRO. CRYSTALLIZER

PURE CRYSTALS

FRESH CRYSTALS MELT

To crystallize the Caprolactam melt crystallization is carried out. For this with the
Crude Caprolactam some amount of fresh crystals are also added. Because of these
higher purity crystals are obtained.
Assume that the weight of the fresh crystals added is10 % of the feed.
Amount of fresh crystals added = 1428.945 × 0.1
= 142.894 Kg/hr.
Amount of crystals formed = (1428.945 + 142.894) × 0.99

39
 = 1571.839 × 0.99
= 1556.12 Kg/hr.
Amount of melt recycled = 15.877 Kg/hr.
Therefore total feed = 1593.839 + 15.877
= 1587.716 Kg/hr.
Total amount of new crystals formed = 1587.716 × 0.99
= 1571.839 Kg/hr.
Table-4.15 Mass balance of Crystallizer
Component Mass Rate Kg/hr
In Out
Feed 1444.822 15.877
Fresh Crystals 142.894 1571.839
Total 1587.716 1587.716

40
Figure-4.1

41
 Table-5.2 Standard heat of formation of components
Component Kmole/hr Cp Heat of Formation Hfº
In Out KJ/Kmole K KJ/Kmole (At 298 K)
Cyclohexane 213.675 200.8545 161.402 -12.13 × 104
Oxygen 213.6750 12.8845 30.389 0.000
Anone 0.0427 4.2735 163.510 -28.61 × 104
Anol 0.0854 8.5470 186.280 -28.62 × 104
Water 0.0000 4.2735 34.546 -28.59 × 104
C6H10O2 0.0000 0.0427 256.150 -39.76 × 104
C6H12O2 0.0000 0.0854 238.250 -51.74 × 104
Nitrogen 803.8250 803.8250 29.341 0.000

Now Enthalpy of Reactants: ¨+reactants

= ™mi Cp,i ¨W
= [213.675 (161.402) + 213.675 (30.389) +
0.0427 (163.51) + 0.0854 (186.28) ] (155-25)
= 5.3305 × 106 KJ/hr.
Similarly Enthalpy of Products: ¨+products
= ™mi Cp,i ¨W
= [200.8545 (161.402) + 12.8845 (30.389) +
4.2735 (163.51) + 8.547 (186.28) + 4.2735
(34.546) + 0.0427 (256.15) + 0.0854 (238.25)]
(160-25)
= 4.7627 × 106 KJ/hr.
Hence total heat of reaction released during the reaction is given by,
¨+R = ¨+fž¨+reactants - ¨+reactants
= (-3.3595 × 106) + (5.3305 × 106) + (4.7627 × 106)
= -2.7917 ×106 KJ/hr.

44
5.3 DISTILLATION COLUMN (WATER SEPARATION)
In this distillation column we are separating water from the other necessary products.
The required data is tabulated below:
Table-5.3 Component heat balance
Component WATER ANONE ANOL OTHERS TOTAL
In, Kmole/hr(F) 4.2735 4.2307 8.4615 0.1281 17.0938
Out, Kmole/hr(D) 4.2735 0.0423 0.0846 0.0000 4.4004
Out, 0.0000 4.1884 8.3769 0.1281 12.6934
XF 0.2500 0.2475 0.4950 0.0075 1.0000
XD 0.9700 0.0100 0.0200 0.0000 1.0000
XW 0.0000 0.3300 0.6600 0.0100 1.0000
CpF.-.PROHÂ. 35.337 212.60 295.35 295.35 -
CpD.-.PROHÂ. 35.115 208.30 278.30 - -
CpW.-.PROHÂ. - 220.45 320.94 320.94 -

Now average heat capacity of the Feed:

Cp (Feed) = ™ Xi Cp,i
= 0.25(35.337)+0.2475(212.6)+ 0.495(295.35) + 0.0075(295.35)
= 209.8 KJ/hr.
Average heat capacity of the Distillate:
Cp (Distillate) ™;i Cp,i
= 0.97(35.115) + 0.01(208.3) + 0.02 (278.3)
= 41.744 KJ/hr.
Average heat capacity of the Bottom:
Cp (Bottom) ™;i Cp,i
= 0.33 (220.45) + 0.66 (320.94) + 0.01 (320.94)
= 287.7 KJ/hr.
To find the condenser heat load QC, taking energy balance around top section,
HV = QC + HD + HL
45
$PRXQWRIVWHDPUHTXLUHG 4Ȝ
= 3848363.496 / 940
= 4094.003 lb / hr
= 1857 Kg / hr.
6.2.3 Unit size:
/HWWKHPD[LPXPKHDWIOX[4$ %WXKUÂIW 2. (From Tb 10 ±26 this value is
quite safe). Many designs are available using higher fluxes.
A = Q / (Q / A)
= 3848363.496 / 46000
= 83.66 ft2.
6.2.4 Select a unit:
¾ inch O.D. × 14 BWG × 16 ft, Steel U tubes. Assume Effective Length = 15 ft, for
preliminary calculations.
Number of tubes = 83.66 / (15 x 0.1963)
= 28.412
From standard tube sheet layout or Tb 10 ±9 select 10 inch in ID shell with 30
number of tubes, 2 passes per trial.
6.2.5 Condensing coefficient tube loading:
W
*R¶¶ =
0.5 LN t

= 4094.003 / (0.5 × 15 × 30)

*R¶¶ = 18.19 lb / lin IWÂKU
To estimate the properties we have to use the average wall temperature
Tavg = ( Ts + Tc) / 2
= ( 365.6 + 215.6) / 2
= 290.6o )§o F.
Specific gravity (290o F) = 962.46 kg / m3.
Viscosity (290o F) = 0.17 cp.
To find Thermal Conductivity of water:
Tc of water = 374.15 oC.

54
 CHAPTER-7: COST ESTIMATION

A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions, which will yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income minus all
expenses, it is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of many different types
of costs involved in manufacturing processes.
7.1 ESTIMATION OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) + Working Capital
Investment (WCI)
7.1.1Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
Table-7.1 Process Equipment Cost (PEC)
Sr. No. of Cost per Unit Estimated cost
No. Equipment Equipments (Rs. Crores) (Rs. Crores)
1 Hydrogenator 1 0.30 0.30
2 Oxidizer 1 0.40 0.40
3 Distillation columns 7 0.25 1.75
4 Dehydrogenator 1 0.25 0.25
5 Heat exchangers 3 0.05 0.15
6 Separators 2 0.02 0.04
7 Oximation Reactor 1 0.20 0.20
8 Rearrangement 1 0.20 0.20
Reactor
9 Neutralizer 1 0.20 0.20
10 Storage tank 1 0.10 0.10
11 Evaporator 1 0.05 0.05
12 Crystallizer 1 0.05 0.05
13 Other auxiliary 0.05 0.05
equipment
Process Equipment Cost (PEC) 3.74

68
(a) Total Direct Cost (TDC)
Table-7.2 Total Direct Cost
Sr. % of Cost
Items
No. PEC (Rs. Crores)
1 Purchased equipment 100 3.74
2 Purchased equipment installation 45 1.68
3 Instrumentation and controls (installed) 20 0.75
4 Piping (installed) 70 2.62
5 Electrical (installed) 12 0.45
6 Building (including services) 18 0.67
7 Utilities (installed) 50 1.87
8 Housing colony 10 0.37
9 Storage 15 0.56
10 Building and process 15 0.56

Total Direct Cost (TDC) 13.27

(b) Total Indirect Cost (TIC)

Table-7.3 Total Indirect Cost
Sr. % of Cost
Items
No. PEC (Rs. Crores)
1 Engineering and supervision 30 1.122
2 Construction expenses 35 1.309

Total Indirect Cost (TIC) 2.431

Total Direct and Indirect Costs (TDIC)

= 13.27 + 2.431 = 15.701 Rs. (Crores)
Contingency = 15 % of TDIC = 2.355 Rs. (Crores)
Thus, Fixed capital investment (FCI)
= TDIC + Contingency = 15.701 + 2.355
= 18.056 Rs. (Crores)

69
7.1.2 Working Capital Investment (WCI)
(WCI) = 20% of FCI = 3.6112 Rs. (Crores)
Hence, (TCI) = FCI + WCI = 18.056 + 3.6112 = 21.6672 Rs. (Crores)

7.2 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST

¾ Total income from sale of products
Table-7.4 Total Product Cost
Amount Cost Cost
Material
Kg/year Rs./kg Rs./year (crores)
7
Caprolactam 1.244 x 10 90 111.96
Ammonium Sulfate 3.284 x107 8.5 27.914

Total 139.87

7.3MANUFACTURING COST
7.3.1Direct production cost
7.3.1.1 Raw material cost:
Table-7.5 Raw material Cost

Cost Rs. / year

Raw material Kg / year Cost Rs./ kg
Crores
6
Benzene 7.2 x 10 30 21.60
6
Synthesis Gas 4.95 x 10 7 3.45
Ammonia 8.45× 106 6 5.07
6
Oleum 17.71 × 10 4 7.08
6
HAS 8.16 × 10 50 40.8
Total 78.0

70
7.3.1.2Operating labour cost:
Table-7.6 Operating labour Cost
Salary /
Salary / year
Category month Number Rs. Crore
Rs.
Rs.
Manager 25000 300000 1 0.0300
Engineer 18000 216000 15 0.3240
Operator 9000 108000 20 0.2160
Worker 5000 60000 20 0.1200
Watchman 3000 36000 4 0.0144
Office staff 5500 66000 15 0.0990
Peon 2000 30000 3 0.0090
Lab staff 6000 72000 10 0.0720

Total 0.8844

7.3.1.3Power and Utilities = 0.14 X

7.3.1.4Maintenance and repair = 5 % of FCI
= 0.05 × 18.056
= 0.9028 Rs. Crores.
7.3.1.5Operatng supplies = 10 % of maintenance cost
= 0.1 × 0.9028
= 0.09028 Rs. Crores.
7.3.1.6Royalty = 3 % of sales
= 0.03 × 139.87
= 4.1961 Rs. Crores.
7.3.1.7Laboratory charges = 10 % of operating labour charges
= 0.1 × 0.8844
= 0.08844 Rs. Crores.
Total direct production cost = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7
= (84.162 + 0.14X) Rs. Crores

71
7.3.2Fixed charges
1. Depreciation = 15 % of FCI
= 0.15 × 18.056
= 2.7084 Rs. Crores
2. Local taxes = 3 % of FCI
= 0.03 × 18.056
= 0.5417 Rs. Crores
3. Insurance = 1 % of FCI
= 0.01 × 18.056
= 0.18056 Rs. Crores
Total fixed charges = 1 + 2 + 3 = 3.43 Rs. Crores

7.3.3Plant overhead cost = 1.5 (Operating labour cost)

= 1.5 (0.8844)
= 1.3266 Rs. Crores
Thus,

Total manufacturing cost = direct production cost + fixed charges + plant

RYHUKHDGFRVW
= (84.162 + 0.14X) + 3.43 + 1.3266
= (88.92 + 0.14X) Rs. Crores

7.4 GENERAL EXPENSES

1. Research and Development = 1 % of sales
= 0.01 × 139.87
= 1.40 Rs. Crores.
2. Financing (interest) = 10 % of FCI
= 0.1 × 18.056
= 1.8056 Rs. Crores.
3. Administration cost = 10 % of labour cost
= 0.1 x 0.8844
72
 = 0.08844 Rs. Crores
Total general expenses =1+2+3
= 3.294 Rs. Crores.
7.5 Total production cost,
X = total manufacturing cost + total general expenses
X = (88.92 + 0.14X) + 3.294
X = 107.2256 Rs. Crores

7.6 Profitability analysis

1. Gross profit = Total annual sales ± Total production cost
= 139.87 ± 107.2256
= 32.56 Rs. Crores
2. Income tax = 50 % of Gross profit
= 0.5 × 32.56
= 16.28 Rs. Crores
3. Net profit = Gross profit ± Income tax
= 32.56 ± 16.28
= 16.28 Rs. Crores
4. Payback period = (FCI) / ( Net profit + Depreciation )
= (18.056) / (16.28 + 2.7084)
= 0.95 years
5. Rate of return = ( Net profit ) ( 100 ) / ( TCI )
= (16.28) (100) / ( 21.6672 )
= 75.136 %

73
 CHAPTER-8: PLANT LOCATION & LAYOUT

The geographical location of the plant can have strong influence on the success of an
industrial venture and a care is taken while choosing a plant site. The plant must be
located where minimum cost of production is obtained but other factors as room for
future expansion and general living conditions should also be considered.
8.1 PLANT LOCATION
Factors, which generally apply to be economic and operability aspects of plant site
location, are classified into two major groups.
1. Primary Factors
2. Secondary Factors
8.1.1 PRIMARY FACTORS
8.1.1.1 Raw Material Supply:
It is one of the important factors toward choice of a plant. We should build the plant
at such a location where raw materials are available in ample quantity. Availability
of raw materials in the near by areas not only reduce availability problems but also
reduces the cost of transportation etc. In our case there are main raw materials are
Benzene, Ammonia and Oleum which are easily available from the areas of chemical
industries in Gujarat.
8.1.1.2Market:
Caprolactam is a raw product for the production of Nylon-6. So it is having good
market requirement. And also we are getting Ammonium Sulphate as a byproduct
which is good nitrogen based fertilizer. In country like India it is consumed in a
great amount. And now the western region governs an established fact that majority
of Indian markets in all region. Transportation facilities are available to link the
Indian Territory with the western region via rail, road and water transportation.
8.1.1.3 Power and Fuel Supply:
Power & steam requirement of chemical industries are perhaps the largest among
industries, hence this is also a further factor of significance. In the western region

74
particularly in Gujarat and Maharashtra electricity supply position is satisfactory.
Main source of energy for small scale sector is Gujarat Electricity Board.
8.1.1.4 Water Supply:
Water is required in the plant for steam generation and cooling. The water supply
VLWXDWLRQLQZHVWHUQUHJLRQHVSHFLDOO\LQ*XMDUDWUHJLRQLVVDWLVIDFWRU\3ODQW¶VRZQ
drilling wells may also provide water supply source.
8.1.1.5 Climate:
Excessive cold, deep snow, heat and excessive humidity reduce the productivity on
the part of workman. Moreover if the site location is in hot damp climate adjacent to
salt water, there is higher maintenances cost as because of corrosion problem.
8.1.2 SECONDARY FACTORS
8.1.2.1 Transportation:
In the secondary factors transportation is the main factor. There should be ease in
transportation of raw materials, products. So there should be rail line, road line.
And for foreign transportation airline should be nearer from the location.
8.1.2.2Labor:
Skilled and unskilled labor availability with suitable labour rates is an important
factor. Point to be considered in labour studies is supply, kind, diversity, intelligence,
wage scale, regulations, efficiency, costs, stability in work and rate. In the region
under consideration there should be no problem so far as availability of labour in the
selected area is concerned.
8.1.2.3 Taxation and Legal Restriction:
State and local tax rates on property, income, unemployment, insurance and similar
items vary from one location to another. Similarly local regulations on zoning,
building code, nuisance aspects and transportation facilities can have major influence
on the final choice of a plant site. In fact zoning difficulties and obtaining the many
required permits can often be much more important in items of cost and time delays.
8.1.2.4 Waste Disposal:
With increasing industrialization more and more industrial waste is being released to
atmosphere. Increasing pollution has led to the legal restriction for waste disposal.

75
Generally Caprolactam plant produced waste that creates disposal problems. So
waste disposal problem is one of the major considerations in the plant.
8.1.2.5 Site Characteristics:
The characteristics of the land at proposed plant site should be examined carefully.
The topography of the land and soil structure must be considered. Since either or
both may have pronounced effect on construction costs. It takes real vision when
locating a new plant to provide adequately for future expansion. Land is relatively
cheap compared to over all plant costs and if provisions are made for too much land,
it can be sold usually at a profit later on if there are other plants in the immediate
neighborhood of a site under consideration.
8.1.2.6 Flood and Fire Control:
Industrial plants located along rivers or near large bodies of water carry risks of
flood and hurricane damage. Protection from losses by fire is another important
factor in selecting a plant location. In case of major fire, assistance from outside fire
department should be available within short time to prevent the fire from spreading.
8.1.2.7 Community Factors:
If a certain minimum number of facilities for satisfactory living of plant personnel do
not exist, if often becomes a burden for the plant personnel and their family.
Cultural facilities of the community are important for sound growth. The problem of
recreation deserves special consideration.
8.1.2.8 Economic Relation with Other Industries:
As a rule, a chemical plant will have a better chance of success if located near other
plants of like nature. A group of plants can obtain favorable rail rates. Better
technical services are also available. Utilization of waste from related plants or
similarity of disposal offers unusual opportunities for economics.
8.2 PLANT LAYOUT
Layout may have several objectives such as increased output, reduced risk to health
of employees improved worker hour fewer product delays, saving in floor space,
reduced material handling, greater utilization of main power services and machinery
reduce inventory in process, shorter manufacturing time, easier adjustment to

76
8.2.2 Equipment Layout:
In making layout, ample space should be assigned to each piece of equipment;
accessibility is an important factor for maintenance. It is poor economy to fit the
equipment layout too closely into a building. A slightly larger building should be
preferred. The operations that constitute a process are essentially series of unit
operations that may be carried out on simultaneously. This sort of layout will make
possible decision of operating labor so that one or two operators can be detailed to
tend all equipment of like nature. Access for initial construction and maintenance is
necessary part of planning.
8.2.3 Safety:
A great deal of planning is governed by local and national safety and fire code
requirements. The reactor being high-pressure unit should be located slightly away
from all other equipment and property.
8.2.4 Plant Expansion:
Plant expansion must always be kept in mind. So if in future one wants to develop
the plant or wants to increase the capacity or to implant some new equipments then
he can have a space for it. The question of multiply in number of units of increasing
the size of the prevailing unit or units is most important. So one must consider this
point.
8.2.5 Floor Space:
Floor space may or may not be a major factor in design of a particular plant. The
value of land may be considerable item. The engineer should follow the rule of
practicing economy of the floor space in storage layout and equipment layout.
8.2.6 Utilities:
Proper placement of gas, steam, water, power and electricity services need practicing
of good design, aids in the case of operation ore lines, and reductions in cost of
maintenance.
8.2.7 Building:
It is fundamental in chemical engineering industries that the buildings should be built
around the process, instead of the process made to fit buildings of conventional

78
Figure-8.1

80
lead to accidents and losses of life and property from hazards. Attempts should be to
prevent troubles from the inspection, while designing, fabricating and operating.
Safety generally involves:
(1) Identification and assessments of the hazards
(2) Control of hazards
(3) Control of the process by provision of automatic control system, interlocks,
alarm trips, etc
(4) Limitation of the loss, by press relief, plant layout, etc.
9.3 HAZARDS IN CHEMICAL PLANT OPERATION:
Hazards of chemicals are due to mainly their toxicity, flammability and corrosivity
which are important in addition to hazard of chemical plant operation. Industrial
hygiene being a matter of good operating practices and control of good design; the
permissible limits needs to be met effectively to ensure safe working environment
within the plant.
9.3.1 TOXICITY
Most of the materials used in manufacture of chemicals are poisonous to some
extent. The potential of hazard depend upon the toxicity of the material. There are
two types of effects of chemicals: (A) Short term effects or acute effects (B) Long
term effects or chronic effects. Inherent toxicity of the materials is determined by
tests on animals. It is usually expressed as lethal dose LD50 at which 50% of test
animals are killed. It is expressed as mg of toxic substance /kg body weight of test
animal. LD only gives idea of acute effects. For long term effects a quantity called
threshold limit value is defined. TLV is defined as concentration to which it is
believed the average worker could be exposed to day by day for 8hrs a day, 5days a
week without suffering harm. It is expressed as ppm for vapors.
Control of toxic materials:
~ Containment: Safe design, leak proof joints.
~ Disposal: Provision of venting, scrubbers
~ Ventilation
~ Emergency equipment

82
~ Regular medical Check-up
~ Monitoring of environment
~ Good general hygiene.
9.3.2 FLAMMABILITY
Hazards caused by flammable materials depend upon following factors:
(a) Flammability limits - they are the lowest and highest concentration of material in
air at normal pressure and temperature. (b) Auto ignition temperature - it is the
temperature at which the liquid will ignite spontaneously in air without any external
source of ignition. (c) Flash point of material - it is measure of ease of ignition of
liquid, lower the flash point more flammable the liquid is.
9.3.3 EXPLOSIONS
Explosion is a sudden, catastrophic, release of energy, causing pressure wave.
Explosion can occur without fire, such as failure through over pressure of steam boiler
or an air receiver. Explosion can occur by release of flammable gases, vapors or dust.
9.3.4 SOURCE OF IGNITION
Following are different sources of ignition-
Electrical equipment- sparking in electrical equipment may cause ignition, thus flame
proof material is required. The equipment should be intrinsically safe without any
faults and risk of ignition.
Static Electricity - movement of any no conducting material, powder, liquid or gas
can generate static electricity producing sparks. Precautions should be taken that all
equipment is properly earthed.
Process flames- open flames from process furnace are source of ignition and must be
away from flammable materials in plant.
9.3.5 IONIZING RADIATION
The radiation emitted by radioactive materials is harmful to living matter; radioactive
materials should be handled carefully.

83
9.3.6 PRESSURE
Over pressure in the system can cause lot of hazards. It can associate with failure of
vessel or pipelines causing explosion. Hence different pressure relief devices are
used to avoid hazard.
9.3.7 TEMPERATURE
Temperature, higher than the operating temperature may cause failure of the
equipment and loss of control of reactors and heaters. Following protection against
high temperature should be ensured:High temperature alarms, internodes, shut down
of reactor feeds, heating system, emergency cooling systems, and structural design of
equipment to withstand high temperature.
9.3.8 NOISE
Excessive noise is a hazard to health and safety. Long exposures to noise can cause
permanent damage to ear or fatigue. The unit of sound level is decibel.
9.4 RESPIRATORY PERSONNEL EQUIPMENT
9.4.1 PROTECTION
- Hazardous gases should be vented outside the building away from work area.
- Provide exhaust facilities like providing exhaust fan.
- Protection equipment should be easily available.
There are three types of equipments uses:
(1) Industrial Canister
Air from contaminated area is allowed to pass through the canister containing suitable
absorbing agent which will absorb the harmful gas. The clean air which will come out
will be going to mouth piece which is worm by the person.
(2) Airline respirator
It consists of a half or full mask face piece or a loose fitting hood or helmet to which
air is supplied through a small diameter hose.
(3) Self contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
It is a self sufficient breathing apparatus which permits freedom of movement as the
wearer carries the supply of breathable air. This is the apparatus in which user
obtained air or oxygen from compressed air or oxygen cylinders.

84
9.5 GOOD MANUFACTURE TECHNIQUES TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS
9.5.1 Filling burette - Keep burette below eye level.
9.5.2 Filling drum - Keep hose pipe little inside the drum rather than on the hole.
9.5.3 Using fuming chamber - In laboratory while working with hazardous
chemicals like H2S, N02 use fuming chamber.
9.5.4 Reduce heat of reaction -Add sulfuric acid to bucket full of water and not
water to bucket full of sulfuric acid.
9.5.5 Opening flanges - While opening a flange on pipeline containing corrosive
liquid, chances of liquid coming out with a spray are there. To avoid accident due to
such spray or acid or alkali use plastic sheet while opening valve. So that it will not
contact with body.
9.5.6 Location of gauge glass - Gauge glass for reading level in the tank should be
located away from path where many people may be working.
9.5.7 Location of safety valve/ vent line - The vent pipe should not be located in a
closed area.
9.5.8 Location of flammable material - Storage should be away from any source of
flame.
9.5.9 Smoking - Do not smoke in unauthorized area where flammable materials are
likely to be present.
9.5.10 Purging with inert atmosphere - Before entering a reactor or a distillation
column containing hazardous vapors, the equipment must be purged with air/inert gas
for sufficiently long time.
9.5.11 Machinery guards - Install guards on moving machinery parts.
9.5.12 Incompatible chemicals - Do not mix incompatible materials together.
9.5.13 Earthling of equipment - When two phase mixture is being separated into
different tanks, the tank should be earthed to avoid spark due to accumulation of static
electricity.

85
9.5.14Explosion due to dust - In the operation of fine grinding, solid temperature
increases which can lead to dust explosion initiated by hot metal. It can be prevented
by cooling grinder with water or inert gas purging.
9.5.15 Drying and ignition of flammable liquids - Keep air flow rate high so that
air vapor mixture is not near flammable limit.
9.5.16 Mixing - It should be effective to take care of exothermic heat of reaction.
9.5.17 Good house keeping - Do not store waste flammable materials near flame
source.
9.5.18 Labeling of chemicals - Label the chemicals so that they do not get mixed up
with incompatible chemicals.
9.5.19 Pipetting - Do not suck with mouth, use rubber bulb.
9.5.20 Free excess energy exit - Do not store anything in passage way destructing
free movement in emergency.
9.6 FIRE FIGHTING FACILITIES
³)LUHLVDEXUQLQJRIPDWWHU´,QWHFKQLFDOWHUPV)LUHLVDPHFKDQLFDOUHDFWLRQ
where matter reacts with oxygen under certain conditions to release heat and
light energy.

9.6.1 Classification of Fire:

Class A: Fires involving solid materials e.g. Wood, Paper, Cloths, rubber plastic.
Class B: Fires involving flammable or combustible Liquids or liquefied solids,
grease etc.

Class C: Fires involving Gases or liquefied gases Such as methane, propane, and
butane, LPG etc.
Class D: Fires involving certain combustion metals Such as Magnesium,
Titanium, Zirconium, Sodium, and Potassium.

9.6.2 Causes of Fires:

Sparks from electrical equipments, Heat from friction, Open flames, smoking
and matches, spontaneous ignition, hot surface and heated lines, Static
Electricity, lighting, Auto ignition etc.

86
9.6.3 Methods of extinguishing Fires:
Starvation : Elimination of Fuel.
Smothering : Limitation of Oxygen.
Cooling : Removal of heat.
Chemical interference : Interrupt chain Reaction.

9.6.4 Different Agents used for fire Fighting:

Water, Steam, Foam, Dry Chemical Powder, Carbon dioxide, Sand etc.

9.6.5 Fire Prevention and Protection:

1. Regulation for the prevention of Fire:
Ban on carrying of a potential source of ignition, Ban on lighting fires in
battery area. Ban on smoking. Ban on carrying lamps. Use of Sparks arrestors.
2. General Precautions:
Maintain good housekeeping. Follow the laid down procedure strictly.
Sampling and draining of hydrocarbon should be done under strict supervision.
Do not operate an equipment unauthorized. Use only approved type of tools.
Anticipate the hazards during vessel cleaning and take prevention steps in
advance.
9.7 FIRE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES:
Fire prevention can best be achieved with the application of:
9.7.1 Sound engineering:
Design of the plant materials used for construction, means of escape etc.
9.7.2 Good housekeeping:
9.7.3 Cleanliness of the plant, methods of storage:

9.7.4 Good habits:

Observation of fire prevention rules etc.
9.7.4.1 Common sense:
No smoking near inflammable material. Etc.
9.7.4.2 Instruction to personnel:

87
9.8 SAFETY IN PROCESS DESIGN:
Accidents are minimized by correct deign using scientific and performance data
without false economy.
(1) Reactor: The reactor is a heart of plant and vital for safety. Most reactions
have hazard potential. Here, reaction is exothermic and at higher pressure
compared to atmospheric pressure and also deals with the materials like
Benzene and Cyclohexane which are highly volatile.
(2) Heat Transfer:For safe operation,
(i) Prevent mixing.
(ii) Provide different surface, for cleaning, insulation, expansion.
(iii) Prevent flame travel in furnace.
(iv) Use safety over design factor of 15 ± 20 %.
(3) Mass Transfer: Safe guards are,
(i) Prevent liquid injection and vigorous flashing in hot column.
(ii) Provide both pressure and vacuum relief.
(iii) Use detection and warning devices for build up of hazardous material.
(iv) Provide thermal expansion in system.
(4) Pressure Vessels: It includes,
(i) Corrosion allowance must be provided.
(ii) Take care weld joint efficiency.
(iii) Design pressure is maximum operating pressure plus static pressure plus
5 %.
(iv) Design temperature is 25-30 ºC above maximum operating temperature.
(v) Use safety over design factor of 15 ± 20 %.
(5) Instrumentation and Safety devices:
(i) Thermocouple burnout, stem or cooling water failure.
(ii) Fusible plugs to relive pressure above design value.
(iii) Combustible gas monitor with alarms for flammable.
(iv) Over temperature switch.

89
9.9 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
Fire Extinguishing Media:
i) Small fire:
Use dry chemicals, CO2
ii) Large fire:
Use water spray, water fog or foam. Do not use straight streams.
iii) Protection of Firefighters:
a). Protective Equipment / Clothing:
Wear an approved positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus
and firefighter turnout gear.
b). Fire fighting Guidance:
May polymerize explosively when involved in a fire. Vapours may
travel long distance along the ground before reaching a source of
ignition and flashing back.
iv) Hazardous Combustion Products: CO, CO2
v) Accidental Release Measure:
Eliminate all source of ignition. Stop leak if without risk. Use water spray or foam
to reduce vapors. Prevent entry to sewers, basements or confined areas, dike if
needed.
vi) Handling:
Do not handle near heat, spark or flame. Avoid contact with incompatible agents.
Use only with adequate ventilation / personal protection. Avoid contact with eyes,
skin and clothing. Do not enter storage unless adequately ventilated. Metal
containers involved in the transfer of this material should be grounded and
bounded.
vii) Storage:
Flammable material should be stored in a separate safety storage cabinet or room.
Metal containers used to store this material should be grounded. Monitor inhibitor
to maintain appropriate concentration.
viii) Personal Protection:

90
 a). Inhalation:
A respiratory protection program that meets ANSI 288.2 requirement must be
followed whenever workspace condition warrant respirator use.
b). Skin:
Approximate protective clothing should be work to prevent skin ontact. The
equipment must be cleaned thoroughly after each use.

c). Eye:
Wear safety glasses as per minimum eye protection. Condition may warrant the use
of chemical goggles and possibly a face shield. Use protective eye and dace devices.
ix) First Aid Measures:
a). Skin:
Immediately remove excess chemicals and contaminated clothing, thoroughly wash
contaminated skin with mild soap and water. If irritation persists after awashing, seek
medical attention. Thoroughly clean contaminated slothing before reuse; discard
contaminated leather goods (gloves, shoes, belts, wallets, etc) .
b). Inhalation:
Make the exposed person to fresh air at once. If breathing has stopped, perform
artificial respiration. When breathing is difficult, properly trained person may assist
the affected person by administering oxygen. Help the affected person warm and at
rest. Get medical attention immediately.
c). Eye:
Thoroughly flush the eyes with large amount of clean low-pressure water for at last
15 minutes. Occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids. If irritation persists,
seek medical attention.
d). Ingestion:
Do not induce vomiting. If vomiting does occur, have victim lean forward to reduce
risk of aspiration. immediately seek medical attention.
x) Additional Safety:

91
Selection of appropriate personal protection equipment should be based on an
evaluation of the performance characteristics of the protective equipment relative to
the tasks to be performed, conditions present, duration of use and the hazards and or
potential hazards that may be encountered during use. Emergency eye wash facility
and safety showers should be available, in the immediate vicinity of any potential
exposure. Use good personal hygiene practices. Wash hands before eating, drinking,
smoking or using toilet facilities. Promptly remove sailed clothing / wash thoroughly
before reuse. Shower after work using plenty of soap and water. 5
9.10 ENVIORNMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
The environmental considerations include:
1. Control of all emission from the plant.
2. Waste management.
3. Smells.
4. Noise pollution prevention.
5. The visual impact.
6. Liquid effluent specifications
7. Environmental friendliness of the products.
9.10.1 Waste management:
Waste arises mainly as byproducts or unused reactants from the process, or as off-
specification product produced through mis-operation. There will also be fugitive
emissions form leaking seals and flanges and inadvertent spills and discharges
through mis-operation. In emergency situations, material may be discharged to the
atmosphere through vents normally protected by bursting discs and relief valves.

In addition to the waste streams from the plant the fugitive emissions from leaking
seals and flanges, and inadvertent spills and discharge through misoperation takes
place. As a matter of fact the design should take care of the emissions from the plant
however safe operation should be ensured to prevent the waste management. It is
important that unused reactants if in substantial amount; should be reprocessed and
thus waste should be minimized. It is important that the design should be such that
any mis-operation should be avoided therefore intrinsic safety be coupled with tight
92
be removed by settling, using Chemical treatment may be given to remove some of
the chemicals.
Oxygen concentration in waste course must be maintained at a level sufficient to
support aquatic life. For this reason the biological oxygen of an effluent is of
paramount importance. Standard BOD 5 tests can be applied for the determination of
the same. The test measures the quantity of oxygen which a given volume of effluent
will absorb in 5 days at constant temperature of 20 0C. It is a measure of the organic
matter present in the effluent. Ultimate oxygen demand test can be performed if
required.
Waste water should be discharged into sewers with the agreement of the local water
pollution control authorities or state pollution control boards.
9.10.2 Noise:
Noise can cause serious nuisance in the neighbourhood of a process plant. Care need
to be taken when selecting and specifying equipments such as compressors, air-
cooler fans, induced and force draft fans for furnaces, and other noisy plant.
Excessive noise can also be generated when venting through steam and other relief
valves, and from flare stacks. Such equipments should be fitted with silencers.
Vendors specification should be checked to ensure the equipment complies with
statutory noise levels, both for protection of employees, as well as for noise pollution
considerations. Noisy equipments should be as far away form the site boundary.
9.10.3 Visual impact:
The appearance of the plant should be considered at the design stage. Few people
object to fairyland appearance of a process plant illuminated at the night, but it is
different scene at daytime. There is little that can be done to change the appearance
of modern style plant, where most of the equipment and piping will be outside and in
full view but some steps should be taken to minimize the visual impact.
9.10.4 Environmental auditing:
The company should go for a systematic examination of how a business operation
affects the environment. It will include all emissions to air, land and water and cover
the legal constraints the effect on the community the landscape and the ecology.

94
ventury meter, pitot tube etc. In spite of these the various types of area flow meters
can also be used.
Depending on temperature and velocity condition the suitable meter is selected for
measurement of flow rates and velocity.
10.2.2 Temperature Measuring Devices:
Many devices are used to measure the temperature variations in the process such as
mercury in glass thermometer, bimetallic thermometer, pressure spring thermometer,
thermocouples, resistance thermocouples, radiation pyrometers and optical
pyrometers are used.
Out of all these the industrial thermocouples are competitively good as they provide
large measuring range, without introducing error. Automatic control is also possible
with such devices.
Table-10.1 Temperature range of measuring instruments
Measuring Instrument Temp. Range ºC
Mercury in glass ± thermometer -27 to 400
Mercury in pressure thermometer -40 to 540
Vapor pressure thermometer -85 to 425
Resistance -200 to 1700
Thermocouple -250 to 1700
Thermister Up to 300
Pyrometer 1300 to 2500

10.2.3 Pressure Measuring Devices:

Equipments, in which the important monitoring parameter is pressure, pressure
measuring devices like pressure gauges are widely used. Safety of chemical plants
depends up on the timely measurement of pressure and its control at a specified
level. Any excess pressure development than the design pressure may damage the
equipment in addition to the fire and other explosion hazard.
Mainly in filter pressures where the pressure is an important criterion, this device is
used.
97
10.2.4.2 Demerits of DCS:
In present control room lot of paramagnets are seen without any intentional, efforts
hence operator feels himself existing in between the information.
In case of new DCS systems, all information and data though presented in a
systematic format, is hidden behind the CRT and hence to be called by operator.
This requires more skill and knowledge. With acceptance of DCS, number of
operators in control room decreased and hence, in case of emergency decision has to
be taken by almost single handed as against group decision in present situation.
In single loop control system failure of one controller affects only one control loop,
while case of DCS one component / card carries out lot of functions and hence
failure of it causes failure of many loops.
This calls for very high MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) and high degree of
redundancy making such systems costly.
A limitation may be felt in operating number of control loops simultaneously in case
of emergency, if adequate numbers of CRT consoles are not installed. Skilled
personnel are required.

100
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103
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