LYRA DENNISE B.

LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION a. Evaluation or direct results only (ex. exams)
b. Evaluation related to objectives and
1) Principle of Context – learning depends largely on the processes
setting particularly including the use of materials in c. Evaluation on total learning process and
which the process goes on with these scales of results
application:
a. Textbook only MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
b. Textbook with supplementary materials Instruction may be well-managed using any of these
c. Non-academic and current materials (newspapers, classifications of students:
clippings, articles, magazines, journals)
d. Multisensory aids – can be sensed by the five a) Homogeneous – learners are classified/grouped in terms
of similar elements such as age, abilities, interests,
senses
e. Demonstration and demonstration by experts physical characteristics etc.
f. Field experiences, personal, social and community b) Heterogeneous – no definite bases for clustering or
understanding putting learners together, could be on random sampling,
2) Principle of Focus – instruction must be organized about alphabetized family names, time of enrollment etc.
a focus or direction (focus is the main topic to be c) Non – Graded – no fixed grade/level assignment of
discussed) following these scales of application, and children. They come to center of learning by small groups
or individually depending on their pacing in the
where focus is established by:
a. Page assignment in textbook accomplishment of tasks.
b. Announced topic together with page or chapter TEACHING MODEL
references. • A term used by Bruce, Joyce to describe an overall
c. Broad concept or problem to be solved or a skill to approach or plan for instruction
be acquired to carry on understanding • Attributes of a teaching model:
3) Principle of Socialization – instruction depends upon the a) A coherent theoretical framework
social setting in which it is done b) An orientation toward what student should learn.
• It involves other students = working socially c) Specific teaching procedures and classroom
• Learning becomes competitive because of this structures
principle
• With these scales of application and where social DIFFERENCE AMONG THE TERMS TECHNIQUE, METHOD,
patterns are characterized by: STRATEGY, APPROACH AND PRINCIPLE
a. Submission
b. Contribution
PRINCIPLE
c. Cooperation
4) Principle of Individualization – instruction must progress APPROACH
in terms of the learners own purposes, aptitudes,
abilities and experimental procedures, following these
STRATEGY
scales of application and where individualization may be
done through:
METHOD
a. Differential performance in uniform task
b. Homogeneous grouping
c. Control plan TECHNIQUE
d. Individual instruction – depends on the learner’s
capability
e. Large units with optional related activities
f. Individual undertakings, stemming from and
contributing to the joint undertaking of the group The principle is the basis in knowing what approach, strategy,
of learners method, and technique to use
5) Principle of Sequence – instruction depends on effective
ordering of a series of learning task who moves from: • TECHNIQUE – the personal art and style of the teacher in
a. From meaningless → emergence of meaning carrying out the procedures of teaching.
o The teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing
b. From immediate → remote
the stages of a method
c. From concrete → symbolic
• METHOD – synonymous to procedure
d. From crude → discriminating
o The procedure employed to accomplish lesson
And where sequence comes through:
objectives
a. Logical succession of blocks of blocks of contents
o A series of related and progressive acts performed
(lesson/courses)
by a teacher and pupils to achieve the desired
o This talks about the chronological order of
objectives of the lesson
the topics to be discussed
o The established way or procedure of guiding the
o Some topics cannot be understood without
mental processes in mastering the subject matter
knowing the previous lesson
o Refers to a procedure employed to accomplish the
b. Knitting learning/ lessons/ course together by
lesson objective
introduction, previews, pretests, reviews
o A well – planned step – by – step procedure that is
c. Organized in terms of readiness
directed towards a desired learning outcome
d. Organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings
• STRATEGY – an over – all or general design on how the
6) Principle of Evaluation – learning is heightened by a valid
lesson will be executed or delivered
and discriminating appraisal of all its aspects,
o A set of decisions on what learning activities to
• This is very important because in here, we will
achieve an objective
know if we are effective as a teacher
o Can be a substitute to methodology
• Following these scales of application:
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING

• APPROACH – a set of correlative assumptions or • School facilities/equipments/technologies – the

viewpoints dealing with the nature of teaching and availability of the needed equipments, technologies,
learning tools for learning found in the right places
o One’s viewpoint toward teaching o Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) room
o Procedure that employs a variety of strategies to • Time-allotment – specified target frame for chosen
assess better understanding and effective learning
activities properly distributed to the entire period.
• PRINCIPLE – means a general or fundamental law,
• Safety precautions – students should feel that they are
doctrine or assumption
safe and out of danger in the school.
o A primary source or origin
o Rule or code of conduct. • School climate – learner should feel the warmth of the
teachers and classmate.
PURPOSES OF METHODS
• Make learning more efficient DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS
• Enable learner to think logically (A thousand teachers, A thousand methods)
• Facilitates smooth transition from one activity to another DIRECT APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH
• Serve as guide in preparing all the needed materials, 1. Makes use of 1. Makes use of
tasks and equipments. expository strategies exploratory strategies
• Approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid
waste of time and lapses. Expository – tell and Exploratory – teacher gives
• Make planning clear and precise, to prevent confusion, explain; teacher exposes guide points and students
unnecessary delays and time wastage. will continue learning by
2. Aimed at mastery of
• Help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the himself; teachers allow
knowledge and skills
lesson. students the student to
3. Teacher-oriented
• Add to a feeling of confidence and security for the explore
4. Direct transmission of
teacher and students. information from 2. Aimed at generating
teacher knowledge for
PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTING METHODS
5. Teacher-controlled experience
• Must be based on sound principles, laws and theories of
6. Highly structured 3. Leaner-centered
learning
7. Content-oriented 4. Students search for
• Must assist the learners to define their purposes and
8. Learner is passive, information with
motive. receives ready teacher’s supervision
• Must originate from the learners’ past experiences. information 5. Learner-controlled
• Must suit individual differences, needs, interests and 6. Flexibly organized
developmental maturity. 7. Experienced-oriented
• Must bring the learners to the world of diverse learning 8. Learner is active in
experiences search of information
o We should relate it to the students with their
reality METHODS OF TEACHING IN THE DIRECT/EXPOSITIVE
• Must stimulate the learners to think critically, analytically APPROACH
and creatively
o Consider the HOTS in the Bruce taxonomy I. DEDUCTIVE METHOD
• Must be challenging • Starts with generalization, principle, or rule that is then
• Must be flexible. applied to specific cases
• Must be consistent with the requirements of objectives. • Teacher is directly exposing the knowledge from her
• Must be appropriate with the content. • Features:
• Must give to way to varied students’ participation o Allows for clear understanding of generalization,
o If you give an activity today, make sure that the rules, formulas, etc.
activity you will be giving the next meeting is o Allows further development of generalizations,
different = variety rules, formulas, etc.
• Must consider to be undertaken to ensure gainful • When to Use:
learning o To test a rule
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING A METHOD o Answer questions or problems with reference to
certain rules or principles
• Learner’s ability – first and foremost consideration based
o To further develop generalization
on the nature/characteristics, age, maturity, abilities, etc.
• Steps:
• Teacher’s ability – must be personally and professionally 1. Statement of the problem – the teacher tells what
qualified to teach the problem which must be stimulating, realistic,
o Personal – this is the characteristic of a teacher; he relevant, and within the learner’s ability
or she must be ready to teach 2. Statement of the Generalization – recalling/stating
▪ One important quality: PATIENCE generalizations or rules which may help solve the
• Objective – expected outcome of the lesson in terms of problem
knowledge/skills and attitudes. 3. Inference – looking for the
• Subject Matter – content to be taken so that the desired principle/rule/generalization that fits the problem
outcome will be achieved. 4. Verification – trying out the best generalization,
rule, or principle that establish validity of the
• Pre-requisite learning – students’ experiences that can
problem using references/materials
help facilitate acquisition of new knowledge, skills and
attitudes. II. CONCEPT TEACHING
• Classroom setup – must be inviting to students and • It is based on the assumption (Bruner 1984) that concept
conducive to learning formation begins at an early stage (9 to 12 months)
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING
where initial activities of object – sorting and preference
serve as bases for concept learning
• Bruner identified concept mode of learning:
o Learning by doing (enactive learning)
o Learning by doing mental images (iconic mode)
o Learning by through series of abstract symbols
(symbolic mode)
• May either be:
a) Concept Attainment – focuses on teaching pupils
the concepts that the teacher has selected for
study and follows these steps:
1. Introduce the concept by name
2. Present examples
3. Introduce non-examples
4. Present a mixture of examples and non-
examples and ask questions which are the
correct examples
5. Ask pupils to define the concept
6. Ask pupils to find another example of the
concept
b) Concept Formation Method – focuses on the
process of concept development/thinking skills
development which follows the following steps:
1. Teachers provide stimulus in the form of a
question or a problem.
2. Pupils provide a number of answers and
categorize them.
3. Pupils label the categorized responses.
• Steps in Concept Teaching Method:
1. Define the objectives of the lesson to get students
ready to learn
2. Giving of examples and non-examples which help
strengthen understanding
3. Testing the attainment of understanding
4. Analysis of students thinking and integration of
learning through further questioning and focused
discussion
5. Diagnostic testing reveals errors on misconception
which calls for a re-teaching
III. DIRECT INSTRUCTION/SHOWING METHOD
• A teacher-centered strategy that uses teacher
explanation and modelling combined with student
practice and feedback to teach concept and skills. It is
designed to teach skills, concepts, principles and rules
with emphasis on active teaching and high levels of
student involvement
• Features:
1. Widely applicable in different content areas
2. Establishes pattern of interaction between
teachers and students
3. Assists students to learn procedural knowledge
4. Promotes learning of declarative knowledge
5. Focuses student’s attention on specific
content/skill
6. Ensures mastery skills
• When to Use:
o For teaching concept and skills
• Steps:
1. Introduction – reviewing prior learning with
students, sharing learning goals providing rationale
for new content.
2. Presentation – explaining new concept or
modelling the skill
4. Guided practice with necessary feedback –
providing students necessary opportunities to
practice new skill or categorize examples of new
concept
5. Independent practice – students practicing the skill
or concept learned for retention and transfer.
IV. LECTURE-DISCUSSION METHOD
• Designed to help learner link new with the prior learning
and relate the different parts of new learning to each
other
• Designed to overcome the most important weaknesses
of the lecture method by strongly emphasizing learner
involvement in the learning process
LECTURE
• Designed to help students learn organized bodies of
knowledge.
• Is a teacher- directed method designed to help learners
understand relationship in organized bodies of
knowledge.
• As opposed to content- specific models that focus on
individual concepts, this model attempts to help students
understand not only concepts but how they are related.
• Grounded in schema theory and David Ausubel’s concept
of meaningful verbal learning.
• Features:
o Applicable in different subject areas.
o Ensures clear understanding of information.
o Allows students participation.
• When to use:
o When conveying/disseminating important
information which may not available to students or
which may be needed to be presented in a
particular way
o For stimulating interest
o For guiding students reading
o For explaining difficult text
o For aiding students to summarize and synthesize
discussions
• Steps:
1) Planning
▪ Identifying goals.
▪ Diagnosing (?) student’s background
▪ Structuring content
▪ Preparing advance organizers
2) Implementing
▪ Introduction – describing the purpose of the
lesson, sharing of objectives and overview to
help students see the organization of the
lesson
▪ Presentation – defining and explaining the
major ideas
▪ Comprehension monitoring – determining
whether or not students understand
concepts and ideas
▪ Integration – exploring interconnections
between important ideas
▪ Review and Closure – summarizing the
lecture
DISCUSSION
• Is an orderly process of face-to-face group interaction in
which students/pupils exchange ideas about an issue of
the purpose of answering, question, enhancing their
knowledge or understanding or making decision
• It can be viewed as a bridge between direct instruction
and student-centered instruction
• Five logical conditions to ensure that exchange is called
discussion (Bridges 1960)
1. People must talk to one another.
2. People must listen to one another
▪ No one should be dominating against each
other)
3. People must respond to one another
4. People must be collectively share to put forward
more than one point of view
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING

5. People must the intention of developing their DEMONSTRATION

knowledge, understanding or judgement of the • A tell and show method:
issue under discussion • Steps:
• For discussion to be successful participants need certain: 1) Preparation
1. Moral disposition ▪ Motivation
▪ Being willing to listen to reason (It will ▪ Identify objectives/problems/ procedures
prevent pre-judgement) 2) Explanation of Concept Process by the Teacher
▪ Being willing to abide by rules that facilitate ▪ Students observed and take down notes.
exchange of ideas. 3) Discussion of Students Observation
2. Intellectual disposition ▪ Answering Problems
▪ Concern for clarity in the expression of 4) Verifications
ideas. ▪ Justification
▪ Concern that an appropriate variety of ▪ Conclusion – based from your explanation
perspective is considered by the group.
• When to Use as a Teaching Strategy: INDIRECT/GUIDED/EXPLORATORY OR EXPIRIMENTAL
o It can be used in any subject at any level from STRATEGIES
kinder to post graduate study • The indirect approach is a student-centered approach or
o It can involve the whole class or it can be used with less explicit teaching method
small groups • It involves the building of independent learning and
o When the teacher needs to facilitate any or all of developing self-concept
the 4 types of learning outcomes • It develops students to become self-directed learners,
▪ General subject mastery critical thinkers and problem solvers
▪ Problem-solving ability • Features:
▪ Moral development o Learner-centered, learners exercise initiative in the
▪ Communication skills process
o When students need to be motivated to talk about o Process of learning is perceived to be as important
the subject inside and outside the classroom. as the outcome
o When teacher wants students to work together o Learning is applied as it is acquired, not stored for
and share their ideas by talking about them future use
publicly (Cockburn and Ross 1980) o The development of specific intellectual skills is
better than merely covering specified elements of
Advantages Disadvantages subject matter
1. Because it’s an active 1. Without control over
learning process, it is the discussion, talkative Types of Teaching Method:
more likely to maintain students could easily Explicit – teacher-centered; the teacher is directly teaching
student’s interest. dominate and influence Implicit – student-centered; the teacher is just implying
2. Active involvement in the group to accept something and let the students generate knowledge from
learning motivates their ideas. it
students especially 2. If not guided well, there
when they see that will be opportunities for • When to Use:
others value their students to stay away o When the teacher feels the need for the students
contributions and from the topic and to develop self-reliance and intellectual skills
respect their point of waste time. related to critical thinking and problem solving
views. 3. Some students maybe
I. INQUIRY TEACHING
3. More opportunities for reluctant to participate
practice and use of the in the discussion for • Research is an inquiry teaching
language as well as fear of being ridiculed • A process of answering questions and solving problems
expression of ideas and for their ideas or based on facts and observations
opinions among opinions. • Strategy designed to teach students how to investigate
students. problems and questions with facts
• Features:
• Using discussion in conjunction with other teaching o Helps students find answers to their own questions
strategies: in scientific manner
1) Direct instruction – as part of the direct instruction o Helps develop higher-order and critical thinking
lesson, a discussion could be used to explore an skills
issue for a short time (15 minutes) o Promotes independent learning
2) Group work – interactions between students are • When to Use:
an integral part of small group learning, and this o When there are real life problems or questions that
process can often be enhanced by asking students must be answered through facts and observation
to follow a set of discussion rules o For topics requiring higher order of thinking
3) Cooperative learning – some forms of co-operative • Steps:
leaning (such as jigsaw) can be enhanced by 1) Presenting/Identifying the question or problem
structured discussion within the learning groups. ▪ Presenting or identifying a problem either by
4) Problem solving – when you are using problem the teacher or by the students, explaining or
solving as teaching strategy, discussion can be used clarifying the problems by the students to
to help students understand the nature of the ensure clear understanding.
problem to help them generate possible solutions 2) Forming Hypothesis
and as a forum for comparing the relative merits of ▪ Formulating intelligent guesses or tentative
various solutions to the problem solutions or generalizations.
3) Data Gathering
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING
▪ Gathering necessary facts, information or
evidences related to the problem.
4) Data Analysis/Assessing Hypothesis
▪ Closely studying/analysing of the data
gathered to prove or disprove the
hypotheses.
5) Generalizing
▪ Making generalization based on the careful
analysis of the data gathered.
• Strategies for Inquiry Teaching
A. Interview – may be used in all subjects.
1. Introduction – presenting a new or additional
knowledge or information, identifying
interviews, and making plans including
questions to ask, procedure for recording,
etc.
2. Development – conducting the interview as
planned
3. Conclusion – summarizing data and report
findings to solve problems
4. Evaluation – assessing the address of the
interview conducted
B. Field Trips - an out-of-the-classroom activity
intended to present concepts in the most realistic
manner. It may be used across levels in any subject
area
1. Introduction – clarifying objectives of the
activity, panning and assigning tasks to be
carried out and reviewing standards of
behavior
2. Development – field trip proper, checking on
student’s activities, accomplishments and
behavior
3. Conclusion – summarizing the data and
report findings, stating main idea or other
conclusions, sending letter of thanks.
4. Evaluation – assessing the finished activity
II. INDUCTIVE METHOD
• A procedure through which one arrives at a fact,
principle, rule or generalization from specific cases of
examples
• Features:
o Designed to help students develop higher order
and critical thinking while learning specific content
at the same time
o Requires teacher’s questioning skills
o Promotes high level of student involvement
o Increase student motivation
• Steps:
1. Preparation – reviewing of old facts, setting of
goals, stating of aims.
2. Presentation – presentation of cases and examples.
3. Comparison and abstraction – deducing common
elements among the cases or samples presented.
4. Stating of generalization – rule, definition, principle
or formula based on the common elements
deduced from cases presented.
5. Application – applying the generalization or rule
learned to other problems within or beyond the
classroom setting.
III. PROBLEM SOLVING
• A purposeful activity aimed at removing difficulty or
perplexity through a process of reasoning
• Features:
o Allows for students’ active involvement resulting in
meaningful experiences
o Develops independence and higher-level thinking
skills
o Promotes open-mindedness and wise judgement
• When to Use:
o For lessons where learners find problems requiring
o For developing higher-level thinking skills
• Steps:
1. Recognition and statement of the problem – with
teacher’s guidance and stimulus, the students
define or recognize a problem
2. Statement of Hypothesis – students make
temporary answer and solution to the question or
problem
3. Critical Evaluation of Suggested Solution – with the
teacher’s guidance, students test hypotheses or
data used in solving the problem, formulate
conclusions and summarize their findings
4. Verification of accepted solutions – checking,
verifying and applying results to other problems.
IV. PROJECT METHOD
• A purposeful, natural, significant constructive activity
needing both intellectual and physical solutions
• Project may be:
o Physical or material – such as repairing a radio
o Learning Project – like composing a poem or a
short story
o Intellectual or problem project – such as identifying
ornamental plants which can be medicinal
• Features:
o Develops student’s thinking and manipulative skills
o Develops creativity and resourcefulness, initiative,
industry and responsibility
o Allows students to express in their own way the
concepts they have learned
o Can enhance cooperation and sharing of ideas
• When to Use:
o For application of concepts
o For discovering concepts
o For developing creativity and thinking skills
o For real life problems/situations
• Steps:
o Purposing – determining the nature and the goals
of the project
o Planning – designing of strategies to be employed
in carrying out the project
o Executing – carrying out of activities as planned
o Evaluating – displaying and judging of finished
products
V. LABORATORY METHOD OR RESEARCH METHOD
• Deal with first hand experiences regarding materials or
facts obtained from investigation or experimentations
• Types:
o Experimental – aims to train students in problem
solving with incidental acquisition of information
and motor skills, emphasis is on discovery, original
procedure, and solution of problems
o Observational Type – the aims is on the acquisition
of facts. Activities would include visits to museums,
exhibits or galleries, watching documentaries,
going on field trips
• Features:
o To promote information acquisition through
observation, experimental solutions to problems
guided by reflective thinking and acquisition of skill
in manipulation
o Provides students opportunities to conduct or
participate in original research
o Develops skill in using laboratory equipment and
instrument
o Enhances higher order thinking skills
• Steps:
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING

1. Orientation/Motivation – motivating and informing everyone knows the comprehension,

students on the work to be done, why should it be answer, then one tutoring
done and giving precise and explicit directions student is called upon to
2. Work Period – students are allowed to work on answer
their own either individually or in groups with the Color Student memorized Memorizing facts,
teacher supervising coded co- facts using a flash card helping, praising
3. Culminating activities – organizing, presenting and op – cards game. The game is
exhibiting of the completed work structured so that there
is a maximum
VI. CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
probability of success at
• An inductive teaching strategy designed to help students each step moving from
reinforce their understanding of concepts and practice
short term to long term
hypothesis testing hypothesis based on positive and memory. Scoring is
negative examples presented to them based on improvement.
• Features: Praise Students work in pairs Practicing skills,
o Encourages students to think freely. check of four. Within pairs helping, praising
o Train students to develop hypothesis. students alternate – one
o Train students to formulate definition or solves a problem while
generalization. the other coaches. After
o Promotes student participation every two problems, the
• When to Use pair checks to see if they
o For making hypothesis have the same answers
o For formulating hypothesis / definition as the other pair
o For development of critical thinking through E. Concept Development
hypothesis testing Three- Students interview each Sharing personal
• Steps: Step other in pairs, first one information such
1. Presenting of Examples – positive and negative Interview way, then the other. as hypotheses,
examples are presented and hypotheses are Students each share reactions to a
generated. with the group poem, conclusions
2. Analysis of Hypotheses – hypotheses are analyzed information they from a unit
in light of the examples given. learned in the interview.
3. Closure – examples are continuously analyzed to Think-Pair Students think to Generating and
generate critical characteristics and form of Share themselves on a topic revising
definition. provided by the teacher; hypotheses,
4. Application – additional examples are provided and they pair up with inductive
analyzed in terms of definition formed. another student to reasoning,
OVERVIEW OF SELECTED STRUCTURES IN COOPERATIVE discuss it; they then deductive
LEARNING share their thoughts reasoning,
with the class application,
Academic and participation,
Structure Brief Description
Social Function involvement
A. Team Building Team Students write Analysis of
Round Each student in turn Expressing ideas Word – simultaneously on a concepts into
Robin shares something with or opinions, Webbing piece of chart paper, components,
his or her team creation of stories, drawing main concepts, understanding
getting acquainted supporting elements, multiple relations
with team mates and bridges among ideas,
B. Class Building representing the differentiating
Comers Each student moves to a Seeing other relation of ideas in a concepts, role-
comer of the room alternative concept taking
representing a teacher – hypothesis, F. Multifunctional
determined alternative. values, problem Round Each student in turn Assessing prior
Students discuss within solving Table writes one answer as a knowledge,
comers, then listen to approaches paper and a pencil are practicing skills,
and paraphrase ideas passed around the recalling
from the other corner group. With information,
C. Communication Building simultaneous creating
Match Students attempt to Vocabulary roundtable more than cooperative art,
Mine match the arrangement development, one pencil and paper team building,
of object on a grid of communication are used at once participation of all
another student using skills, role-taking Inside – Students stand in pairs Checking for
oral communication ability outside in two concentric understanding,
only circle circles. The inside circle review,
faces out, the outside processing,
circle faces in. Students helping, tutoring,
use flashcard or respond sharing, meeting,
D. Mastery to teacher questions as classmates
Numbered The teacher asks a Review, checking they rotate to each new
Heads question, students for knowledge, partner
Together consult to make
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF LEARNING

Partners Students work in pairs Mastery and

to create or master presentation of
content. They consult new material,
with partners from concept,
other teams. They then development.
share their products or Presentation and
understanding with the communication
other partner in their skills.
team.
Jigsaw Each student on the Acquisition and
team becomes an presentation of
“expert” on one topic by new material,
working with members review, informed
from the other teams debate.
assigned the Interdependence,
corresponding expert status
topic. Upon returning to equalization
their teams, each one in
turn teaches the group,
and the students are all
assessed on all aspects
of the topic.
Co-op – Students work in groups Learning and
Co-op to produce a particular sharing complex
group product to share material, often
with the whole class. with multiple
Each student makes a sources,
particular contribution evaluation,
to the group. application,
analysis, synthesis

Correct any wrong information for your own good

LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
What is a Classroom Management?
• It is the provision and procedure necessary to create
and maintain a classroom community in which
teaching and learning can occur
Establishing the Physical & Psychological Environment
Two elements that teaching can manipulate:
1. Physical Environment – the shape and size of the
classroom, the seating arrangement, location and
availability of classroom
2. Psychological Environment – this is known as the
classroom climate → emotional tone, comfort level
with the teacher, learning task, and the social group
PLANNING THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
• Effective classroom management starts with decisions
about how you arrange your classroom and your
student’s places and their attitudes towards school and
learning
Seating Patterns
• Seating arrangement affects the interaction of the
students and the teacher
• No single seating arrangement is ideal for all classes,
learning situations, or individuals (Dunn 2001)
• The best arrangement has wide walkways so that
teacher can move among students for monitoring
• Arrangement may be modified later based on students’
characteristics and the level of interaction
Equipment and Materials
• Students should have the access to resources and
supplies without reaching across the other student’s
desk or chairs or crowding their chairs
• Putting the wastebasket creates congestion
• Provide chairs for left-handed students
Room Arrangement
• A pleasant and comfortable physical environment is
important to students with low self esteem or history
of school failure, or who are at the risk of failing or
leaving the school
• Consider also the types of instructional activities that
will occur in the classroom
PLANNING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
• A positive learning environment promotes cooperative
working relationships and helps prevent discipline
problems
• Three aspects of psychological environment:
o Emotional affect or tone
o Task orientation
o Organization
Establishing Rules and Routines
• Effective classroom management is proactive (to
prevent the occurrence of problem behavior)
• Classroom rules are directions that teach prosocial
behaviors by the predictable structure of the classroom
o Prosocial behaviors are those intended to help
other people
• Classroom routines are established procedures that
direct and coordinate how students move and how
events occur
Developing Classroom Rules
• Rules alone without management plan that includes
classroom routines, individual responsibilities, and
disciple strategy have marginal effect on behavior
• Effective, inviting classroom is built on trust and respect
• Rules should communicate that student’s perspective
and inputs are the essential part of the establishing the
learning community
Rewarding and Reinforcing Students
• To maintain a good learning environment is to use
reinforcement and rewards. Incentives and rewards add
interest and excitement in the classroom rotines while
directing to prosocial behaviors.
• Operant Conditionining – behavior that is rewarded is
strengthened by repeated acts
Reacting to Misbehaviors
• Why students misbehave?
o Seeking attention
o Seeking power
o Seeking revenge
o Seeking isolation
• Some misbehaviors are sometimes caused by the
teacher:
o Inadequate preparation
o Differential treatment of students
o Verbal abuse
o Teacher responds unfairly
• Deciding how to act to misbehavior
o Teachers who are good classroom managers are
also good decision makers (Bellon, Blank)
o Teacher must decide as to what extent the
intervention will interrupt and intervene with the
instructional activity
o (Doyle, 1986) warns that interrupting the lesson
in dealing with misbehavior is inherently risky
since it distracts the ongoing instruction
TYPES OF INTERVENTION
• Intervention is something undesirable, painful, or
discomforting that is applied to a student in response
to misbehavior
• Punishment, an intervention that is intended to
weaken the likelihood that inappropriate behavior will
occur
Strategies of Classroom Intervention:
1) Extinction – effective teachers are aware of but
generally choose not to react to minor distractions and
instances of inattention
• Example: If a student misbehaves to gain the
teacher’s attention and that attention is
withheld, it is unlikely the behavior will disappear
2) Mild Desists – effective managers deal with potentially
serious disruptions early using nonverbal interactions
and mild desists – nonverbal strategies: eye contact,
shaking the head, facing expressions, moving closer,
touching or gesturing, and directing attention
• Subtle verbal desists are also effective – slowing
your speaking rate and pronouncing more
distinctly
3) Reprimands
• Talk students in private rather than front of the
class
• Make sure that student understand why the
behavior is unacceptable
• Warn the students about the consequences of
continuing behavior
4) Time-out reduces unwanted behavior by removing the
offending student from the situation. During the time
out, the student may be excluded from the activity.
This is effective for students who are attention seeker
5) Severe punishment – state laws of school policy may
be used that teacher has to work with administrators
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
• Teachers using negative punitive approaches
generally finds students more aggressive and
unsettled and less concerned with learning which
is counterproductive to the learning community
Guidelines in Using Intervention In the Classroom
1. Use intervention quickly
2. Use intervention after careful considerations
3. Use punishment related to the misbehavior
4. Avoid complex, time consuming intervention systems
5. Use severe punishment sparingly
“Effective Classroom Managers are not Born, They are
made”
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
To start the process, you need to ask some critical
questions:
1. What is the purpose of the test? Why am I creating this
test or why was it created by someone else? For an
evaluation of overall-proficiency? To place students
into a course? To measure achievement within a
course?
2. What are the objectives of the test? What specifically
am I trying to find out?
3. How will the test specifications reflect both the
purpose and the objectives?
4. How will the test tasks be selected the separate items
arranged?
5. What kind of scoring, grading, and/or feedback is
expected?
WHAT IS TEACHING?
• Teaching is regarded as both an art and science.
• As an art, it lays stress on the imaginative and artistic
abilities of the teacher in creating a worthwhile
situation in the classroom to enable students to learn.
• As a science, it sheds light on the logical, mechanical,
or procedural steps to be followed to attain an
effective achievement of goals.
• Different educationists hold different ideas regarding
the concept of teaching
WHAT IS A TEST?
• A test, in simple terms, is a method of measuring a
person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a given
domain (Brown, 2010)
• Tests are prepared administrative procedures that
occur at identifiable times in a curriculum when
learners muster all their faculties to offer peak
performance, knowing that their responses are being
measured and evaluated
A test is useful in:
a) Learning – measure student’s ability to discover how
much they have been learning, to diagnose student’s
strengths and weaknesses in learning, to diagnose
student’s strengths and weaknesses, and to motivate
students in learning
b) Teaching – as a means to ensure effective teaching to
improve teaching quality, to obtain feedback on
student’s learning
WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?
• It is an on-going process that encompasses a much
wider domain.
• Whenever a student responds to a question, offers a
comment, or tries out a new word or structure, the
teacher subconsciously makes an assessment of the
student’s performance
• Assessment refers to a related series of measures used
to determine a complex attribute of an individual or
group of individuals. This involves gathering and
interpreting information about student level of
attainment of learning goal (Brown, 2010)
Why assessment is important?
• It drives students learning (Brown 1990)
• Good assessment can help students become more
effective self-directed learners (Darling-Hammond
2006)
How is a test related to assessment?
• Tests are a subset of assessment; they are certainly not
the only form of assessment that a teacher can make
• Tests can be useful devices but they are only one
among many procedures and tasks that teachers can
ultimately use to assess students
Types of Assessments
a) Formative Assessment
• It is designed to assist the learning process by
providing feedback to the learner, which can be
used to identify strengths and weakness and
hence, improve future performance
• It is most appropriate where the results are to be
used internally by those involved in the learning
process (students, teachers, curriculum
developers)
b) Summative Assessment
• It is used primarily to make decisions for grading
or determine readiness for progression
• Typically, summative assessment occurs at the
end of an educational activity and is designed to
judge the learner’s overall performance
• It is used to communicate student’s abilities to
external stakeholders, e.g., administrators and
employers (Darling-Hammond, 2006)
Epistemology of Assessment and Evaluation
• According to the Webster Dictionary (2017), assessment
means appraisal. Then, according to the same
dictionary, evaluation is estimation or determining the
value of something. So, these processes are used in the
field of education very often to test the quality of
teaching and learning processes.
• That is done to let the educational institutes find out
what more can be done to improve the education
offered by those educational institutes
WHAT IS EVALUATION?
• It is determining the value of something
• In the field of education, evaluation means measuring
or observing the process to judge it or to determine it
for its value by comparing it to other or some kind of a
standard (Weir & Roberts, 1994)
• The focus of the evaluation is on grades. It is rather a
final process that is determined to understand the
quality of the process. The quality of the process is
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
mostly determined by grades. That is such an
evaluation can come as a paper that is given grades.
• Evaluation is comparing a student's achievement with
other students or with a set of standards (Howard &
Donaghue 2015). It refers to consideration of evidence
in the light of value standards and in terms of the
particular situations and the goals, which the group or
individuals are striving to attain
• Evaluation can, and should, however, be used as an
ongoing management and learning tool to improve
learning, including five basic components according to
Kizlik (2010):
o Articulating the purpose of the educational
system
o Identifying and collecting relevant information
o Having ideas that are valuable and useful to
learners in their lives and professions.
o Analyzing and interpreting information for
learners.
o Classroom management or classroom decision
making
Principles of Evaluation
• Effective evaluation is a continuous, on-going process.
o Much more than determining the outcome of
learning, it is rather a way of gauging learning
over time
o Learning and evaluation are never completed;
they are always evolving and developing
• A variety of evaluative tools is necessary to provide the
most accurate assessment of students' learning and
progress
o Dependence on one type of tool to the exclusion
of others deprives students of valuable learning
opportunities and robs you of measures that
help both students and the overall program grow
• Evaluation must be a collaborative activity between
teachers and students.
o Students must be able to assume an active role
in evaluation so they can begin to develop
individual responsibilities for development and
self-monitoring
• Evaluation needs to be authentic.
o It must be based on the natural activities and
processes students do both in the classroom and
in their everyday lives.
o For example, relying solely on formalized testing
procedures might send a signal to children that
learning is simply a search for “right answers.”
But now, you might be thinking, if you make assessments
every time you teach something in the classroom, does all
teaching involve assessment? Are teachers constantly
assessing students with no interaction that is assessment-
free?
The answer depends on your perspective. For optimal
learning to take place, students in the classroom must have
the freedom to experiment, to try out their own hypotheses
about their learning without feeling that their overall
competence is being judged in terms of those trials and
errors.
Principles of Assessment
How do you know if a test is effective?
✓ Practicality
✓ Reliability
✓ Validity
✓ Authenticity
Practicality
• An effective test is Practical. This means that it:
o Is not excessively expensive
o Stays within appropriate time constraints
o Relatively easy to administer
o Has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is
specific and time-efficient
Reliability
• A reliable test is consistent and dependable
o If you give the same test to the same student or
matched students on two different occasions, the
test should yield similar results
• Student-Related Reliability: The most common
learner-related issue in reliability is caused by
temporary illness, fatigue, a “bad” day, anxiety, and
other physical or psychological factors, which may
make an “observed score deviate from one’s “true”
score
• Rate Reliability: Human error, subjectivity, and bias
may enter into the scoring process
o Inter-rater reliability occurs when two or more
scorers yield inconsistent scores of the same test,
possibly for lack of attention to scoring criteria,
inexperience, inattention, or even preconceived
biases.
▪ In the story above about the placement
test, the initial scoring plan for the
dictations was found to be unreliable-
that is, the two scorers were not applying
the same standards
o Intra-rater reliability is a common occurrence for
classroom teachers because of unclear scoring
criteria, fatigue, bias toward particular “good”
and “bad” students, or simply carelessness
• Test Administration Reliability: Unreliability may also
result from the conditions in which the test is
administered.
o For example, the test of aural comprehension is
administered in which a tape recorder played
items for comprehension, but because of street
noise outside the building, students sitting next
to windows could not hear the tape accurately
• Test Reliability
o Sometimes the nature of the test itself can cause
measurement errors. If a test is too long, test
takers may become fatigued by the time they
reach the later items and hastily respond
incorrectly
Validity
• By far the most complex criterion of an effective test-
and arguably the most important principle
• The extent to which inferences made from assessment
result are appropriate, meaningful, and useful in terms
of the purpose of the assessment” (Ground, 1998, p.
226)
• A valid test of reading ability actually measures reading
ability-not 20/20 vision, nor previous knowledge in a
subject, nor some other variable of questionable
relevance
• Five Types of Evidences:
o Content-Related Evidence
▪ If a test actually samples the subject
matter about which conclusion are to be
drawn, and if it requires the test-takers
to perform the behavior that is being
measured, it can claim content related
evidence of validity, often popularly
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
referred to as content validity (e.g.,
Mousavi, 2002; Hughes, 2003).
o Criterion-Related Evidence
▪ A second of evidence of the validity of a
test may be found in what is called
criterion-related evidence, also referred
to as criterion-related validity, or the
extent to which the “criterion” of the
test has actually been reached.
o Construct-Related Evidence
▪ A third kind of evidence that can support
validity, but one that does not play as
large a role classroom teacher, is
construct-related validity, commonly
referred to as construct validity. A
construct is any theory, hypothesis, or
model that attempts to explain observed
phenomena in our universe of
perceptions
o Consequential Validity
▪ Consequential validity encompasses all
the consequences of a test, including
such considerations as its accuracy in
measuring intended criteria, its impact
on the preparation of test-takers, its
effect on the learner, and the (intended
and unintended) social consequences of
a test’s interpretation and use.
o Face Validity
▪ “Face validity refers to the degree to
which a test looks right, and appears to
measure the knowledge or abilities it
claims to measure, based on the
subjective judgment of the examines
who take it, the administrative personnel
who decode on its use, and other
psychometrically unsophisticated
observers” (Mousavi, 2002, p. 244).
Authenticity
• Refers to “the degree of correspondence of the
characteristics of a given language test task to the
features of a target language task,” and then suggest
an agenda for identifying those target language tasks
and for transforming them into valid test items.
APPLYING PRINCIPLES TO THE EVALUATION OF
CLASSROOM TESTS
• The principles of practicality, reliability, validity,
authenticity, and washback go a long way toward
providing useful guidelines for both evaluating an
existing assessment procedure and designing one on
your own.
• Quizzes, tests, final exams, and standardized
proficiency tests can all be scrutinized through these
five lenses.
• The questions that follow here, indexed by the five
principles, will help you evaluate existing tests for your
own classroom. It is important for you to remember,
however, that the sequence of these questions does
not imply a priority order.
• Are the test procedures practical?
• Is the test reliable?
• Does the procedure demonstrate content validity?
• Is the procedures face valid and “biased for best”?
• Are the test tasks as authentic as possible?
• Does the test other beneficial washback to the learner?
SOME PRACTICAL STEPS TO TEST CONSTRUCTION
A. Assessing Clear, unambiguous objectives
• Examine the objectives for the unit that you are
testing
• Remember that every curriculum should have the
appropriately framed assessable objectives, that
is, objective that are stated in terms of overt
performance by students
B. Drawing up test specifications
• Outline of the test and skills to be included
• Item types and task
C. Designing test task
• Following the guidelines in test construction
D. Revising your test draft
• Are the directions to each section absolutely
clear?
• Is there any example item for each section?
• Does each item measure a specified objective?
• Is each item stated in clear, simple language?
• Do the sum of the items and the test as whole
adequately reflect the learning?
GUIDELINES IN TEST CONSTRUCTION
Guidelines for Writing MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS
1. Present one clearly stated problem in the stem.
• The stem should clearly state only one problem.
• It must not be vague, ambiguous, or too broad.
• It should be specific enough that there is no room
for misinterpretation.
2. State the stem in simple and clear language.
• The stem should be written in simple language
and avoid any difficult word.
• The sentence structure must be in simple form.
• Complex sentence structure should be avoided.
• Any unnecessary word/s and irrelevant details in
the stem must be eliminated.
3. Make the stem longer than the options.
• The stem should adequately cover enough details
to make it clear and precise.
• It is a common error to load the options with too
many details so that the alternatives become
longer than the stem.
• The options should be shorter than the stem.
• The stem should be longer than the options.
4. Stress the negative word used in the stem.
• There are instances that the use of a negative
word is important in measuring a particular
learning outcome.
• Examples of negative words which may be used in
the stem are no, not, and except.
• The negative word can be emphasized by
o Underlining it
o Capitalizing it
o Placing at the end of an incomplete
statement
• Such emphasis can avoid the negative aspect of a
stem being overlooked by a student
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
WRITING PLAUSIBLE OPTIONS
1. Make sure there is only one correct answer.
• The teacher should avoid writing options that may
be open to debate or argument.
• The correct answer must be unquestionably
correct which everybody should agree and accept.
• The teacher should avoid having two possible
keys.
2. Make the options homogeneous.
• Homogeneous options are those that belong to
one category or classification.
• If the key is a fruit, the distracters should also be
fruits.
• Homogeneous options are plausible alternatives.
• Plausible alternatives have the possibility to be
chosen by the uninformed students.
3. Make all the options grammatically consistent and
parallel form with the stem of the item.
• Options should be consistent in tense, article, or
grammatical form with the stem.
• If the stem calls for a future tense, the key and the
distracters should also be stated in the same
tense to make the options parallel in form.
• If the stem calls for a word that begins with a
consonant, then the article “a” should be used.
• The other options should be words which have
initial consonants in order to make them parallel
in form.
4. Vary the length of the key to avoid giving a clue.
• Most of the times, the correct answer tends to be
longer than the distracters.
• The smart students can often detect this.
• To avoid length as a clue, make the correct
answer shorter, sometimes longer, other times of
equal length with the rest of the options.
• As long as there is no predictable pattern as
regards the length of the key, giving length as a
clue is eliminated.
5. Place the position of the correct answer in random
order.
• The positions of the correct answer should not
appear about the same number most of the
times.
• The correct answer A should never appear on
every third item, or that the key should not be
placed always at the last.
• Randomly assign the key so as to avoid giving a
clue.
6. Avoid using “all of the above” as an alternative.
• Most of the time, the item writer has a difficulty
of thinking any option so that “all of the above” is
used
• If the option “all of the above” is the correct
answer, any of the two alternatives detected to
be correct by the student can give a clue as to the
key
• If this happens, the students need not read the
remaining alternatives
• The distracters lose their function in distinguishing
a good performer from a poor one
7. Avoid two options that have similar meaning.
• If two options are similar in meaning, the student
can eliminate them as a possible answer.
➢ Writing good multiple-choice items involves rules for
making effective stem and options.
➢ Stem should present the problem in clear and specific
manner devoid of any clue.
➢ The options should be homogeneous and free from any
irrelevant clues.
➢ A good multiple-choice item reduces the chances of
guessing and can distinguish a good student from a poor
one.
RULES FOR WRITING TRUE-FALSE ITEMS
1. Each statement should include only one idea.
• The idea should be stated in the main point of
the item rather than on some trivial detail.
2. Each statement should be short and simple.
3. Quantifiers such as few, many, seldom, always, never,
small, large, and so on should be avoided. They make
the statements vague and indefinite.
4. Negative statements should be used sparingly.
• If such statements cannot be avoided, emphasize
the negative word used by underlining it or
CAPITALIZING all the letters in that word.
• This practice will preclude negative statements
to be read as positive ones.
5. Double negatives should be avoided.
6. Statements of opinions or facts SHOULD be attributed
to some important person or organization.
7. The number of true and false statements should be
equal whenever possible.
WRITING MATCHING ITEMS
• The matching item is a selection-type of item consisting
of a series of stimuli (or stems) called premises, and a
series of options called responses.
• The premises and responses are arranged in columns.
• Usually, the premises are placed in the left column
(Column A) while the responses are set in the right
column (Column B).
• Directions provide the basis for matching.
• RULES:
1. Include only materials that belong to the same
category.
o A matching item may include only dates and
historical events, scientists and their
discoveries, parts of a body system and their
functions.
2. Keep the premises short and place the responses
on the right side.
3. Use more responses than premises. Allow the use
of responses more than once should be observed.
4. Place the premises on the left and designate them
by numbers. Put the responses on the right and
assign the letters to them.
o The numbers should be arranged
consecutively while the letters in
alphabetical order.
5. Place the matching items on one page.
o Constant turning of pages when matching
items are placed in two pages takes too
much time of the students.
o To prevent this from happening, all matching
items should be placed on the same page.
6. State basis for matching in the directions. This will
make the task clear and specific.
o All directions given in the aforementioned
examples illustrate this rule.
WRITING SHORT ANSWER
1. State the item clearly and precisely so that only one
correct answer is acceptable.
• An item may be vaguely stated that several
correct answers are possible.
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
2. Begin with a question and shift to an incomplete
statement later to achieve preciseness and
conciseness.
• The use of a question makes the problem clear
and specific so that only one correct answer is
possible.
• The question form is suited to younger
examinees.
• An incomplete statement becomes less vague
and ambiguous when it is stated first in question
form.
3. Leave the blank is placed at the end of the statement,
the student is given a chance to determine what the
problem really is.
• Placing the blank at the start of the statement
tends to make the student confused as to what
the problem is.
4. Focus on one important idea instead of trivial detail
and leave only one blank.
5. Avoid giving clues to the correct answer.
• Clues serve to give away the correct answer.
• Length of shortness of a blank can indicate a long
or a short answer
• The use of articles “a” or “an” before a blank can
suggest answer that begins with a consonant or a
vowel sound.
o Merely, delete the article “an” which
suggests that the answer begins with a
vowel sound. In this way, giving a clue is
avoided.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
• Essay questions require students to produce their own
answers freely.
• They measure the ability to organize, integrate and
express ideas.
• These abilities cannot be adequately determined or
assessed by selection-type items.
• The higher-order-thinking skills (analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation) can be directly measured by essay
questions.
• Essay involves less time to prepare than selection-type
items.
• However, essay questions do not provide adequate
sampling of learning outcomes to be measured.
• Scoring tends to be subjective, unreliable, and time
consuming.
• Poor handwriting, misspelled words, and poor
grammar tend to lower scores.
• RULES:
1. State questions that require clear, specific, and
narrow task or topic to be performed.
• Some sample terms to use that make the
task clear and specific are as follows:
o Compare
o Describe
o Explain
o Relate
o Summarize
o Criticize
o Differentiate
o Appraise
• The topic of an essay question must be
limited and narrow.
2. Give enough time limit for answering each essay
question.
• Enough time to think and write the answers
should be given to students.
• Only a few essay questions should be
formulated for a given class period.
• It is not wise to include so many questions to
cover as many desired learning outcomes
because there may not be enough time for the
students to finish the test.
• It is advisable to include one or two essay
questions in a testing period.
3. Require students to answer all questions.
• It is best to require all students to respond to
the same essay questions for point of
comparison and representativeness.
• If only a few questions are answered, the
problem of adequate and representative
sampling of behavior becomes evident.
4. Make it clear to students if spelling, punctuation,
content, clarity, and style are to be considered in
scoring the essay questions. When these criteria are
clear and specific to students, the items become
valid.
5. Grade each essay question by the point method,
using well-defined criteria.
• By using certain criteria as guide, scoring essay
questions becomes less subjective and more
objective.
• Examples of criteria to use in scoring an essay
question are:
o Completeness of ideas presented
o Clarity of expression used
o Organization of ideas evident
6. Evaluate all of the students’ responses to one
question before going to the next question.
• Scoring essay test question-by-question rather
than student-by-student maintains uniform
standard for evaluating the answer each
question.
7. Evaluate answers to essay questions without
identifying the student.
• There is a tendency to score essay questions
based on personal bias.
• To prevent knowing the identity of the student,
a code number may be assigned to each
student.
8. If possible, two or more correctors must be
employed to ensure results
The essay question is scored using the following rubric:
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING

DEVELOPING A TEST
• How can I develop a good test?
• Most classroom tests are developed for one or more of
the following purposes:
1. To establish a basis for assigning grade
2. To determine how well each student has
achieved the course objectives
3. To diagnose student problems for remediation
4. To determine where instructions need
improvement

ITEM ANALYSIS
Important Terms:
• Key is the correct option in a multiple-choice item
• Distractor is the incorrect option
• Discrimination index (D) is the measure of the extent
to which a test item discriminates or differentiates
between students who do well and those who do not
do well on the overall test
• Difficulty Index (p) is the proportion of students who
answered the item correctly

Three (3) Types of Discrimination Index

• Positive discrimination
• Negative discrimination
• Zero discrimination
Item Analysis Using U-L Method
1. Arrange the papers from highest to lowest score
2. Separate the papers into an upper group and a lower TOS MAKING AND TEST CONSTRUCTION
group based on the total scores • What type of test should I give?
3. For each item, count the number in the upper group • What should I do first?
and the number in the lower group that chose the • How many items should I prepare?
alternative • What do you want to happen in the test that you
4. Record your information for each item in the following prepared?
form.

5. Compute D, the discrimination index, by plugging the

appropriate numbers into the following formula
SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN WRITING TEST
ITEMS

1) Carefully define your instructional objectives

• Objectives must be stated in behavioral terms
• Behavioral objective – refers to a learning outcome
which is constructed in measurable terms. This would
give you a direction the experience of the learner and
becomes the basis for student evaluation
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
• Go back and check the objectives you have stated in
the lessons
• What is it that you want to see about learning from the
students?
2) Prepare a test blueprint, keep it before you, and
continually refer to it as you write the test items
• Table of specification is your blueprint in constructing
your tests
• It will be your guide to your entire questionnaire
THE TABLE OF SPECIFICATION
• It is a device for describing test items in terms of the
content and the process dimensions. That is, what a
student is expected to know and what he or she is
expected to do with that knowledge. It is described by
combination of content and process in the table of
specification
• When preparing a table of specification, make sure
that it must follow higher order thinking skills. You may
adopt the TOS using the blooms taxonomy
• There are two ways of preparing a TOS:
o One-way and Linear Function
o Two-way Linear Function
One-way and Linear Function
Two-way Linear Function
3) Formulate well-define questions
• Questions must consist of items from easy to difficult
• Make sure to vary the difficulty of the questions
5) Prepare a scoring key or guide, preferably as the item is
being written
• Prepare a notebook to record your answer while you
are constructing your test questions
• Most of the time, we get so focused on constructing
the test that we tend to forget the answer
6) Prepare more items than what are actually needed
• If you intend to construct 50 items, make sure to have
more because other items might be discarded because
it is too poor or too easy
• It is always better to have more than to have less
7) Write the test item as soon as possible after the
material has been taught
• It is always important to take down notes on the
subjects, topic, or item that you want to include while
you are having a lecture
• This way, your burden in choosing items you want to
include in the exam will be lessen
8) Prepare the items well in advance to permit reviews
and editing
• Check for some errors like grammar, spelling,
numbering
• There might be items that were doubled or items that
don’t have choices
• Include editing the spacing, the font, and its font size
9) Be careful when rewording a faulty item
• Rewording an item might change its semantics and
may cause confusion of the students in answering the
item
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING
SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATION IN WRITING OBJECTIVES
ITEMS
• Test for important facts and knowledge
• Tailor the questions to fit the examinee’s age and
ability level as well as the purpose of the test
• Write the item as clearly as possible
• Avoid lifting statements verbatim from the text
• Avoid using interrelated items
• There should be one correct answer
• Avoid negative questions whenever possible
THINGS TO CONSIDER
• Do not give the answer away
o Having information in the stem of one item
provide the answer to another item
• Lack of parallelism between stem and responses in the
multiple-choice item
• The length of the correct response (in multiple-choice
items)
• The position and pattern of the correct answer
• Grammatical clues such as “a” or “an” preceding blank
in the short answer or at the end of the stem in the
multiple choice
• Using textbook language verbatim
• Using technical jargon
TEST CONSTRUCTION
• Constructing test items must be based from the
objectives of your lesson
• The assessment tools of teacher-made test are divided
into:
I. Objective test
A. Recall
1) Simple recall
2) Completion type
B. Recognition Type
1) Alternative response
2) Multiple choice
3) Matching type
4) Rearrangement
5) Analogy
6) Identification
II. Essay
▪ Essay tests are assessment consists of
specific questions or problem wherein the
examinees respond to one or more than
sentences
RULES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING A:
Simple Recall Type
1. The test items must be so worded that the response is
brief as possible, preferably a single word, number
symbols or a brief phrase
2. It is easier to phrase and more natural to the
examinees
3. There must be only one correct answer
4. Make a minimum use of textbook language in wording
the question
Example:
Completion Test
1. Give the student a reasonable basis for the responses
desire. Avoid indefinite statements.
• Example: Jose Rizal was born in ___ (this
statement is indefinite or vague because the
response is either a date or place)
2. Avoid mutilated statements
• Example: The __ is obtained by dividing the __
by the __ (it is confusing because it does not
indicate whether the statement refers to
Statistics or Mathematic procedure)
3. Arrange the test to as to facilitate scoring
• Allow one point to each black correctly filled
• Select items to which only one correct response
is possible
• Arrange the items in a way the examinees
response is in the right column
4. Avoid lifting statements directly from the text
Recognition Type
Alternative Response
• True or False
1. The test items must be
arranged in groups of five
to facilitate scoring
2. In indicating a response, it must be simple as
possible where a single letter is enough to
facilitate scoring
3. All or nothing – completely true statement or
completely false
4. Make the most important part of the test item
be either true/false
5. Avoid complex, compound, or multiple clause
sentence statements
• Rules for Constructive Alternative-Response Items
1. Avoid specific determiners
2. Avoid disproportionate number of either true or
false statements
3. Avoid the exact wording of the textbook (Hala
familiar. Choss.)
4. Avoid trick questions
5. Limit each statement to the exact point to be
tested
6. Avoid excess use of negative words or phrases.
7. Avoid ambiguous words or statements.
8. Avoid complex language and vocabulary and
unnecessary complex sentence structure
9. Require the simplest possible method of
indicating a response to reduce confusion
10. Use true-false items ONLY for points that lend
themselves unambiguously to this kind of item
Multiple Choice
• It is regarded as one of the best forms of test.
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING

• The main stem should be clear. Avoid awkward stems.

• The question should be trivial. There should be

consensus on it answer.

• Questions that tap only rote learning and memory

should be avoided.

• Questions should tap only one ability.

• Each question should have only one answer, not

• Limit each statement to the exact point to be tested
several possible answers.
o Avoid double negatives
o Avoid ambiguous statements
o Avoid unfamiliar, figurative, or literary language
o Avoid long statements, especially those involving
complex sentence structure
o Avoid qualitative language wherever possible

• Ask a complete question or a large enough of a stem.

o Don’t repeat the same words in the responses
o Be sure there is only one correct or best answer

• Answer choices should be grammatically parallel.

• Constructing/Improving Alternatives:
LYRA DENNISE B. LLIDO – BSMLS 3B – PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN LEARNING

• No “all of the above” or “none of the above” or any
form from this family: A and B but not C; A and C but
not B; B and C but not A
• No humor in the question/item stem or answer
choices.
5. Time limit on the coverage of each question must be
considered to give students the adequate time to
answer

• Spread your correct answer choices around

o The most common answer on M/C items are C
and B
• Answer choices should be fairly brief.

• Commands cannot be “true” or “false”

Correct any wrong information for your own good

• Require the simplest possible method of indicating the

response
• Indicate by a short line or by ( ) where the response is
to be recorded
• Arrange the statements in group
Matching
1. Clearly state what is to be matched

2. Keep the list of the items to be matched relatively

short. No more than 10 items.
3. Keep the list of responses as short as possible.
4. Include more response options than are needed
5. Use matching for homogenous topics. If you start with
names matched to dates, don’t change to dates and
events.
Fill-in the Blacks Blank
1. Write a complete question or stem
2. One blank per test item
3. Don’t let the length of the blank be a clue to how long
the answer is

ESSAY
1. It must be planned in advance by the teacher to have
effective results
2. Major aspects of the lesson must be framed in
preparing the questions of essay test; hence, careful
and even distribution of the lessons must be observed
3. After the test has been planned and questions have
been written tentatively, precautions on the causes of
unreliability must be taken
4. In assembling the questions into its final form, the
teacher must be careful that questions are phrased
clearly so that the scope of the question is clear to the
students