CARBOHYDRATE:

BIOSYNTHESIS AND
PHYSIOLOGY FUNCTION
Rani Sasmita
Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Lambung Mangkurat University
Email: ranisasmita@ulm.ac.id
Outlines:
A. Introduction to Carbohydrate Metabolism
B. Glycogenesis
C. Gluconeogenesis
D. Physiological Functions of Carbohydrates
 A. INTRODUCTION TO
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Sources of Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates
▪ Building block molecules = sugars
sugar - sugar - sugar - sugar - sugar
sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar sugar
Carbohydrates
▪ Function:
◆ quick energy
glucose
◆ energy storage
C6H12O6
◆ structure
▪ cell wall in plants
▪ Examples sucrose
◆ sugars
◆ starches
◆ cellulose (cell wall)
starch
Sugars = building blocks
▪ Names for sugars usually end in -ose
CH2OH
◆ glucose
H O H
◆ fructose H
OH H
HO OH
◆ sucrose
H OH
◆ maltose glucose
C6H12O6 fructose

sucrose
Metabolism: Anabolism vs. Catabolism
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism:
Anabolism Catabolism
• Glycogenesis = • Glycogenolysis =
glucose to glycogen glycogen to glucose

• Gluconeogenesis = • Glycolysis = glucose

non-carbohydrate
carbon substrates to pyruvic acid and
to glucose ATP.
B. GLYCOGENESIS
Glycogenesis

• Glycogenesis location are liver and muscles.

Diagram of Glycogenesis

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 Formation of Glucose-6-Phosphate
In glycogenesis
▪ Glucose is initially converted to
glucose-6-phosphate using ATP.
O
-
O P O CH2
O- O
OH
OH OH
OH

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 Formation of Glucose-1-Phosphate
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted
to glucose-1-phosphate.
O
-
O P O CH2 H O CH2
O- O O
O
OH OH
OH OH OH O P O-
OH OH O-

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 UDP-Glucose
UTP activates glucose-1-phosphate
to form UDP-glucose and
pyrophosphate (PPi).
O
CH2OH
H
O N
OH O O
O N
OH O P O P O CH2
O
OH O- O-

OH OH
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Glycogenesis: Glycogen
▪ The glucose in UDP-glucose adds to glycogen.
UDP-Glucose + glycogen glycogen-glucose + UDP
▪ The UDP reacts with ATP to regenerate UTP.
UDP + ATP UTP + ADP

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Glycogenesis
Five steps in glycogenesis:
1. Glucose to glucose 6-phosphate;
2. Glucose 6-phosphate to glucose 1-phosphate;
3. Glucose 1-phosphate to UDP glucose;
4. UDP glucose to glycogen chain;
5. Branching of glycogen then stored in all
tissues, liver & muscles.
When glycogenesis is occur?
C. GLUCONEOGENESIS
Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis

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 Utilization of Glucose
Glucose
▪ Is the primary
energy source for
the brain, skeletal
muscle, and red
blood cells.
▪ Deficiency can
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and nervous 24

system.
 Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis
Gluconeogenesis is
▪ The synthesis of glucose from carbon atoms of
noncarbohydrate compounds.
▪ Required when glycogen stores are depleted.

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 Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis

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Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis
In gluconeogenesis,
▪ Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrates such as lactate,
some amino acids, and glycerol after they are converted to
pyruvate or other intermediates.
▪ Seven reactions are the reverse of glycolysis and use the same
enzymes.
▪ Three reactions are not reversible.
Reaction 1 Hexokinase
Reaction 3 Phosphofructokinase
Reaction 10 Pyruvate kinase
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Gluconeogenesis: Pyruvate to
Phosphoenolpyruvate
▪ Pyruvate adds a carbon to form oxaloacetate by two
reactions that replace the reverse of reaction 10 of
glycolysis.
▪ Then a carbon is removed and a phosphate added to
form phosphoenolpyruvate.

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 Phosphoenolpyruvate to Fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate
▪ Phosphoenolpyruvate is converted to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate using the same enzymes in glycolysis.

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 Glucose Formation
Glucose forms when
▪ A loss of a phosphate from fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
forms fructose-6-phosphate and Pi.
▪ A reversible reaction converts fructose-6-phosphate to
glucose-6-phosphate.
▪ A phosphate is removed from glucose-6-phosphate.

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 Cori Cycle
The Cori cycle
▪ Is the flow of lactate and glucose between the muscles
and the liver.
▪ Occurs when anaerobic conditions occur in active
muscle and glycolysis produces lactate.
▪ Operates when lactate moves through the blood stream
to the liver, where it is oxidized back to pyruvate.
▪ Converts pyruvate to glucose, which is carried back to
the muscles.
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Pathways for Glucose

are derived from

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Regulation of Glycolysis and
Gluconeogenesis
Regulation occurs as
▪ High glucose levels and insulin promote glycolysis.
▪ Low glucose levels and glucagon promote
gluconeogenesis.

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Regulation of Glycolysis and
Gluconeogenesis
TABLE 22.2

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Gluconeogenesis
D. PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES
Physiological function of carbohydrate:
1. The monosaccharides include glucose, the
“blood sugar”; and ribose, an important
constituent of nucleotides and nucleic acids.
2. The disaccharides include maltose (glucosyl
glucose), an intermediate in the digestion of
starch; sucrose (glucosyl fructose), important
as a dietary constituent containing fructose;
and lactose (galactosyl glucose), in milk.
Physiological function of carbohydrate:
3. Starch and glycogen are storage polymers of
glucose in plants and animals, respectively.
Starch is the major source of energy in the diet.
Physiological function of carbohydrate:
4. Complex carbohydrates contain other sugar
derivatives such as amino sugars, uronic acids,
and sialic acids. They include proteoglycans
and glycosaminoglycans, associated with
structural elements of the tissues.
5. Glycoproteins, proteins containing attached
oligosaccharide chains. They are found in many
situations including the cell membrane..
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