1) For the equality on the left hand side we show first (A∪B)c ⊂ Ac ∩B c .

If x ∈ (A∪B)c
then x 6∈ A ∪ B and so x is neither in A nor in B, but this means x ∈ Ac and x ∈ B c ,
and so x ∈ Ac ∩ B c .
For the inclusion Ac ∩ B c ⊂ (A ∪ B)c , let x be an element of Ac ∩ B c , i.e. x ∈ Ac
and x ∈ B c . This means x is neither in A nor in B and so not in A ∪ B. Hence x is
in (A ∪ B)c .
The equality (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c follows from the other already shown rule and the
fact (Dc )c = D for any subset D ⊂ X:
[ ]c
Ac ∪ B c = (Ac ∪ B c )c
[ ]c
= (Ac )c ∩ (B c )c by the other rule
= (A ∩ B)c .

R
2) Let ∼= ∼m .
Since m divides 0 = a − a we have a ∼ a and so Rm is reflexive. Symmetry follows
since if a − b = m · k for some integer k then b − a = −(a − b) = (−k) · m and so m
divides a − b if and only if it divides b − a.
Finally we show transitivity. Assume a ∼ b and b ∼ c, say a − b = m · k and
b − c = m · l. Then
a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = m · k + m · l = m · (k + l) ,
and so m divides a − c, which means a ∼ c.
3) As X contains at least 3 elements there are three different x, y, z in X. Set Y :=
X \ {x, y, z}. We define a function f : X −→ X by f (x) = y, f (y) = z, f (z) = x, and
f (a) = a for all a ∈ Y , and a function g : X −→ X by g(x) = x, g(y) = z, g(z) = y,
and g(a) = a for all a ∈ Y . These functions are bijective, and we have f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f as
f (g(x)) = y 6= z = g(f (x)) .

4) We show (a) =⇒ (b), (b) =⇒ (c), and then (c) =⇒ (a), which proves that all three
assertions are equivalent.

(a) =⇒ (b): This is clear since a bijective function is by definition one-to-one.

(b) =⇒ (c): The number of elements in the image of f is smaller or equal the cardinal-
ity of X. If it is smaller than |X| then there exist x 6= y ∈ X, such that f (x) = f (y),
but this is impossible if f is one-to-one. Hence the image of f contains as many
elements as X and so has to be equal X. This means f is onto.
(c) =⇒ (a): By definition the function f is bijective if it is onto and one-to-one. Hence
we only have to show that f is one-to-one. The map f being onto means that the
image of f contains as many elements as the finite set X, and so f (x) can not be
equal f (y) if x 6= y, i.e. f is one-to-one.
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This is wrong for infinite sets. For instance the map

f : N −→ N , n 7−→ n + 1
{ }
is injective but not surjective as 1 is not in the image of f (recall that N = 1, 2, 3, . . .
and so 0 6∈ N).