Methods of Mathematical Physics (PH 301)

Lecture # 02 Date: September 30, 2021

The Review of Vector Analysis

   
A = Ax x + Ay y + Az z = (Ax , Ay , Az ) = (A1 , A2 , A3 );
   
B = Bx x + By y + Bz z = (Bx , By , Bz ) = (B1 , B2 , B3 );

Scalar/Dot Product

   
A · B = A B cosθ = B · A [ cos (- θ) = cosθ]
           
Example : x · x = 1 = y · y = z · z; x · y = 0 = y · z = z · x;
  3
A · B = A x B x + Ay B y + Az B z = A 1 B 1 + A2 B 2 + A3 B 3 = Σ A i B i = A i B i
i=1
[Einstein ' s summation convention : Summation over repeated indices]
 
A · B = Ai Bi = Aj Bj = Ak Bk [dummy indices]
  
Example : A · A = A2 = Ax Ax + Ay Ay + Az Az

Vector/Cross Product
    
A × B = A B sinθ n = - B × A [ sin (- θ) = - sinθ]

              
Example : x × x = 0 = y × y = z × z; x × y = z; y × z = x; z × x = y;

    
A × B = (Ay Bz - Az By ) x + (Az Bx - Ax Bz ) y + (Ax By - Ay Bx ) z
 
A × B = (A2 B3 - A3 B2 , A3 B1 - A1 B3 , A1 B2 - A2 B1 )
     
A × B = A2 B3 - A3 B2 ; A × B = A3 B1 - A1 B3 ; A × B = A1 B2 - A2 B1 ;
1 2 3

 
A × B = ϵijk Aj Bk ; ϵijk = Levi - Civita Symbol = completely antisymmetric
i
2 Lecture_06.nb

 
A × B = ϵ1 jk Aj Bk = ϵ11 k A1 Bk + ϵ12 k A2 Bk + ϵ13 k A3 Bk
1

 
A × B = (ϵ111 A1 B1 + ϵ112 A1 B2 + ϵ113 A1 B3 ) +
1
(ϵ121 A2 B1 + ϵ122 A2 B2 + ϵ123 A2 B3 ) + (ϵ131 A3 B1 + ϵ132 A3 B2 + ϵ133 A3 B3 ) = A2 B3 - A3 B2

⇒ ϵ111 = 0 = ϵ112 = ϵ113 = ϵ121 = ϵ122 = ϵ131 = ϵ133 & ϵ123 = 1; ϵ132 = - 1

 
A × B = ϵijk Aj Bk
i

Scalar-triple Product
   
A = Ax x + Ay y + Az z = (A1 , A2 , A3 );
   
B = Bx x + By y + Bz z = (B1 , B2 , B3 );
   
C = Cx x + Cy y + Cz z = C1 , C2 , C3 ;

A1 A2 A3
  
A · B × C = B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
    
A · B × C = Ai B × C = Ai ϵijk Bj Ck = ϵijk Ai Bj Ck
i

        
A · B × C = B · C × A = C · A × B

Vector-triple Product
           
A × B × C =? a B · C A + b A · C B + c A · B C

     
Since A × B × C is perpendicular to both A & B × C ⟹ a = 0

        
A × B × C = b A · C B + c A · B C

   
As B × C = - C × B ⟹ c = - b
        
A × B × C = bA · C B - A · B C

     
Let ' s take, A = y; B = z; C = y
            
y × z × y = y × - x = z = by · y z - y · z y = b z ⟹ b = 1

        
A × B × C = B A · C - C A · B [BAC - CAB rule]

        
A × B × Ci = B A · C - C A · Bi

     
ϵijk Aj B × C = Bi A · C - Ci A · B
k

ϵijk Aj ϵkmn Bm Cn = Bi Al Cl - Ci Al Bl

[ϵijk ϵkmn ] Aj Bm Cn = (δim Bm ) (δlj Aj ) δln Cn  - δin Cn  (δlj Aj ) (δlm Bm )

 Lecture_06.nb 3

[ϵijk ϵkmn ] Aj Bm Cn = [δim δlj δln - δin δlj δlm ] Aj Bm Cn

δlj δln = δjn ; δlj δlm = δjm ; [I I = I]

ϵijk ϵkmn = δim δjn - δin δjm

ϵijk ϵkjn = δij δjn - δin δjj ;

δjj = δ11 + δ22 + δ33 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 [Tr[I] = δjj = 3]

ϵijk ϵkjn = δin - 3 δin = - 2 δin

ϵijk ϵkjn = - 2 δin

ϵijk ϵkji = - 2 δii = - 2 3 = - 6

ϵijk ϵijk = 3 !

Consider two square matrices A & B

[C = A * B]ij ⟹ [C]ij = [A * B]ij = [A]ik [B]kj

δlj δln = δjn ; [I I = I]jn ⟹ [I I]jn = [I]jl [I]ln = [I]jn

[I I]jn = [I]jl [I]ln = [I]jn ⟹ δjl δln = δjn

ϵijk ϵlmn = δil δjm δkn + ...

six - permutations, [l m n, l n m, m l n, m n l, n l m, n m l ]

Understand, I vs Tr[I] ⟺ δij vs δii

 
Exercise : Show that ϵijk r × pk = ri pj - rj pi

Jacobi' s identity for vector products

Excercise : Show that
        
A × B × C + B × C × A + C × A × B = 0

Lecture # 03 Date: October 01, 2021

Rotation Matrix
What is a vector ?
4 Lecture_06.nb

Consider the position vector :

      
r = x x + y y + z z = x ' x ' + y ' y ' + z ' z ' [under rotation]

Anti - clockwise rotation about the z - axis :

x' cosφ sinφ 0 x

y' = - sinφ cosφ 0 y
z' 0 0 1 z
Roation about the y - axis :

x' cosφ 0 - sinφ x

y' = 0 1 0 y
z' sinφ 0 cosφ z
Rotation about the x - axis :

x' 1 0 0 x
y' = 0 cosφ sinφ y
z' 0 - sinφ cosφ z

This is also true for an arbitrary vector, A = (Ax , Ay , Az )

Rotation about the z - axis :

Ax ' cosφ sinφ 0 Ax

Ay ' = - sinφ cosφ 0 Ay
Az ' 0 0 1 Az

In matrix form : A' = R A

In component form : Ai ' = Rij Aj

cosφ - sinφ 0
 Ax ' A y ' A z '  =  A x Ay Az  sinφ cosφ 0
0 0 1
Ax ' cosφ - sinφ 0 cosφ sinφ 0 Ax
 Ax ' A y ' A z '  Ay ' =  A x Ay Az  sinφ cosφ 0 - sinφ cosφ 0 Ay
Az ' 0 0 1 0 0 1 Az
Cos[θ] - Sin[θ] 0 Cos[θ] Sin[θ] 0
Simplify Sin[θ] Cos[θ] 0 . - Sin[θ] Cos[θ] 0  // MatrixForm
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
 Lecture_06.nb 5


A2 = Ax '2 + Ay '2 + Az '2 = (Ax )2 + (Ay )2 + (Az )2

A 'T A ' = AT RT R A = AT A as RT R = I = R RT

RT R = Iij ⟹ RT Rij = [RT ]ik [R]kj = δij ⟹ Rki Rkj = δij = Rik Rjk

Considering, R T R = I, to be more general, we see that

DetRT R = I ⟹ DetRT R = Det[RT ] Det[R] = Det[I] = 1

Det[R]2 = 1 ⟹ Det[R] = ± 1 ⟹ Det[R] = + 1 ⟶ proper - rotation

cosφ sinφ 0
Det - sinφ cosφ 0  = 1
0 0 1
cosφ sinφ 0
Rr = - sinφ cosφ 0 ; [proper - rotation]
0 0 1
Cos[θ] Sin[θ] 0
SimplifyDet - Sin[θ] Cos[θ] 0 
0 0 1
x' -1 0 0 x
y' = 0 -1 0 y [space - inversion [improper rotation] or Parity]
z' 0 0 -1 z
-1 0 0
RP = 0 -1 0 ; Det[RP ] = - 1
0 0 -1
-1 0 0
Or RPx = 0 1 0 ; Det[RPx ] = - 1
0 0 1
RT R = I = R RT [Orthogonality Condition]
   
Axial vector : r , p, F, E
   
Pseudovector; L = r × p, B

 d          
F = p; Fm = q v × B; Fe = q E; dW = F.d r; τ = r × F;
dt
 
scalar : r · r, W
  
Pseudoscalar : A .B × C

Pseudos : S ' = J S; Ai ' = J Rij Aj ; Tij ' = J Rim Rjn Tmn ; [ J = Det[R]]

Tensors
Tij ~ Ai Bj [tensor of rank 2]

Ai ' = Rim Am & Bj ' = Rjn Bn ;

Tij ' ~ Ai ' Bj ' = Rim Am Rjn Bn = Rim Rjn (Am Bn )

Tij ' = Rim Rjn Tmn or Tij ' = Rim Tmn RT nj
6 Lecture_06.nb

Tij ' = R T RT ij ⟹ T ' = R T RT

Isotropic tensors [T ' = R T RT = T]

If T = I; then I ' = R I RT = R RT = I ⟹ δij is an isotropic tensor

In component form : δij = Rim Rjn δmn

What about the Levi - Civita ϵijk ?

R11 R12 R13

Consider Det[R] = R21 R22 R23
R31 R32 R33
Ri1 Ri2 Ri3
we can write, ϵijk Det[R] = Rj1 Rj2 Rj3 , or
Rk1 Rk2 Rk3
Ril Rim Rin
ϵijk ϵlmn Det[R] = Rjl Rjm Rjn [holds true for any arbitrary matrix R]
Rkl Rkm Rkn

If R = I then

δil δim δin

ϵijk ϵlmn = δjl δjm δjn
δkl δkm δkn

Excercise : Show that ϵijk = Det[R] Ril Rjm Rkn ϵlmn [isotropic pseudo - tensor]

ϵijk ' = J Ril Rjm Rkn ϵlmn = ϵijk

Tijkl ∝ (c1 δij δkl + c2 δik δjl + c3 δil δjk )

Tijkl = < Ai Bj Ck Dl >

           
∝ A · B C · D δij δkl + A · C B · D δik δjl + A · D C · B δil δjk 

    
Tijkmn = < Ai Bj Ck Dm En > ∝ A · B × C D · E ϵijk δmn + ...

Tijklmn = < Ai Bj Ck Dl Em Fn > ∝ [? ]

  
Excercise : Show that L = r × p is a pseudovector, i.e., Li ' = J Rij Lj
  
Excercise : Show that S = A · B × C is a pseudoscalar, i.e.,
  
S ' = J S if A , B & C are all vectors.

Lecture # 04 Date: October 02, 2021

Anti - clockwise roation about the z - axis :

x' cosφ sinφ 0 x

y' = - sinφ cosφ 0 y
z' 0 0 1 z
Roation about the y - axis :
 Lecture_06.nb 7

x' cosφ 0 - sinφ x

y' = 0 1 0 y
z' sinφ 0 cosφ z
Rotation about the x - axis :

x' 1 0 0 x
y' = 0 cosφ sinφ y
z' 0 - sinφ cosφ z

A formula which transforms a given coordinate


system by rotating it through a angle Φ about an axis n .

      
r ' = r cosΦ + n × r sinΦ + n n · r[1 - cosΦ]
[active anticlockwise - rotation]

Φ=φ [for passive anticlockwise - rotation]

xi ' = xi cosφ + ϵijk nj xk sinφ + ni (nj xj )[1 - cosφ] = Rij xj

Rij = δij cosφ + ϵijk nk sinφ + ni nj [1 - cosφ]

Excercise : show that Rik Rjk = δij for the above expression of Rij

xi ' = xi cosφ + ϵijk nj xk sinφ + ni (nj xj )[1 - cosφ] = Rij xj

 
Anti - clockwise roation about the z - axis : n = z; ni = 0, 0, 1

Rij = δij cosφ + ϵijk nk sinφ + ni nj [1 - cosφ]

R11 = δ11 cosφ + ϵ11 k nk sinφ + n1 n1 [1 - cosφ] = cosφ

R22 = δ22 cosφ + ϵ22 k nk sinφ + n2 n2 [1 - cosφ] = cosφ

R33 = δ33 cosφ + ϵ33 k nk sinφ + n3 n3 [1 - cosφ] = cosφ + [1 - cosφ] = 1

R12 = δ12 cosφ + ϵ12 k nk sinφ + n1 n2 [1 - cosφ] = ϵ123 n3 sinφ = sinφ

R21 = δ21 cosφ + ϵ21 k nk sinφ + n2 n1 [1 - cosφ] = ϵ213 n3 sinφ = - sinφ

R13 = δ13 cosφ + ϵ13 k nk sinφ + n1 n3 [1 - cosφ] = ϵ132 n2 sinφ = 0

cosφ sinφ 0
Rz = - sinφ cosφ 0
0 0 1
8 Lecture_06.nb

dx ' = ∂ x ' dx + ∂ x ' dy + ∂ x ' dz

∂x ∂y ∂z
   
Work done : dW = F · d r = Fi dxi ; F = - ∇ Φ [conservative force]

Displacement Vector; dxi ' = ∂ xi ' dxj ; Ai ' = ∂ xi ' Aj [contravariant]
∂ xj ∂ xj

∂ xj
Force Vector; Fi ' = -  ∂ Φ  ' = -  ∂ Φ '  = -  ∂ Φ  = - ∂Φ
∂ xi ∂ xi ' ∂ xi ' ∂ xi ' ∂ xj

Force Vector; Fi ' = 

∂ xj
 Fj Ai ' = ∂ xj Aj [covariant]
∂ xi ' ∂ xi '
∂ xj ∂x
Work done : dW = Fi ' dxi ' =   Fj  ∂ xi '  dxk = Fj  j  dxk = Fj (δjk ) dxk
∂ xi ' ∂ xk ∂ xk

Work done : dW = Fi ' dxi ' = Fi dxi

∂ xi ' ∂ xj
In general, ≠ 
∂ xj ∂ xi '
∂ xj
If ∂ xi ' = [Cartesian Tensors]
∂ xj ∂ xi '

xi ' = Rik xk ⟹ ∂ xi ' = Rik ∂ xk = Rik δjk = Rij  ∂ xk = δjk 

∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ xj

x' = R x ⟹ x = RT x ' ⟹ xi = RT x 'i = [RT ]ik xk ' = Rki xk '

∂ xj
xj = Rkj xk ; = Rij = ∂ xi '
∂ xi ' ∂ xj
∂ xj
A general relation between x ' & x which satifies ∂ xi ' = :
∂ xj ∂ xi '
∂ xj
xi ' = Rik xk + ai ⟹ ∂ xi ' =
∂ xj ∂ xi '

Lecture # 05 Date: October 08, 2021

Quotient Rule
"The quotient rule is a substitue for illegal division of tensors"

K*A = B ⟹ K = B [Algebraic Equation]

A
Ki Ai = B ⟶ 1; Kij Aj = Bi ⟶ 2

Kij Ajk = Bik ⟶ 3; Kijkl Aij = Bkl ⟶ (4)

Kij Ak = Bijk ⟶ (5);

where A & B are known tensors and K is an unknown quantity. Find the transformation properties of K
such that above equations hold in all (rotated ) Cartesian coordinate systems.
xi ' = Rik xk
 Lecture_06.nb 9

Let ' s consider 2 :

Kkl Al = Bk ⟶ 2

Given that Bi ' = Rik Bk & Aj ' = Rjl Al [Al = Rjl Aj '] & Kij ' Aj ' = Bi '

Kij ' Aj ' = Bi ' = Rik Bk (2)

= Rik (Kkl Al ) = Rik Kkl Rjl Aj ' = Rik Kkl Rjl Aj '

Kij ' - Rik Kkl Rjl  Aj ' = 0

As Aj is an arbitrary vector,

Kij ' = Rik Rjl Kkl ⟹ K is a second rank tensor.

Number of independent elements/components of a tensor

T : 1; Ti : 3; Tij : 9; Tijk : 27; , ....

N N + 1
Symmetric tensor : Sij = Sji : in N - dimensions
2
[S12 = S21 ; S13 = S31 ; S23 = S32 ; S11 ; S22 ; S33 ]
3 3 + 1
= 6 # of elements
2
Sij ' = Rik Rjl Skl = Sji

N N - 1
Anti - symmetric tensor : Aij = - Aji : in N - dimensions
2
[A12 = - A21 ; A13 = - A31 ; A23 = - A32 ; A11 = 0; A22 = 0; A33 = 0]
3 3 - 1
= 3 # of elements
2
Aij ' = Rik Rjl Akl = - Aji ⟹ Aii = 0 [Traceless]

Tij : T ' = R T RT ; Tr[T '] = TrR T RT  = TrRT R T = Tr[I T] = Tr[T]

Tii : Trace [contraction of indices] is invariant under rotation

Irreducible decomposition of tensor products

Tij = 1 [Tij + Tji ] + 1 [Tij - Tji ] = Sij + Aij
2 2

Sij = 1 [Tij + Tji ] = Sji ; Aij = 1 [Tij - Tji ] = - Aji

2 2
Note that Sii = Tii = Tr[T] but Aii = 0

Tij = 1 Tr[T] δij + Sij + Aij

3

Sij = Sij - 1 Tr[T] δij = Trace - less symmetric tensor

3

Sii = Sii - 1 Tr[T] δii = Tr[T] - 1 Tr[T] 3 = Tr[T] - Tr[T] = 0

3 3

Tij = 1 Tr[T] δij + Sij + Aij

3
10 Lecture_06.nb

3 × 3 = 9 = 1 + 5 + 3 ≠ [1 + 2 + 2 + 2, 3 + 3 + 3, ....]
   
Ai Bj = 1 A · B δij + Sij + ϵijk A × B
3
 
where 〈Ai Bj 〉 = 1 A · B δij = isotropic tensor
3
  
Ai Bj Cj = 1 A · B × C ϵijk + ...
6
  
where 〈Ai Bj Ck 〉 = 1 A · B × C ϵijk = isotropic tensor
6
3 × 3 × 3 = 27 = ?

Addition of Spins
j1 × j2 = j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 - 1, , , , j 1 - j2

J : 1 × 1 = 0 + 1; or 2j+1: 2×2 = 1+3

2 2
J : 1 × 1 = 0 + 1 + 2; or 2j+1: 3×3 = 1+3+5

J : 1 × 1 × 1 = 0 + 1 + 2 × 1 = 1 + 1 × 1 + 2 × 1 = 0 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3;
2 j + 1 : 3 × 3 × 3 = 1 + 1 + 3 + 5 + 3 + 5 + 7

3 × 3 × 3 = 27 = 1 + 1 + 3 + 5 + 3 + 5 + 7

Vector Differentiation

Gradient ∇

y = f (x); x is an independent variable

f (x); df =  ∂ f  dx
∂x

ϕ (x, y, z); dϕ =  ∂ ϕ  dx +  ∂ ϕ  dy +  ∂ ϕ  dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
     
dϕ =  ∂ ϕ  x +  ∂ ϕ  y +  ∂ ϕ  z · dx x + dy y + dz z
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
dϕ = ∇ ϕ · d r
       
∇ ϕ =  ∂ ϕ  x +  ∂ ϕ  y +  ∂ ϕ  z; d r = dx x + dy y + dz z;
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂  ∂  ∂
∇ =x +y +z
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example : ϕ (x, y, z) = r = x 2 + y2 + z2

 ∂ϕ = ∂ x 2 + y2 + z2 2x x
∇r = ? = =
∂x ∂x
2 x2 + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2
∂ϕ = x ; ∂ϕ = y ; ∂ϕ = z
∂x ∂y ∂z
x2 + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2
 Lecture_06.nb 11

 x  y  z 
∇ϕ = x+ y+ z;
x2 + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2

   
∇ r = 1 x x + y y + z z = r = r ⟹ ∇ r = r
   
r r

The rate of change of distance is maximum in r direction
 
Example : ϕ (x, y, z) = 1 ⟹ ∇ 1 = - 3 r2
r r r

The Divergence
       
∇ · V = x ∂ + y ∂ + z ∂  · Vx x + Vy y + Vz z
∂x ∂y ∂z
    ∂ Vy
∇ · V = x · x ∂ Vx + x · y + x · z ∂ Vz
   
∂x ∂x ∂x
  ∂ Vy
+ y · x ∂ Vx + y · y + y · z ∂ Vz
   
∂y ∂y ∂y
  ∂ Vy
+ z · x ∂ Vx + z · y + z · z ∂ Vz 
   
∂z ∂z ∂z
  ∂ Vy ∂ Vz
∇ · V =  ∂ Vx + + 
∂x ∂y ∂z

     
Example : V = r ⟹ ∇ · r = ∂ x + ∂ y + ∂ z = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 ⟹ ∇ · r ⩵ 3
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ ; 
Define, (∇ )i = ∇i = (r)i = xi
∂ xi
 
∇ · r = ∇i xi = ∂ xi = δii = 3
∂ xi
12 Lecture_06.nb

       
Laplacian : ∇ · ∇ = ∇2 = x ∂ + y ∂ + z ∂  · x ∂ + y ∂ + z ∂ 
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
  2 2 2
Laplacian : ∇ · ∇ = ∇2 = ∂ 2 + ∂ 2 + ∂ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
  2 2 2
∇ · ∇ ϕ = ∇2 ϕ = ∂ ϕ2 + ∂ ϕ2 + ∂ ϕ2
∂x ∂y ∂z
    2 2 2
∇ · ∇ V = ∇2 V = ∂ V2 + ∂ V2 + ∂ V2
∂x ∂y ∂z
     2 2 2
∇ · ∇ r = ∇2 r = ∂ r2 + ∂ r2 + ∂ r2 = 0;

Example : V = r;
∂x ∂y ∂z

Lecture # 06 Date: October 15, 2021

The Curl
       
∇ × V = x ∂ + y ∂ + z ∂  × Vx x + Vy y + Vz z
∂x ∂y ∂z
   ∂ Vz ∂ Vy  ∂V
 + y  ∂ Vx - ∂ Vz  + z  y - ∂ Vx 

∇ ×V = x -
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
Example : ∇ × r = 0
 
LHS = ∇ × ri = ϵijk ∇j xk = ϵijk ∂ xk = ϵijk δjk = 0
∂ xj
       
Example : ∇ × r = 0 & ∇ · r = 0 ∇ × x = 0 & ∇ · x = 0

Consider Sij = + Sji & Aij = - Aji

dummy
I = Sij Aij = Sji Aji = + Sij  (- Aij ) = - Sij Aij = - I ⟹ Sij Aij = 0

In matrix notation ST = S & AT = - A

I = Sij Aji = Tr[S A] = Tr[S A]T = TrS AT  = TrAT ST  = Tr[- A S] = - Tr[A S]

I = Sij Aji = - Tr[A S] = - Tr[S A] = - I ⟹ Tr[S A] = 0

     
1 ∇ · ϕ V = ∇ ϕ · V + ϕ ∇ · V

        
ϕ = 1 & V = r; ∇ ·r = ∇ · r = ∇ 1  · r + 1 ∇ · r

r r r r

       
∇ ·r = ∇ · r = ∇ 1  · r + 1 ∇ · r = - 3 r2  · r + 1 3 = - 3 + 3 = 0
 
r r r r r r r

 
∇ ·r = 0

     
2 ∇ × ϕ V = ∇ ϕ × V + ϕ ∇ × V
 
3 ∇ × ∇ ϕ = 0
 Lecture_06.nb 13

 
LHS = ∇ × ∇ ϕi = ϵijk ∇j ∇k ϕ = 0
contraction of symmetric and antisymmetric indices jk
  
4) ∇ · ∇ × V = 0
  
LHS = ∇ · ∇ × V = ϵijk ∇i ∇j Vk = 0
contraction of symmetric and antisymmetric indices jk

N N + 1
S(ij) : Sij = + Sji ⇒ # of independent elements
2!
Example : Inertia Tensor, Iij = Iij

Example : Energy Momentum Tensor, Tμν = Tνμ

Example : Metric Tensor, gμν = gνμ

Example : Einstein Tensor, Gμν = Gνμ

N N + 1 N + 2
S(ijk) : # of independent elements
3!
∂ gjk N N + 1
If gjk = gkj then : N× # of independent elements
∂ xi 2!

∂2 gij N N + 1 N N + 1
: × # of independent elements
∂ xm ∂ xn 2! 2!

∂3 gmn :
N N + 1 N N + 1 N + 3
× # of independent elements
∂ xi ∂ xj ∂ xk 2! 3!

Dual Tensors
N N - 1
A[ij] : Aij = - Aji ⇒ # of independent elements
2!

A[ij] ⟺ Ai = 1 ϵijk Ajk [Ai & Ajk are dual to each other]
2!
N N - 1 N - 2
A[ijk] : # of independent elements
3!

A[ijk] ⟺ A = 1 ϵijk Aijk [A & Aijk are dual to each other]

3!
  4 4 - 1
E, B ⟺ Fμν = - Fνμ  = 6 = 3 + 3 in N = 1 + 3 dimension
2

Riemann Tensor
1 Rμνρσ = - Rνμρσ

2 Rμνρσ = - Rμνσρ

3 Rμνρσ = + Rρσμν

4) Rμνρσ + Rμρσν + Rμσνρ = 0

Excercise. Find the number of the independent components of Rμνρσ satisfying the above conditions
14 Lecture_06.nb

Excercise : Find the number of the independent

components of the rotation matrix Rij in N dimensions satisfying the conditions :
Rik Rjk = δij

Lecture # 07 Date: October 16, 2021

Vector Integration
   
d r = x dx + y dy + z dz [in Cartesian coordinates]

Line Integral
    
 Φ d r,  v · d r, v× dr
C C C

   
 Φ d r = x  Φ dx + y  Φ dy + z  Φ dz
C C C C

   
Example: W = ∫ F · d r; F = -y 
x+x
y; d r = 
x dx + 
y dy

     
F · d r = - y x + x y · x dx + y dy = - ydx + xdy
   
∇ × F = 2 z ≠ 0 ⟹ F is not a conservative force

Curl[{- y, x, 0}, {x, y, z}]

{0, 0, 2}

W(0,0)⟶(1,1) = ?

I) WI(0,0)⟶(1,1) = W(0,0)⟶(1,0) + W(1,0)⟶(1,1)

II) WII
(0,0)⟶(1,1) = W(0,0)⟶(0,1) + W(0,1)⟶(1,1)

III) WIII
(0,0)⟶(1,1) = W(0,0)⟶(1,1)

1
 
I) W(0,0)⟶(1,0) = ? y = 0 ⟹ dy = 0 ⟹ W(0,0)⟶(1,0) =  x y · x dx = 0
0

1
  
I) W(1,0)⟶(1,1) = ? x = 1 ⟹ dx = 0 ⟹ W(1,0)⟶(1,1) =  - y x + y · y dy
0

1 1
  
I) W(1,0)⟶(1,1) =  - y x + y · y dy =  dy = 1
0 0

I) WI(0,0)⟶(1,1) = 1
 Lecture_06.nb 15

1
 
II) W(0,0)⟶(0,1) = ? x = 0 ⟹ dx = 0 ⟹ W(0,0)⟶(0,1) =  - y x · y dy = 0
0

1
  
II) W(0,1)⟶(1,1) = ? y = 1 ⟹ dy = 0 ⟹ W(0,1)⟶(1,1) =  - x + x y · x dx
0

1
II) W(0,1)⟶(1,1) =  - dx = - 1
0

II) WII
(0,0)⟶(1,1) = - 1

 
III) W(0,0)⟶(1,1) = ? y = x ⟹ dy = dx ⟹ F · d r = - xdx + xdx = 0

III) W(0,0)⟶(1,1) = 0

Surface Integral
    
 Φ d σ,  v · d σ, v× dσ
S S S

   
where d σ = x dydz + y dxdz + z dxdy

    
Example : Consider a unit cube : v = r = x x + y y + z z

 
v · d σ = x dydz + y dxdz + z dxdy

 
 v · d σ = ? x = 1 ⟹ dx = 0; y : 0 ⟶ 1; z : 0 ⟶ 1
S1

1 1
 
⟹  v · d σ =  dy  dz = 1
S1 0 0

   
 v · d σ = ? x = 0 ⟹ dx = 0; y : 0 ⟶ 1; z : 0 ⟶ 1 ⟹  v · d σ = 0
S2 S1

 
 v · d σ = ? y=1 ⟹ dy=0; x:0⟶1; z:0⟶1
S3

1 1
 
⟹  v · d σ =  dx  dz = 1
S3 0 0
16 Lecture_06.nb

 
 v · d σ = ? y=0 ⟹ dy=0; x:0⟶1; z:0⟶1
S4

 
⟹ v· dσ = 0
S4

 
 v · d σ = ? z=1 ⟹ dz=0; x:0⟶1; y:0⟶1
S5

1 1
 
⟹  v · d σ =  dx  dy = 1
S5 0 0

 
 v · d σ = ? z=0 ⟹ dz=0; x:0⟶1; y:0⟶1
S6

 
⟹ v· dσ = 0
S5

             
 v· dσ =  v· dσ+  v· dσ+  v· dσ+  v· dσ+  v· dσ+  v· dσ
S S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6

 
 v· dσ = 3
S

Volume Integral

 Φ dτ,  v dτ
V V

1 1 1
 
Example : Consider a unit cube : Φ = ∇ · r = 3 ⟹  3 dτ = 3  dx  dy  dz = 3
V 0 0 0

   
 v · d σ = 3 =  ∇ · r dτ
S V

Gradient Theorem
b
f (x) : df = ∂ f dx ⟹  df = f b - f (a)
∂x
a

b b
   
ϕ (x, y, z) : dϕ = ∇ ϕ · d r ⟹ Iab =  dϕ =  ∇ ϕ · d r = ϕ b - ϕ (a)
a a

Corollary I: Iab is independent of the path taken from a to b

Corollary II: Iab = 0 for a closed path
 Lecture_06.nb 17

 
Iaa =  ∇ ϕ · d r = 0

Gauss’ Theorem
   
IG =  ∇ · v dτ =  v · d σ
V S

Stokes’ Theorem
    
IS =  v · d r =  ∇ × v · d σ
C S

Corollary I: IS is independent of the shape of the surface chosen for boundary C

Corollary I: IS = 0 for a closed surface
  
 ∇ × v · d σ = 0
S


Example :  d σ =? 0
S

      
IG =  ∇ · v dτ =  v · d σ; v = c ϕ, where c is a constant vector
V S

       
∇ · ϕ c = ∇ ϕ · c + ϕ ∇ · c = ∇ ϕ · c

   
 ∇ ϕ · c dτ =  c ϕ · d σ;
V S

     
c ·  ∇ ϕ dτ = c ·  ϕ d σ = 0 if ϕ = 1 ⟹ c ·  d σ = 0
V S S


 dσ = 0
S


Example :  d r =? 0
C

    
 ∇ × v · d σ =  v · d r
S C

  
Now let v = c ϕ, where c is a constant vecotor
          
 ∇ × c ϕ · d a =  ∇ ϕ × c  · d a = -  c × ∇ ϕ · d a =  c ϕ · d r
S S S C
18 Lecture_06.nb

    
-  c · ∇ ϕ × d a =  c ϕ · d r
S C

      
c ·  ϕd r = -  c · ∇ ϕ × d a = 0 for ϕ = 1 ⟹ c ·  d r = 0
C S C


 dr =0
C
 Lecture_06.nb 19

  
Example: ∫ d a =? 1
2 ∮ r×d r
S C

    
 ∇ × v · d a =  v · d r
S C

   
Let v = c × r, where c is a constant vecotor

         
 ∇ × c × r · d a =  c × r · d r =  c · r × d r
S C C

Excercise. Prove the following identity using conponent notation

         
 c ∇ · r - c · ∇ r · d a =  c · r × d r
S C

       
∇ ·r = 3 & c · ∇ r = c c · ∇ xi = (cj ∇j ) xi = cj ∂ xi = cj δij = ci 
∂ xj

     
 3 c - c · d a =  c · r × d r
S C

c ·  d a = c · 1  r × d r
    
2
S C

 1  
 d a = 2  r × d r
S C