sustainability

Article
RSSI-Based Distance Estimation Framework Using
a Kalman Filter for Sustainable Indoor
Computing Environments
Yunsick Sung
Faculty of Computer Engineering, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Korea; yunsick@kmu.ac.kr;
Tel.: +82-10-7654-3570

Academic Editors: James J. Park and Han-Chieh Chao

Received: 18 October 2016; Accepted: 1 November 2016; Published: 4 November 2016
Abstract: Given that location information is the key to providing a variety of services in sustainable
indoor computing environments, it is required to obtain accurate locations. Locations can be estimated
by three distances from three fixed points. Therefore, if the distance between two points can be
measured or estimated accurately, the location in indoor environments can be estimated. To increase
the accuracy of the measured distance, noise filtering, signal revision, and distance estimation
processes are generally performed. This paper proposes a novel framework for estimating the
distance between a beacon and an access point (AP) in a sustainable indoor computing environment.
Diverse types of received strength signal indications (RSSIs) are used for WiFi, Bluetooth, and radio
signals, and the proposed distance estimation framework is unique in that it is independent of
the specific wireless signal involved, being based on the Bluetooth signal of the beacon. Generally,
RSSI measurement, noise filtering, and revision are required for distance estimation using RSSIs.
The employed RSSIs are first measured from an AP, with multiple APs sometimes used to increase the
accuracy of the distance estimation. Owing to the inevitable presence of noise in the measured RSSIs,
the application of noise filtering is essential, and further revision is used to address the inaccuracy and
instability that characterizes RSSIs measured in an indoor environment. The revised RSSIs are then
used to estimate the distance. The proposed distance estimation framework uses one AP to measure
the RSSIs, a Kalman filter to eliminate noise, and a log-distance path loss model to revise the measured
RSSIs. In the experimental implementation of the framework, both a RSSI filter and a Kalman filter
were respectively used for noise elimination to comparatively evaluate the performance of the latter
for the specific application. The Kalman filter was found to reduce the accumulated errors by 8%
relative to the RSSI filter. This confirmed the accuracy of the proposed distance estimation framework.

Keywords: RSSI; beacon; indoor localization; Kalman filter

1. Introduction
The Future Sustainability Computing (FSC) framework provides abundant possibilities for
pervasive computing environments. The framework is an integration of diverse types of internet
technology-based policies, procedures, and programs. To ensure user-friendly services in the
framework, it is essential to obtain and analyze user information, based on which the location of
a user can be accurately determined. Actually, the location of a user constitutes the core of such
information. A wearable location system [1] that can be used to determine the location of a particular
user is introduced for a lecture theater. A radio map is generated in the area where the various users are
present, based on which the location of the user of interest is estimated. By establishing this location,
diverse services can be provided.
Considering the inapplicability of a Global Positioning System (GPS) in an indoor environment,
the estimation of a user location in an indoor FSC environment is much more difficult than in an outdoor

Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136; doi:10.3390/su8111136 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 2 of 9

one. A representative approach to estimating the user location is fingerprinting [2], which involves
comparing the signals of the users with those of a radio map. However, this requires the generation
of multiple radio signals, each of which should be unique. Nevertheless, if multiple user signals
have the same value, it would be difficult to use such an approach to determine the location of
a particular user. Another approach is Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI)-based trilateration,
which involves the measurement of three RSSIs and estimation of the locations from which they are
radiated. This approach, however, requires accurate RSSI-based distance estimation for good results.
This paper proposes a novel RSSI-based method for estimating the distance between a beacon and
an Access Point (AP) in a sustainable indoor computing environment. The accuracy of the estimated
distance can be improved through multiple processing of the beacon RSSIs.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses various processes for measuring
RSSIs and estimating indoor distances. Section 3 introduces and describes the proposed method.
Section 4 analyzes the results of the experimental implementation of the proposed method. Finally,
the conclusions of the study are presented in Section 5.

2. Overview of Distance Estimation

Different types of distance estimation methods are usually integrated to increase the accuracy of
the results. This section introduces some generic processes for using RSSIs to estimate the distance
between a beacon and an AP. Each process of the methods is also described in more detail.

2.1. Requirements for RSSI-Based Indoor Distance Estimation

RSSIs are very inaccurate and unstable in indoor FSC environments, and there is thus the need
for revision of measured RSSIs before using them. First, noise filtering is required. In addition, when
measuring or estimating RSSIs, any value that represents a sudden increase should be eliminated.
Further, given that RSSIs do not increase linearly with distance, the error in a distance estimated based
on RSSIs increases with increasing the measured distance.
However, RSSIs still remain unstable after noise filtering and there is a limit to improving the
accuracy and robustness of RSSIs based on only the measured RSSIs. Diverse types of information
such as environmental information are thus used to improve the accuracy and robustness of RSSIs.
Environmental information is divided into two types, namely static information and dynamic
information. Static information includes environmental configuration information such as the locations
of APs, while dynamic information includes the locations of moving objects.

2.2. RSSI-Related Work

Indoor distance estimation requires minimal noise filtering, RSSI revision, and distance conversion.
Figure 1 shows generic processes for handling RSSIs for distance estimation. For RSSI noise filtering,
the use of an impulse noise filter has been proposed [3]. The noise filter is specifically used for real-time
processing of a beacon-AP signal. The noises are filtered by revising all the ranges of the RSSIs, which
are decreased or increased based on the distance from the AP. Another method for eliminating noise
from RSSIs involves the detection and cutting of the peak values [4]. The revised RSSIs are then used
to estimate the distance to a given location [5]. However, given that RSSIs do not vary linearly with
distance, a technique for revising the measured RSSIs is required so that the measurements would
vary linearly with the distance from the AP.
For RSSI revision, filtered RSSIs could be revised considering distance and environmental
information. In the case of RSSI revision by distance, a previous study utilized a log-distance path
loss model for this purpose [6]. The model was used to predict the signal path in such a way that the
RSSIs varied linearly with the distance. The log-distance path loss model has been applied to RSSIs
in another study [7], and also to the measurement of the distance from an AP [8]. There is a limit to
improving the accuracy of the revised RSSIs based on the information of measured RSSIs. Therefore,
Sustainability 2016,
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2016, 8, 1136 3 of3 9of 9

improving the accuracy of the revised RSSIs based on the information of measured RSSIs. Therefore,
utilizing additional
utilizing information
additional is required.
information For example,
is required. environmental
For example, information
environmental such assuch
information locations,
as
configurations, and so on can be utilized.
locations, configurations, and so on can be utilized.

Figure 1. Flowchart of generic RSSI processes.

Figure 1. Flowchart of generic RSSI processes.

For distance estimation, the beacon signal–based distance is estimated based on the minimum
andFor distance signals
maximum estimation, the beacon
[7]. Given signal–based
the irregularity distance
of RSSIs is estimated
measured in indoorbased on the minimum
environments, any
and maximum signals [7]. Given the irregularity of RSSIs measured in indoor
observed changes in the RSSIs should be taken into consideration. Accordingly, the measured RSSIs environments, any
observed changesorinshortened
are lengthened the RSSIsbased
shouldonbethetaken into consideration.
minimum and maximumAccordingly, the measured
signals. Estimated locations RSSIs
are
areutilized
lengthened orinterfaces
in user shortened[9]based on the minimum
in a pervasive computing and maximum for
environment signals. Estimated
the control locations
of diverse typesare
utilized in user interfaces [9] in a pervasive computing environment for the control of diverse types
of devices.
Given that the global positioning system (GPS) cannot be utilized to find locations in indoor
of devices.
environments,
Given that the a variety
globalofpositioning
indoor-basedsystem
location estimation
(GPS) cannot approaches
be utilized aretoproposed. For examples,
find locations in indoor
a dynamic Bayesian network (DBN)-based approach is proposed to estimate
environments, a variety of indoor-based location estimation approaches are proposed. For examples, locations in indoor
environments [10]. The approach generates and utilizes a probability graph.
a dynamic Bayesian network (DBN)-based approach is proposed to estimate locations in indoor Gaussian interpolation
is utilized to[10].
environments improve the qualitygenerates
The approach of measuredand WiFi [11].
utilizes According tograph.
a probability the Gaussian
Gaussian interpolation,
interpolation
measured WiFi is converted into qualified signals. Crowd-sourced mapping
is utilized to improve the quality of measured WiFi [11]. According to the Gaussian interpolation, and localization
(CMAL)WiFi
measured based on a wireless-fidelity
is converted into qualified(WiFi) localization
signals. system ismapping
Crowd-sourced proposed, andwhich is one of
localization the
(CMAL)
simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) approaches [12]. CMAL consists of two
based on a wireless-fidelity (WiFi) localization system is proposed, which is one of the simultaneous
sub-modules: the CAML client and the CAML server. The CMAL server utilizes the fingerprint map,
localization and mapping (SLAM) approaches [12]. CMAL consists of two sub-modules: the CAML
which is generated by the CML client. The CMAL client generates the fingerprint map from the WiFi
client and the CAML server. The CMAL server utilizes the fingerprint map, which is generated by the
of multiple smart phones.
CML client. The CMAL client generates the fingerprint map from the WiFi of multiple smart phones.
3. Beacon-Based Distance Estimation
3. Beacon-Based Distance Estimation
This section describes the proposed distance estimation framework, which is based on the RSSIs
This section describes the proposed distance estimation framework, which is based on the RSSIs
of a beacon. The framework comprises multiple processes for using the measured RSSIs to estimate
of athe
beacon. The
distance framework
from the beaconcomprises
to an AP. multiple processes
Each of the processesfor
is using the below.
described measured RSSIs to estimate
the distance from the beacon to an AP. Each of the processes is described below.
3.1. Distance Estimation Framework
3.1. Distance Estimation Framework
The proposed distance estimation framework consists of two phases, namely the offline and
The proposed
online phases. The distance
offline estimation
phase is usedframework consists
to determine the of two phases,
maximum (dMax)namely the offline
and minimum (dMinand
)
online phases. The offline phase is used to determine the maximum
measured RSSIs for use for distance estimation in the online phase. The distance (d Max ) and minimum
revision is done(dMin )
measured
using a RSSIs for usepath
log-distance for distance
model, andestimation in the online
also involves phase. The
noise filtering distance
using a Kalmanrevision
filterisand
done
using a log-distance
calculation pathdistances
of relative model, and
basedalso
oninvolves noise filtering
the determined dMax andusing
dMin. a Kalman
Figure filter the
2 shows andflowchart
calculation
of of
relative distances
the proposed basedestimation
distance framework.dMax and dMin . Figure 2 shows the flowchart of the
on the determined
proposedThedistance estimation
offline phase framework.
consists of RSSI measurement, log-distance revision, Kalman filtering, and the
The offline
min-max phasestages.
detection consists of RSSI
During RSSImeasurement,
measurement,log-distance
the RSSIs are revision,
measured Kalman
τ timesfiltering, and the
to determine
min-max detection stages. During RSSI measurement, the RSSIs are measured τ times to determine
the maximum and minimum signals, which are used for relative distance conversion in the online
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 4 of 9

phase. RSSI rt is the measured RSSI at time t. The log-distance revision and Kalman filtering processes
are used to revise the measured RSSIs and to filter the noise of the measured RSSIs. The maximum
signal d0 Max and the minimum signal d0 Min are determined from among the signals in a set D0 , the set
of the results of the Kalman filtering stage, during min-max detection. Given that the distance from
an AP to the beacon is estimated based on the maximum and minimum signals, it is necessary to
collect a sufficient number of RSSIs. If there are RSSIs in the online phase that are higher or lower than
the maximum or minimum value measured in the offline phase, respectively, the distance estimation
would be inaccurate. If the maximum RSSI is set to a value lower than the maximum RSSI measured in
the online phase, the estimated distance would be too long. Conversely, if the minimum RSSI is set to
a value higher than the value measured in the online phase, the estimated distance would be too short.

Start
Offline Phase

rt dt
RSSI Measurement Log-distance Revision Kalman Filtering

d't
Yes
t≥τ Min Max Detection
No D'

d'Min , d'Max

Online Phase

rt dt
RSSI Measurement Log-distance Revision Kalman Filtering

d't

Relative Distance
Estimation
d''t

End

Figure 2. Flowchart of the offline and online phases of the proposed framework.

The online phase consists of RSSI measurement, log-distance revision, Kalman filtering,
and relative distance estimation. All the measured RSSIs are transferred to the log-distance revision
stage in the online phase. The procedures for using the above processes until distance estimation are
described in more detail in the following sub-sections.

3.2. Log-Distance Revision Stage

Given that a RSSI does not vary linearly with distance, there is a need for a method for revising
it to ensure linear variation based on its features. The log-distance revision stage in the offline and
online phases is used for this purpose to enable the revision of RSSIs into distance. In this paper, the
log-distance path loss model [2] is used to calculate the equivalent distance dt of an RSSI. This is done
r t −r0
by multiplying d0 by 10 10×λ , where d0 is the reference distance, r0 is the path loss of the reference
RSSIs, and λ is the path loss exponent. The distance dt increases exponentially with d0 because of the
difference between r0 and rt .

3.3. Kalman Filtering Stage

Distances calculated in indoor environments are affected by noise. A Kalman filter is capable
of filtering sudden changes in a signal during signal estimation based on preceding signals. In the
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 5 of 9

3.3. Kalman Filtering Stage

Distances calculated in indoor environments are affected by noise. A Kalman filter is capable of
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136
filtering sudden changes in a signal during signal estimation based on preceding signals. In5 the of 9

proposed distance estimation framework, Kalman filtering is performed in both the offline and
online phases.
proposed Theestimation
distance Kalman filter is used to
framework, eliminate
Kalman the effect
filtering of noise in
is performed from the
both distance
the calculated
offline and online
in the log-distance
phases. The Kalman revision
filter isstage.
used toByeliminate
this means,
thethe distance
effect dt isfrom
of noise converted into distance
the distance d′t. In
calculated the
in the
offline phase, the Kalman filtering is performed between the log-distance revision0 stage
log-distance revision stage. By this means, the distance dt is converted into distance d t . In the offline and the
min-max detection stage. The maximum and minimum RSSIs are compared
phase, the Kalman filtering is performed between the log-distance revision stage and the min-max with the
Kalman-filtered
detection distance
stage. The in theand
maximum relative distance
minimum estimation
RSSIs stage of
are compared thethe
with online phase. In this
Kalman-filtered phase,
distance
the Kalman filtering is performed between the log-distance revision stage and the relative
in the relative distance estimation stage of the online phase. In this phase, the Kalman filtering is distance
estimation between
performed stage. the log-distance revision stage and the relative distance estimation stage.

3.4. Relative Distance Estimation Stage

The distance determined in an indoor environment environment after Kalman
Kalman filtering
filtering is
is still
still inaccurate.
inaccurate.
There is thus
thus the
theneed
needforforfurther
furtherrevision
revisionofofthe distance
the to to
distance increase thethe
increase accuracy. In this
accuracy. paper,
In this the
paper,
Kalman-filtered distances were normalized using the relative distance estimation
the Kalman-filtered distances were normalized using the relative distance estimation method [7]. method [7]. Using
the maximum
Using and minimum
the maximum distances
and minimum determined
distances in the in
determined offline phase,phase,
the offline the relative distance
the relative r″t is
distance
estimated
r” is based
estimated on
based the
on RSSI
the r′
RSSI t in
r 0 the
in online
the phase.
online phase.This
Thisrelative
relativedistance
distance estimation
estimation process
process is
t t
performed in only the the online
online phase.
phase.

4. Experiments
Experiments
This section
sectiondescribes
describeshow thethe
how RSSIs between
RSSIs a beacon
between and anand
a beacon AP anare measured in the proposed
AP are measured in the
distance
proposedestimation framework.framework.
distance estimation The performance of the framework
The performance of theisframework
also analyzed by comparing
is also its
analyzed by
results with those of other methods.
comparing its results with those of other methods.

4.1. Experimental Configuration

4.1. Experimental Configuration
To
To validate
validate the
the proposed
proposed framework,
framework, experiments
experiments werewere performed
performed using
using the
the configuration
configuration in
in
Figure 3. The location of the AP was fixed while that of the beacon was repeatedly
Figure 3. The location of the AP was fixed while that of the beacon was repeatedly alternatedalternated between
two specific
between twopoints, A and
specific B, atAintervals
points, and B, atofintervals
1 s. The distance between
of 1 s. The A and
distance B wasA2 m,
between andwhile the2 AP
B was m,
was located 1 m perpendicular from the line between A and B. The maximum distance
while the AP was located 1 m perpendicular from the line between A and B. The maximum distance
√ ζ Max was thus
2 m,
ζMax waswhile
thusthe2 minimum
m, while distance ζ Min was
the minimum 1 m. ζMin was 1 m.
distance

Figure 3. Experimental
Figure 3. Experimental environment configuration.
environment configuration.

4.2. Experimental Results

4.2. Experimental Results
During the experiments, the RSSIs were measured as shown in Figure 4. Almost all the RSSIs
During the experiments, the RSSIs were measured as shown in Figure 4. Almost all the RSSIs
were found to be between −54 and −80. When the distance between an AP and the beacon was
were found to be between −54 and −80. When the distance between an AP and the beacon was
increased, the RSSIs decreased. In addition, the RSSIs gradually increased with the increasing
increased, the RSSIs decreased. In addition, the RSSIs gradually increased with the increasing number
of measurements, resulting in decreased measurement accuracy. The measurement of the RSSIs of
a moving beacon in the indoor environment was particularly observed to be inaccurate.
 Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 6 of 9
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 6 of 9
number of2016,
Sustainability measurements,
8, 1136 resulting in decreased measurement accuracy. The measurement 6ofof the 9
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 6 of 9
number
RSSIs of aofmoving
measurements,
beacon inresulting in environment
the indoor decreased measurement accuracy.
was particularly The measurement
observed of the
to be inaccurate.
number
RSSIs ofofa measurements,
moving beacon resulting in decreased
in the indoor measurement
environment accuracy.
was particularly The measurement
observed of the
to be inaccurate.
RSSIs of a moving beacon in the indoor environment was particularly observed to be inaccurate.

Figure4.4.Measured
Figure MeasuredRSSIs.
RSSIs.
Figure 4. Measured RSSIs.
Figure
The measured RSSIs were filtered 4. Measured
using RSSIs. path loss model. The results are shown
a log-distance
The
Themeasured
measured RSSIs were filtered using a log-distance path loss model. The results are shown in
in Figure 5. Figure 6RSSIs
showswere filtered
the distances using a log-distance
estimated path
by the proposed loss model.
method. The
The results
lowest are
and shown
highest
Figure 5.
The Figure
in Figure 6
measured
5. foundshows
Figureto RSSIs
6 showsthe
weredistances
filtered
the distancesestimated
using a by the
log-distance
estimated by√the proposed
path
proposedlossmethod.
model.
method. The
The lowest
results
Thethe
lowest and
are highest
shown
anddistance
highest
RSSIs were correspond to distances of 1 and 2 m, respectively, using relative
inRSSIs
RSSIsFigure
were 5.found
were Figure
foundto6tocorrespond
shows the distances
correspond estimated
totodistances
distances of
of by the22 proposed
11and
and m,
m, method.using
respectively,
respectively, The lowest
using the
the and highest
relative
relative distance
distance
estimation method [7]. The sudden increases in the signals were also reduced accordingly.
RSSIs weremethod
estimation
estimation found
methodto correspond
[7]. The
[7]. Thesudden to distances
sudden increasesof
increases inin1the
andsignals
the 2 m,were
signals respectively,
were also usingaccordingly.
also reduced
reduced the relative distance
accordingly.
estimation method [7]. The sudden increases in the signals were also reduced accordingly.

Figure 5. Distances revised using a log-distance path loss model.

Figure 5. Distances revised using a log-distance path loss model.
Figure 5. Distances
Figure 5. revisedusing
Distances revised usingaalog-distance
log-distancepath
pathloss
lossmodel.
model.

Figure 6. Distances estimated using the proposed method.

Figure 6. Distances estimated using the proposed method.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Distances
Distances estimated
estimatedusing
usingthe
theproposed
proposedmethod.
method.
4.3. Performance Comparison
4.3. Performance Comparison
4.3. Performance Comparison
Kalman filtering is used to eliminate noise from the signals in the proposed distance estimation
4.3. Performance Comparison
Kalmanasfiltering
framework, was is used to eliminate
implemented in the presentnoise study.
from the signals in theRSSIs
proposed distance estimation
Kalman filtering is used to eliminate noise from theThe measured
signals in the proposed were compared
distance with the
estimation
Kalman
framework, filtering
asby
was isKalman
used tofilter.
implemented eliminate
in Figure noise
the present from
study.theThe
signals in theof
measured proposed
RSSIs were distance
compared estimation
with the
framework, as was implemented in the present study. The measured RSSIs were compared with theto
filtered RSSIs the 7 shows the performance the Kalman filter applied
framework,
filtered
RSSIs. The as
RSSIs was
by implemented
the Kalman in
filter. the present
Figure 7 study.
shows the The measured
performance RSSIs
of the were
Kalmancompared
filter with the
applied to
filtered RSSIsgraph
by the ofKalman
the Kalman filter.filter
Figure shows smoother
7 shows curves compared
the performance to thosefilter
of the Kalman of the measured
applied to
filtered
RSSIs.RSSIs
The
Figure by
graphthe Kalman
of
8 shows the Kalmanfilter. Figure
filter shows7 shows the
smoother performance
curves of
compared the Kalman
to those filter
of the applied
measured to
RSSIs. The graph of the the performance
Kalman filter shows of the Kalmancurves
smoother filter compared
applied toto the log-distance
those path loss
of the measured
RSSIs.
RSSIs.The
model. graph
Figure
The of the
8 shows
graph of theKalman
the Kalman
the filter
performance shows
filter of thesmoother
Kalman curves
filter compared
applied toloss
to the those of thealso
log-distance measured
path loss
RSSIs. Figure 8 shows performance ofapplied
the Kalmanto the log-distance
filter applied topath model
the log-distance path shows
loss
model.
RSSIs.
smoother The
Figure 8 graph
shows
curves of
the
comparedthe Kalman
performance
to those filter
ofof the
the applied
Kalman to
log-distance the
filter log-distance
applied
path loss to the
model.
model. The graph of the Kalman filter applied to the log-distance path loss model also shows
path loss model
log-distance path also
loss shows
model.
Thesmoother
graph of
smoother curves
curves compared
the Kalman
compared toto
filter thoseofof
applied
those to the
thethe log-distance
log-distance
log-distance path
path
path loss
loss
loss model.
model also shows smoother curves
model.
compared to those of the log-distance path loss model.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 7 of 9
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Sustainability 2016,8,8,1136
1136 77ofof99
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 7 of 9

Figure7.7. The
Theanalysis
analysis of
of the performance
performance of the Kalman filter on RSSIs.
Figure
Figure
Figure7.7.The analysis of the
Theanalysis the performance
performanceof
ofthe
theKalman
Kalmanfilter RSSIs.
filterononRSSIs.
RSSIs.

Figure
Figure8.8.
Figure The
8.The analysis
Theanalysis ofthe
analysisof the performance
performance of the
performance of
of the Kalman
the Kalmanfilter
Kalman filter on
filteron the
onthe log-distance
thelog-distance path
log-distancepath loss
pathloss model.
model.
loss model.
Figure 8. The analysis of the performance of the Kalman filter on the log-distance path loss model.
To
To evaluate
evaluate the the performance of the the Kalman
Kalman filterfilter in
in the
the proposed
proposed distancedistance estimation
estimation
To
To evaluate
evaluatethe performance
the performance of theofKalman
the used filter infilter
Kalman the proposed
in theRF-IIIdistance estimation
proposed distance framework,
estimation
framework,
framework, RSSI RSSI Filter
Filter (RF-III) [3] was also also used forfor this
this purpose.
purpose. refinesthe
RF-III refines theimpulse
impulse noises
noises
RSSI Filter (RF-III)
framework, RSSI [3] was
Filter also used
(RF-III) [3] wasfor also
this used
purpose.for RF-III
this refines RF-III
purpose. the impulse
refines noises
the within noises
impulse RSSIs
within RSSIs measured
within RSSIs measured from a beacon to an AP. By applying RF-III to the two-directional signals ofof
an AP. By applying RF-III to the two-directional signals
measured
within
impulse
impulse RSSIsfrom
noises,
noises,a the
beacon
measured to ananoises
from
the impulse
impulse AP. Bycan
beacon applying RF-III
tobeaneliminated.
AP. toFigure
the two-directional
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eliminated. Figure RF-III to thethe
99 compares
compares signals of
two-directional
the twoobtained
two impulse
obtained noises,
signals
results.
results. of
the impulse
impulse
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Given noises
noises,
that the the
the Kalmancan be
impulse eliminated.
noises can
Kalman filter estimated a signal Figure
be 9 compares
eliminated.
signal based
based on the
Figure
onpreviouslytwo
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compares
previouslymeasured theresults.
measuredsignals, two Given
obtained
signals,there that the
results.
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right
Kalman
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shiftin
shift that
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measured
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compared to previously
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measured
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accumulated there is a when
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when usingis ain
using the
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with respect
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fewer errors.to the realwere also
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were
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thus confirmed Kalman
confirmedto and
tobe filter
the
bemore was
Kalman
morerobust found
filter
robustininthe to produce
was found
theproposed
proposed 8%
to
fewer
produce errors. The Kalman filter was thus confirmed to be more robust
method.8% fewer errors. The Kalman filter was thus confirmed to be more robust in the proposed
method. in the proposed method.
method.

Figure 9. Comparison of of the results

results of the
the proposed method
methodwhen
whenaaaKalman
Kalmanfilter
filterand
andRF-III areare
Figure9.9.Comparison
Figure Comparison of thethe results of
of the proposed method when Kalman filter and RF-III
RF-III are
respectively
respectively used
used for
for signal
signal noise
noise filtering.
filtering.
respectively used for signal noise filtering.
Figure 9. Comparison of the results of the proposed method when a Kalman filter and RF-III are
respectively used for signal noise filtering.
To validate the performance of the log-distance path loss model in the proposed framework, the
Tovalidate
validate the performance
performance of ofthe
thelog-distance path loss model in the proposed framework, the
performance of the
To the proposed framework log-distance
was comparedpath loss
to that ofmodel in the
the integration proposed
of the Kalmanframework,
filter
performance
the To validate
performance of the proposed
performance
of the proposedframework
of the was compared
log-distance
framework was pathto
compared that
loss of
modelthe
to that integration
in the of
proposed the Kalman
framework, filter
the
and the traditional relative distance estimation method (ReDEM). Asofshown
the integration
in Figure 10, of the
the Kalman
RSSIs
and the
performance
filter traditional
and the relative
of the proposed
traditional distance estimation
frameworkestimation
relative method
was compared (ReDEM).
to (ReDEM). As
that of theAs shown in
integration Figure
in of 10, the
the Kalman RSSIs
filter
applied to the log-distance pathdistance method
loss model were converted smoothly comparedshown to Figure
the 10,without
RSSIs the RSSIs
applied
and the
applied tothe
to thelog-distance
log-distance
traditional relative path
path loss model
distance
loss model were
weremethod
estimation converted smoothly
(ReDEM).
converted smoothly As compared
shown
compared into the
Figure
to the RSSIs
10,
RSSIs without
the RSSIs
without
the log-distance path loss model. The changes of the RSSIs were also reduced.
thelog-distance
applied
the log-distance pathloss
lossmodel.
to the log-distance
path model.
path lossThe
The changes
model of converted
were
changes of the RSSIs
the RSSIs were
were also reduced.
smoothly
also compared to the RSSIs without
reduced.
the log-distance path loss model. The changes of the RSSIs were also reduced.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 8 of 9
Sustainability2016,
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 8 of 9
Sustainability 2016,8,8,1136
1136 8 8ofof9 9

Figure 10. The analysis of the performance of the log-distance path loss model in the proposed
Figure10.
Figure 10.The
Theanalysis
analysis of the
the performance
performance of
of the
the log-distance
log-distance path loss
loss model in
inthe
theproposed
Figure 10. The
method. analysis of of
the performance of the log-distance pathmodel
path loss model
in the proposedproposed
method.
method.
method.
To analyze
To the accuracy of the proposed method, its results were compared with those of aof
a
ToToanalyze
analyze the
analyzethe accuracy
theaccuracy of
accuracy of the
of the proposed
the proposed method,its
proposed method,
method, itsresults
its resultswere
results werecompared
were compared
compared with
with
with thosethose
those ofof a
traditional
atraditional
traditional
traditional ReDEM.
ReDEM.As
ReDEM. As
As shown
Asshown
shownin
shown in Figure
inFigure
in 11,
Figure11,
Figure the
11,the
11, RSSIs
the RSSIs
the measured
RSSIs measured
RSSIs measuredby by the
by the traditional
the traditional
traditional method
method were
were
ReDEM. measured by the traditional method
methodwere were
generally
generally
generally higher,
higher,
higher, although
although
although their
their
their peaks
peaks
peaks were lower
were
were lower compared
lower compared to
compared to those
to those measured
those measured
measured by
by
by the
the
the proposed
proposed
proposed
generally higher, although their peaks were lower compared to those measured by the proposed
method.
method.
method.In In
In addition,
addition,
Inaddition, the
addition,the
the proposed
theproposed method
proposedmethod
proposed was
methodwas
method found
wasfound
was found
found toto
to produce
produce
produce 9%9%
9% fewer
feweraccumulated
accumulated errors, as
errors,
method. to produce 9% fewer
fewer accumulated
accumulated errors,
errors, asas
as shown
shown
shown in Figure
in
inFigure
Figure 12.
Figure The
12.
12.The proposed
The proposed
Theproposed
proposed method was
method
method thus
was thus confirmed
wasconfirmed
thus to
thus confirmed
confirmed to be
be more
to be
more accurate
more for
accurate for distance
accurate for
distance
shown in
estimation. 12. method was to be more accurate for distance
distance estimation.
estimation.
estimation.

Figure 11.
Figure11.
Figure Comparison
11.Comparison of
Comparisonof the
ofthe distance
thedistance estimation results
distance estimation
estimation results of
of the
the proposed
proposed method
proposed method and
methodand ReDEM
andReDEM [7].
ReDEM[7].
[7].
Figure 11. Comparison of the distance estimation results of the proposed method and ReDEM [7].

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Comparison
Figure12. Comparison
Comparisonof the accumulated
of the errorserrors
accumulated proposed
of the proposed method and
method
of the proposedand thetraditional
the
method traditional ReDEM
and theReDEM [7].
[7].
traditional
Figure 12.
ReDEM Comparison of the accumulated errors of the proposed method and the traditional ReDEM [7].
[7].
5.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Multiple
Multiple processes
processes are involved in the estimation of distances
distances in
in an
an FSC
FSC environment,
environment, such suchasas
noise
noise filtering,
filtering, RSSI
RSSI
Multiple processes revision,
processes are and distance
involved in in theestimation.
the estimation To
estimation of increase
increase
of distances the
the
distances in accuracy
accuracy
in an
an FSC of
of the
the estimations,
estimations,
FSC environment,
environment, such it
such itas
as
Multiple are involved
is
is necessary
necessary
noise filtering, to
to
filtering, RSSIimprove the
RSSI revision,
revision,andperformance
anddistance of each
distanceestimation. process.
process.
estimation.To Because
Because
Toincrease
increasethe the
the maximum
maximum
theaccuracy
accuracy and
and minimum
minimum
noise ofof
thethe estimations,
estimations, it
it is
is RSSIs
RSSIs are required
are
necessary required
to in advance
improve the to revise theofdistances,
performance each the distance
process.distance
Becauseestimation
estimation
the framework
framework
maximum and proposed
proposed
minimum
necessary to improve the performance of each process. Because the maximum and minimum RSSIs
in this
in
RSSIs this paper
arepaper consists
consists
required of two phases.
in advance to the
reviseThe
theoffline phasethe
distances, comprises
comprises
distance RSSI
RSSI measurement,
measurement,
estimation framework log-distance
log-distance
proposed
are required in advance to revise distances, the distance estimation framework proposed in this
revision, and Kalman are used to detect the maximum and
in this paper consists of two phases. The offline phase comprises RSSI measurement, signals.
revision, and Kalman filtering, which the maximum and minimum
minimum signals. The
The
log-distance
revision, and Kalman filtering, which are used to detect the maximum and minimum signals. The
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1136 9 of 9

paper consists of two phases. The offline phase comprises RSSI measurement, log-distance revision,
and Kalman filtering, which are used to detect the maximum and minimum signals. The online
phase comprises RSSI measurement, log-distance revision, Kalman filtering, and relative distance
estimation, which are used to estimate the distances based on the maximum and minimum signals.
The proposed distance estimation framework can be used for the identification of indoor locations.
The measured RSSIs are converted into signals that are proportional to their real transmission distances
using a log-distance path loss model, and Kalman filtering is used to eliminate the effect of signal
noise. The relative distances are then calculated by the relative distance estimation method using the
maximum and minimum distances. The performance of the Kalman filter in the proposed distance
estimation framework was evaluated by comparison with the use of RF-III, and the former was found
to produce 8% fewer accumulated errors.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the MSIP (Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning),
Korea, under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center) support program (IITP-2016-H8501-16-1014)
supervised by the IITP (Institute for Information & communications Technology Promotion).
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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