“Objectivity” in Social Science and Social Policy Wherever aserions are explicitly made inthe name of the editor or when tass are st forthe Archiv inthe cource of Section I of the Ioregoing ese, the personal vier of the author ere not involved Each ofthe points in queton hac the expres agreement of the £2- fits. The euthor alone beats the responsibilty for the form ond content of Section Il The fct thatthe point of vies, not only of the contributors but of the editors as well, are not identical even on methodological suet, ands as a guarantee thet the Azchiv will not fall prey 12 ‘any sectarian outlook. On the other hand, agreement as to certain fundamental iver is 0 presupposition of the joint assumption of ‘editorial responsibilty. This agreement refer pertculnly to. the value of theoretical knowledge from “one-sided” points of tea, the ‘onstruction of precisely defined concept and the initence on the rigorous dutincon between empiri! knowledge end. valte judg rents ar here understood. Naturally we do not claim to prevent fnything neo therewith The extensveness of the discussion (Section 11) and the free quent repetition of the tame thought are intended only to maximize the general understanding of our argument in wider circles "For the sake of this intention, much —let us hope not too much —precion in expresion har been sacrificed. For the same reaion, we have omitted the presentation of a tematic analysis in fovor of the prem tnt litng ofa few methodelogieal viewpoints. A sytematie inquiry would have regured the trectment of large number of epstemo- logical questions which are for deeper than those rated here. We are not intrested herein the jurtheranceof logical anayrie pre. We ‘ave atlempling only to apply the wol-Anown rene of moder logic» “ORJECTIVITY" IN SOGTAL SCIENCE, to our own problems. Nor are see olvng problems here; me are Lnying only to make their significance apperent to non-specaits, Those who know the work of the modern lopiciant—T cite only Windelband, Simmel, and for our purposes particularly Heinrich Rickert — will immediately notice that eveything of importance in this enay it bound sp with ther work W ten 4 sociat, science jural whieh alo at tines concern self with socal paiy, appear forthe fi Sime oe passes into the hands of s new editorial board ts customary to atk about ie “line?” ‘We, too, must sec to anawer thie question and following up the remarks in our “Introductory Note” we wil enter into the ‘question in a more fondamental theoretical way. Even though or pethaps because, we are concemed with “elfevident truths” this ‘ceason piovides the opportunity to cat sme Tight on the nature of the “sacal sciences” as we understand them, in such a manner that it canbe useful, if not wo the specialist, chen tothe reader who more remote from actual sentife work in addition to the extension of our knowledge of the "social conditions ofall countries” iy the facts of social fe, the express purpose of the Archiv evr snc its etalshment has been the ed fiom of jadgment about practical seial problems — and in the ‘very modest way in which sich a goal can be furthered by private scholars — the cries of practical socal policy, extending even as {ar af legiation. In spite of this, the Archio has Kemly adhered, from the very boinning, #0 it intention to be an excasvelyaclen= tc journal and to proceed only with the methods of scientific re- search. Hence avis the queiton of whether the purpose sated hove is compatible in principle with wconfinement tothe latter rmethod, What has been the reaning of the value-udements found in the pages of the Archiv regarding legislative and administrative reatures of practical zcommendatonr for auch mesures? What ae the standards governing these judgments? What is the validity ff the value-judgments which are uttered by the eric, for instance, “onJeCTIvITy” 1 SOCIAL SCIENCE, a ‘or on which a writer recommending a policy founds hit arguments {or that policy? Ta what sau, if the criterion of scene knowledge is to be found in the “objective” validity of ft reuls has he re- mained within the phere of scientific dicusson? We wil fst p sent our own attitude on this question in order Inter to del with the broader one: in what sense are shee in general “objectively valid truths” in thore diciplines concemed with socal and cultura phenomena? This quetion, in view of the continuous changes and biter confit about the apparently moet elementary probleme of our acpline its methods, the formulation and valli Hi wnt cannot be avoided. We do not atempt to offer solutions but rather 1 diclose problems — problems of the type t0 which eur journal, HE ie & to meet i past and future responsibilities, mut arm its 1 We ll know that our science, as is the case with every science tweating the ‘ntttions and events of human culture, (with the possible exception of politeal history) fist arse in con ‘eeton with practical considerations. ts most immediate and often sole purpose war the attainment of value-udgments concerning ‘measures of State economic policy. Te wat a “technique” in the Same sense 4, for instance, the linia! dacipines in the medical Sciences are. "Te hat now become known how this sation was iradualy modified, This modification was no, however, sccompan fed by a formulation of the lgial (prinipielle)datnction between "existential hnowlede,” ic, knowledge of what "i and “norm lve knowledge ie, knowledge of what “should be?” The formu lation of this distinction ‘was hampered, Sst, by the view that jmmutebly invariant natural laws,~—later, by the view that an ‘unambiguous evolutionary principle — governed economic life and that accordingly, what war normatively right wis identical —in the former case —with the immutably extent —and in the latter — 2g cy opted when he li ht fr Sadr, Sita hes es far asides by te tea x wc ewan wien tad he eastent eld be conde la thst (Maslanne Weber) A SPS2 “onJeeTIVITY" IN SOCTAL SCIENCE. ‘with the inevitably emergent. With the awakening of the historical ease, a combination of ethical evelusonism and Historical relativism Treeame the predominant atttude in our scence. This attitude tout to deprive ethical norms oftheir formal character and through the incorporation ofthe totality of cultural values into the “ethical” (Gittichen) sphere tried 10 give a substantive content to ethical norms, Tt was hoped thereby to raise economics to the satus of 20 “ethical science” with empirical foundations. To the extent that fn ethical” label was given to all owl cultural ideals, the partic Tar autonomy of the ethical imperative was obliterated, without how: ever increasing the “objective” validity of those ideals. Nonetheless Sve can and must forego a dacuon of the principles at ie. We tnetely point out that even today the enfated opinion that economics ‘oes and should derive value-dgmens from a specifically “economic point of view" has not daappeared but i especially current, quite ndentandsby, among men of pracial afan, ‘Our journal athe representative of an empirical specialized di Cipline saat, as we wish to show shortly, reject this view in principle, Tt must do so because, in oor opinion, it ean never be the task of sn empitial tiene to provide Binding norms and ideals frm which ‘iectives for immediate practical activity can be derived ‘What ithe implication of this propestion? It is certainly not that valuejudgments are to be withdrawn from scentic discusion general simply because in the lat anabie thy zest on certain deals and are therefore “subjective” in origin, Practical action and the aims of cur joumal woald always reject sch a. propotion Critic is not to be aupended in the precace of value-jdgments. ‘The problem is rather: what isthe meaning and purpose of the scientific criticism of ideals and value-judgmens? This requires a omevhat more dtaled analysis "Al serous reflection about the ultimate elements of meaning Iruman conduct is oriented primarily in tems ofthe categories “end” tnd “mean” We desire tomething concretely either “Yor its own fae” or as meant of achieving something else which i more highly dsr. The queton of the appropiatenes of the means for achiev- ing * glen end ie undoubtedly accesible to scienic anal. In- Ssmuch as we ate able fo determine (within the present limits of our OnIPOTIVITY” IN SOCIAL SCIENCE s oowledge) which means for the achievement of @ propoted end fare appropriate or inappropriate, e can inthis way estimate the nee of attaining a certain end by certain available means. In this way we ean indivecly eritcae the setng of the end itelf practically meaningful (on the basis of the existing historical sitaa- lon) or ts meaningless with eference to existing condition. Pur- thermore, when the posbility of attaining a proposed end appears to ext we can determine (naturally within the limits of our exiting iswtelge) the conmquencer which the appiction af the mean to be used wil produce in addition to the eventual attainment of the proposed end, at a remle of the interdependence of all events ‘We can then provide the acting penton with the ability to weigh and compare the undedrable as over agunst the deirable conse- fquences of his action, ‘That, we can answer the question: what wil the attainment of a dered end “oot” in terms of the predictable | fem of other values? Since in the vast majority of cas every gal that is ariven for does “oot” oe can “cost” something in this see, the weighing of the goal in term of the incidental consequences of the action which reali it cannot be omlted from the deliberation fof penons who act with » sense of responsibility. One of the mort Important functions of the technical eiicim which we have been ‘Sazusing thus fr eto make this sort of analysis posible. To apply the coms of this analy in the making nf + derision, however i rot a task which scence can undertake; iti rather the task of the [cing willing penon: he weight and chooses from among the valet involved according to Hit own conscience and his penonal view of the world Science can make him realize that all action and natur~ tly acording to the circumstances, action imply in their conse- (quence the espoual of certain values — and herewith —what is today s0 wlingy overlooked — the rejection of certain other, The set of choice felt & his own responsibilty. We can als offer the peron, who makes @ choice, insight into the significance of the desired object We ean teach him to think fn tems of the context and dhe meaning of the ends he desires, fnd among which he chooses. We do this through making explicit fand developing in a logically consistent manner the “ideas” which setaly or which can unde the const end. Ite seltnidentPy “ongecTIVvITy" IN socTAL scxENCE, that one of the most important tase of every science of cultural ie isto arive at a rational understanding of these “ideas” for which ‘men either really or allegedly struggle Thie does not overtep the boundaries of science which srves for an “analytical ordering of ‘rpiricl reality," although the methods which are used inthis inter- pretation of cultural (peter) values are not “inductions” in the tuual sense. At any rate, thir tsk falls atleast puely beyond the limite of economics ax ‘efined according tothe conventional division of labor. Tt belongs among the tasks of social philosophy. How. ‘ver the hisloncal Influence of ideas in the development of social lie has been and sill is wo great that ovr joummal cannot renounce (his ask. Tt shall rather regard the investigation of this phenomenon 6 one of its most important obligations, But the scientific treatment of valuejudgmente may not only Understand and empathically analyze (nacherleben) the desired ends snd the ideals which undertie them; team alo “judge” them erie. ally. This criticism can of eoune have only « daletcal characte, in it ean be no more than a formal lgial judgment of historically sven valiewjdgments and ideas, 2 tenting of the ideals according tothe postulate ofthe internal consrney ofthe desired end. Tt eam, insofar is i sts elf chi goa, ai the acting willing peson in ating ing sefclarifcaton concerning the final axioms from which his esr ends ate derived. Tt can assit him in becoming aware ofthe ‘late standards of value which he docs not make explicit him seo, which he must presuppose in onder to be lgial. The elevation of these wtimate standards, which are manifested in concrete value= judgments, tothe level of expictnes i the utmost thatthe scenic teeatment of value-judgent can do without entering int the ream of speculation. AS to whether the penon exprestng these valuc- Idgments should adhere to these ultimate standards i his peronal ifsr it involes wll and consrence) not empirical knowledge ‘An empirical scence eainot tell anyone what he sold do but | rather what he_con do and under certain creutstances what he wishes to do. Tt is tue that in our scenes, peronal value judy rents have tended 10 influence scent arguments without being ‘explicitly admitted. They have brought about continual confasion| and have canted various interpretations to be placed on sienifc “ORJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL sctENCE, ss arguments even in the sphere of the determination of simple casual Interconnections among facts according to whether the real in rented or decreased the chances of reaiing onc’ pemonal ideal, ky the possibilty of desiring a certsn thing. Even the editors and the collaborators of eur journal wil regard “nothing bmn as ale? to them in this respect. But i sa lng way from this schnowtedge- ‘ent of human fay tothe belief in an “ethic!” scence of toe nomic, which would drive ideals fom its subject matter and produce ‘concrete norms by applhing general whic imperatives t's trae that|we reyant at objectively valuable tho innermost cetente of the “penonality." those highest and most ultimate vatuefudgments which determine our conduct and give meaning and significance cu Hfe. We can indeed espouse thee values only when they appear fo ms valid, as derived from our highest values and when they are developed in the struggle against the dificules which ie procata Getainly, the dignity of the “personality” les in the fact that fori ‘ere exist values about which i organizes its l=:—even i thee ‘values ae in certain eases concentrated excsively within the sphere of the person's “individuality then “selérealiation” in those Enters cats for which it claims validity a8 value, the iden with respect to which its whole existence is oriented, Only on the assumption of belie in the validity of vale the attempt to empoase wage ud ‘ents meaningtt, However, to judge the vality of such values ‘matter of faith. Tt may pethaps bea tsk forthe speculative ince. Pretaton of life and the univene in quest of thelr meaning, But it ‘tainly docs not fll within the province ofan empirical sence in ‘the sense in which i is to be practised here. The empirically denon stable fact that these ultimate ende undergo historical charges and ae debatable docs not afec tht distintion between emplreal conee and valuejudgment, contrary to what is often thought ‘For cree the Knowledge of the most certain proposition of ur theoretical ‘iences—eg. the exact natural seienes or mathemati, slike the ‘tivation and refinement of the conscience, a product of ealure However, when we call to mind the practical problems of econsme and social policy (in the usual sense}, we ae tat there are many, indeed countles, practical queons in the dscuston of which there seems to be general agrcrnat alu the veevident character of% sonleorIviTy" IN SOGIAL SCIENCE, certain goal Among thee we may mention emergency credit, the oncrete problems of social hygiene, poor rei factory iopetion, fndustrial courts, employment exchange, large vectons of protective Tabor legislation in bor all those issues in which, at eatin aP= pearance, ony the means forthe attainment of the geal are at ie. Bat oven i we ere to mistake the isin of welfevidence for truth a vhich sence ean never do without damaging self—and wisbed to view the confes immediatly arising fom attempts at practical ‘Ratton a ply technical questions of expediency — which would ny often be incorrect even In thir case we would have to r05- ‘ie that this sion of the tel-evdence of normative standards of Tralee i dinipated as oon at we past fom the conerete problems of Philcthropie and protective sol and economic services to prob- Teme of economic and social policy. The distinctive, characteris of a problem of sodal policy i indeed the fact that it cannot be ‘eselved merely on the bait of purely technical considerations which ume aleady seted ends, Normative standard of valve can and faust be the objets of dispute in a discussion of a problem of sci Polley becawe the problem lies in the domain of geaeral eléwel Faluck And the eonfict occurs not meray, as we art too easly Taclned to believe today, between “clas interest but between go> tal views on life and the universe as well. This latter pint, how: ‘Sens not lesen the truth that the particular ultimate value Fadgment which the indvideal espouses is decided among other tn~ torn and certainly toa quite sgneant degree by the dees of afiity etween ft and his cla interets— accepting for the time being thi aly soperially unambiguous term, One thing is certain under all ‘Greumances, name, the more “genera” the problem involved, ie» Jr hs car, the broader ite eulral significance the le subject tis toa gle unambiguous answer on the bass ofthe data of empiial tRiencs and the greater the tle played by valueddeas (Wertiden) os the ultimate and highest perl axioms of bei. I simply hive to believe, although there are many specalite who even now ‘Coionlly do, that it poodle to establish and to demonstrate os SSentically valid “a principle” for practical socal science from srtich the norms forthe rlution of practical problems can be unam- Migvoely derived However much the scil riences need the dis: ee ‘OBJBCTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE ” ‘cusnion of practical problems in terms of fondamental principe, e., the reduction of unteflective value judgments to the premises from ‘which they are logially derived and however much our journal Intends to devote Heel specially to them — certainly the creation of lowest common denominator for our problems in the form of gen- ‘rally valid ulate valuejodgments cannot be its tsk or in general the task of any empitial ecenee. Such a thing would not oly be Jimpractinble it would be entirely meaningless as well, Whatever the interpretation ofthe bass and the nature of the validity of the filial linpevaivs, ti certain that from hem, a from the nore for the coneetly conditioned conduct of the individual, cultural tale cannot be unambiguously derived at being normatively desi able; ican dos the lest, the more inclusive ae the values concerned Only postive religions or more preciely expresed: dogmatically ‘bound wects—are able to confer on the coatent of eulturl value the Satur of unconditionally valid ethical imperatives. Outside these Sects cultural ideals which the individual wishes to realize and ethical ‘Obligations which he should fll do not, in principle, shaze the sme Status ‘The fate of an epoch which hat eaten of the tre of know!- ‘cigs hat it must know tat we cannot lea the-mesning_of the Sword from the revue of i anal, be ic ever so penfecs it must Father be in a porn to ceste thie meaning ielf. Tt must reeog- fize that general views of life and the univene can never be the products of inctcaing ompisical Lsowledge, ond that the Rh eal, which move ue ost forceflly, are always formed only i. the rwgle with other ideale which are fart as sacred to others ax ours ‘Only an optimistic syncretism, such a i, at times, the product cof evolutionary hitorical rlatvinn, can eheoretially delude ive Shout the profound seriouncss of this situation or practically shiek its consequences, Tan, to be sre, be just as obligatory wbjectively for the praccl politician, in the individual eas, to mediate between Stagonstie points of view as to take sides wid one of them. But this bar nothing whatever to do with eientic “objectivity” ‘Scientifically the "middle course” i ot truer even bya hats breadth, than the mest extreme party ideas of the right or left. Nowhere are the interests of acence more poorly served in the Tong rua than iso OBJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE those situations where one refutes to see uncomfortable facts and the reales of life in all their starknes. The Archio wil struggle re- Tene agaist the severe seltdeception which awerts that through ‘the pymthes of several party pint of view, or by following a Tine between them, practical norms of scientific validity ean be arived st eis necenay to do thi because, since this piece of self-deception trier to mask it own sandarde of value in relative tem itis tore dangerous to the freedom of research than the former naive faith of partes in the scentie “demontabiity” of their dogmas. ‘The capacity to disnguih between empirical knowledge and value= judgments, and the flilment ofthe ante duty to ce the factual ‘uth as well at the practical dity to sand up for our own ideals ‘constitute the program to which we with to adhere with ever increas ‘ng fmnes. ‘There is and slwaye will be—and this is the reaton that it concerns ut an unbridgeable dininction azong (1) those amp tents which appeal to our capacity to become enthusiastic about fd our feling for concrete practial alms or cultural forms and values, (2) thowe arguments in which, once it is a question of the ‘ality of ethical norms, the appeal is dteted to our conscience, nd finally (3) thoee arguments which appeal to our eapaciy and need for enalytially ordering empirical reality in a manner which lays claim to ealiity x empsical truth, ‘This proposition remains comes, despite a we shall ae, the fact that thow highest “vals” lunderting the practical ineret. are and always. ill be decively Significant in determining the fou of attention of analytical activity (ordnende Tétgteit der Denkens) in the sphere of the cultra si ences Tt has been and remains tue that a systematically correct Selenite prot in the scial science, if isto achieve its purpore, Imust be acknowledged as corect even by » Chinese —oF — more precisely sated —it must constantly strive to attain this goal which perhaps may not be completely attainable due to faulty data. Fur. thermore, the succenful logical anaes of the content of an ideal and its ultimate axioms and the discovery of the consequences which fre frm puriing it, logically and practically, must also be valid for the Chinese. At the same tine, cur Chinese can lack a "sense" for our ethical imperative and he can and certainly often wil deny “ORJECTIVITY" IN SOGIAL SCIENCE 0 the ideal itself and the concrete valuejudgments derived from it [Neither of these two ltteratitudes can aflect the scientific value of the ana in any way. Quite certainly our journal wil not ignore the ever and inevitably recurent atempt to give am unambiguous inerpretation to culture. On the contrary, thee attempts themtelves rank with the most important product of thi cultural life and, under certain circumstances, among iis dynamic forces We will therefore constantly sive to follow with care the caune of thee dlscusions of "soil philoephy” (ax ben undevtand) We ae fr thermore completly free of the prejudice which asserts that reflee- tions on culture which go beyond the analysis of empitical data in order to interpret the world metaphysiclly can, beeame of their ‘metaphysical character fulil_no tefl cognitive task. Just what ‘these cognitive tass are is primarily an epistemological question, the answer to which we must abd ean, in view of our purpose, diegard at this point. There is one tenet to which we adhere most finaly in four work, namely, that social science journal, in our ses tthe extent that it is icentfe should be a place where thowe truths are sought, which—to remain with our illstraton—can claim, even for a Chinese, the validity appropriate to an analyse of empirical realty ‘Of cous, the editors cannot once and forall deny to themselves for their eontibatrs the ponbiey of exprewing in vale judgmente the ideals which motivate them. However two important duties arte in connection with this Fist, to keep the readers and them- selves sharply aware at every moment ofthe standards by which they je reality and from which the value judgment is derived, instead ‘f, a6 happens too aften, deceiving themseles in the confit of ideals by a value mélange of values of the most diferent orders and type, and seeking offer something to everbody. If this obi sation i rigorously heeded, the practical evaluative attitude can be not only harms to sientie interes bit even directly wef, and Indeed mandatory. Ia the wcientif ertcsn of Ingtatve and other practial recommendations the modives of the legitor and the ideals ‘ofthe ert in all their sope often can not be elrfied and analyaed tangible and intelligible form in any other way than through ‘he ennfntaton af the standards of value dering the deat erio “ompGTIVITY” IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, céaed with other, preferably the crt’s own. Every meaningful baluejudgment about someone c's azpitetions must be a cites fom the tandpoint of one's own Weltnschawung; it must BE strug inst another's ideals fem the standpoint of one's own. Tin particular concrete case, the ultimate valueasions which undete Drocical activity are not only to be designated and scientifically Snalyed but areal tobe shown ia their relationship to athe value Sado, “pie” erticam by means of a systematic exposition of the later i unavoidable {In the pages of thle Journal expetally fn the acuta of leyislar tion, there will incvtably be found social policy, ic, the statement of ideal, in addition to socal sien, ie, the analy of fats, But tre do not by aty means intend to present rach dscns as “science” land we will guard as best we can against allowing these two to be Confused with eachother. Tn sich discussions, sience no longer has the flor.” For that reason, the second fandamental imperative of scientific fredom is that in such eases it should be constantly made ‘lear to the readers (and — aguin we sy t— above all to one's elf!) fesacly at which point the scenic investigator becomes silent and the evslunting and acting peri bagi to speak, In other words, it should be made explicit jum where the arguments are adéresed to the analyeal understanding and where to the sentient. The constant confusion ofthe scientific dscasion of facts and thelr evalu tom fll ope of the mom widespread and also one of te wost ‘damaging trite of work in outfield. "The foregoing arguments are ircted agnnet tit confusion, and not against the clearcut into duction of exe's own ideas into the dixcaion. An atiude of moral indiference has 0 connection with scentife “objectivity” The “Archio, at lest ins intentions, as never been and shoul never be 4 place where poemice against certain curents in polite or social pricy are cared on, noe should it be a place where struggle are waged for or against ideals in polities or socal-polcy, There are ‘ther journal for these purposes. The peculiar characterise of the Journal has rather been from the very begining and, insofar as it in the power of the editor, shall continue to be that pelital antag oni Can meet in it to cary on scientific work. Te has not been 2 “cil” ongan hitherto and in dhe fture it shall not be “Bourges.” “OnJECTIVITY" IN SOTAL ScrENCE. 8 1t excludes no one from it circle of contributors who is willing to place himvelf within the framework of selentiie dacunion. It cane hot be an arena for “objections,” replies and rebuttals, but in it pages no one will be protected, neither its contributors nor ts ede for, from being subjected tothe sharpest factual, lente ecm Whoever cannot bear this or who takes the viewpoint tht he doce ot with to work, inthe sevice of scientie knowledge, with persons whose other ideas ate diferent from his own, fee not to particle Pate However, we should not deceive ourctves about it—this Int sentence means much more in practice tan it seems to do at fst slance. In the fist place, there are pechological nite everwhere and especially in Germany to the posiilty of coming together Sreely with one's poideal opponent na neuttl fru be it socal ‘or intellectual. This obstacle which should be relents combatied 1 a ign of narrow-minded party fanatciem and backward politcal culture, is reenforeed for a journal like ours through the fact that in social sciences the stimulus to the pasing of sientife problems it in actuality always given by practical “questions” “Hence the very "recognition of the existence ofa selene problem coincide, person ally, with the possesion of specifically oriented smaives and values ‘A journal which hae come into existence under the influence of a ‘ener interest in a concrete problem, will alway include among it fontibutos penons who are personaly nterened in She problems ‘because certain concrete stations seam to be incompatible with oF seem to threaten, the rellation of certain ial values in which they believe. A bond of similar ideals wil hold this ciele of contributors together and i wil be the basis of a farther recruitment, This in tur will tend tive the journal, at leat in ite teatment of ques: tions of practical social policy, x certain “character” which ofcourse inevitably accompanies ‘every collaboration of vigorously sensitive persons whowe evaluative standpoint regarding the problems cannot be entirely expresed even in purely theoretical anys in the erti- ism of practical recommendations and measures it quite legitimately finds expreson—under the parseular conditions above discued ‘The Archiv fst appeared ata time in which certain practical aspects of the "labor problem” (aso “OmJECTIVITY" IN SOOIAL SCIENCE forefront of vocal scence dincusions. ‘Thee persons for whom the problems ‘which the Archiv wished to teat were bound up with Ultimate and decive valiejudgments and who on that account be- Came its most regular contbutors alo espoused at the same Sine the view of oltre which wa strongly influenced by these value- jdginent Weal know that though this journal, tough is explicit telfrestiton to “sentio” dscusions and through the expres invi= faon to the “adherents of al politcal standpoints" denied that i ‘would pursue a certain “tendeney,” ie nonetles possesied “hare ter" Inthe above sense. ‘Thi character” was created y the group Of its regular contributors. Ta general they were men who, what tver may have boon other divergences in thee pints of vie, set 36 their goal the protection of the physical wellbeing of the laboring masts and the increase of the later?” share of the material and inte Tectal ver of our culture. At means, they employed the com. ination of sate intervention into the arena of matedal interests with the freer shaping of the exiting pobiical and legal order, Whatever may have been ther opinion a6 to the form of the social order inthe more remote future forthe present, ehey accepted the fmergent tweads of the capitalist stem, nt beease they seemed bet ter than the older forms of social organization bat because they seed to be practically inevitable and bees the stempt to wage a andar ‘mental struggle agains it appeared to hinder and not ad the eultural bie of the working cla, Tn the stuaion which exit in Gemany today —we need not be more spelic at this point —this was not land isnot ta be avoided. Indeed, it bore direct frit i the success- ful manyesdednes of the participation inthe scientific dtcuson and it consiited a ource of strength for the journal; under the given SGrcuntaneesit-was perhaps even one of 18 claims to the justi ‘ation for is exitence “There can be no doubt that the development of a “characte fn this sense, in a scenic journal can constitute 2 threat to the freedom of scent analysis; it relly docs amount to that when the selection of conribtor it purponly nesided. In this cae the cutvaton of “character” in a journal ir practically equivalent to the existence of a “tendency.” The editors are aware ofthe responsi bile which thie situation imposes upon them. "They propose neither OBJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, o the deliberate transformation of the character of the Archiv or its artical preservation by means of a careful rstviction of the con tebutors to acholar of certain definite party loyalties. They accept it as given and await it further “development” The form which it tales in the future and the modifications which it may wndergo as result of the inevitable broadening of is circle of contributors will Aepend primarily on the character of these penons who, seeking to terve the cawe of science, enter the crele and become or remain frequent contributors. Tt willbe further affected by the Broadening tt the problems, the advancement of whlch i goal of the Journ ‘With thee remarie we come to the question on which we have rot yet touched, namely, the factual delimitation of our feld of ‘operation, No anower can, however, be given without raking the (Question 8 t the goal of social acence knowledge in general. When ‘we ditngushed in principle between “valuejudgments” and “em- Plsical knowledge,” we presupposed the existence of an wunconltion- Illy valid type of knowledge im the cal science, Le, the analytical frdering of empirical socal reality. ‘This prenppasition now be- comes our problem in the seme that we must discuss the meaning of objectively “valid” truth in the vocal aclences The genuinenest fof the problem is apparent 1 anyone who is avare of the confit Shout methods, “Tondamental concepts” and presuppositions, the Incesant shift of “viewpoints” and the continuous redefinition of "concepts" and who see that the theoreti! and historical ole of analy are still separated by an apparently unbidgeable gap. Tt Constute, a8 a depiting Viennese examinee once sorrowflly com Plained “ho science of economics” What is the meaning of “objec: tivity” in this content? "The following dscusion will be devoted um “This journal has from the begining treated social-economic data ‘a ite aubjectamatter, Although there slide point n entering here into the definition of terms and the delineation of the proper bound- ties of the various scenes, we mrt nonethel state beefy what wwe mean by thi ‘Mant roughly expese, the basic element ia all those phenomena“ “OnJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL soIBNcE in the widest sense, “wciaeconomic” is constituted bythe fact that our physical existence snd the stsfaction of eur met Heal needs are everywhere confonted with the quantiatve limits land the qualitative inadequacy of the necetary extermal means, 9 ‘that thei satisfaction requires planfl provision and work, struggle with nature and the asiecaton of human beings, ‘The quality of an fvent as a “ocialeconemie” event is not something which it pose seses “objectively” Tt i rather conditioned by the orientation of ‘our cognitive interest, as it arse fom the specific cultural sgaf- ‘ance which we atibute to the particular rurnt iv a given exe Wherever those aspects of » cultral event which constitute i spe cific signitcance for us are connected with 1 social-economic event cither directly or mest indice, they involve, ot at leat to the ex- tent that this connection exits, can involve problem for the social ‘ienoes. By a socal science problem, we mean a tisk for a dsi- line the object of whichis 19 throw ight on the ramifeations of {hat fundamental social-economic phenomenon the scarcity of meats ‘Within the total range of social-economic problems, we are now thle to distinguish events and constellatonr of non, instaons, ‘ey the economic aspect of which constitutes their primary cultural signicance for wi. Sech ar, for example, the phenomena of the sock exchange and the banking world, which, in the main, interest ‘ws only in this respect. This wil be the cate regularly (but not ex- usively) when intittione. oye involved hich oer deliberately created or used for economic endh. Such objects of our knowledge ‘we may cal “economic™ events (or institution, atthe cate may be). ‘There are other phenomena, for instance, religious one, which do not interest us, oat leat do not primary interest us with respect to their economic signfcance bu which, however, under certain ci ‘eumstances do acquire sigafcance in this egurd became they have consequences which are of interest fram the economie pont f view ‘These we shall call “economically relevant" phenomena. Finally there are phenomena which are not economic” in our sense and the ‘economic effects of which are of no, of at best alight, interest tous (ca, the developments of the artistic tate ofa period) but which in individual instances are in their turn mote ot les strongly ine fluenced in certain important aspects hy economic factors such a3, “OBJECTIVITY” IN SOCIAL SCIENCE 6 {or instance, the socal sratfcaton ofthe artistically interested publi ‘We shall call these “economically conditioned phenomena” The con. stellation of human relationships, nana, and sonmatively determined conduct which we eall the “sate” is fr example in ts feal pects, fn “economic” phenomenon; insofar ait influences conomie life ‘through legilation or otherwise (and even where other than economic considerations deliterately guide its behavior), it ie “economically relevant” To the extent tht ts behavior in i |s partly influenced by economic motives, iti “ecanomialy condi- Soned:" After what has been sai ii selfevident that: ity), the boundary lies of "ecenomie” phenomena are vague and not easly ‘ened; secondly), the “economic” spect of 2 phenomenon is by no means only “economically condoned” or only “economically relevant; thirdly), « phenemenon is “economic” only insofar at and only at long as our interet is exclusively focused on it constitutive enifcance in the material struggle for existence. Like the science of social-economice since Mar and Roscher, our journal is eoncered not enly with economic phenomena but also with thowe which are “economically selevant” and “economically conditioned” The domain of mich subjects extends naturally — and varying in accordance with the focus of our intrest at the mement through the tuaty of cultural fe. Specifically economic mo= tives —e, motives which, in thei arpect most sgificant to us ae rooted in the above-mentioned fundamental fact operate wherever ‘the satisfaction of even the mest immaterial need of dete bound ‘up with the application of sarce material means. Their force hat ceverywhere on that account conditioned and tansformed aot only ‘the mode in which cultural wants or preferences are atsied, but theie catent as wel, even in their most mubjectve aspect, ‘The in direct influence of socal relations, institutions and groups governed by “material interests” extends (often unconsciouy) into all spheres ‘of culture without exception, even into the fine muanocs of exthetic nd religous feeling. ‘The evens of everyday ie no les than the “hitvia!™ evens of the higher reache of poical lif, coletive snd mass phenomena ss wells the “indviduated” conduct of sat ‘men and individual terry and artic achievements are infuenced by it They are “economically conditioned” On the other band,« OBJECTIVITY" IN SOGIAL SCIENCE ll the activites and situations conning an historically given cul= ture affect the formation of the material wants, the mode of their satisfaction, the integration of intrest groupe and the types of power hich they exercise. They thereby affect the course of "econone evelopment” and are acsordngly “economically relevant.” ‘To the ‘extent that ur science inputs particular eases —be they economic or non-economic —to economic cultural phenome, i seks “hie torical” knowledge. Insofar asi traces a specie element of cultural life (the economic element in its cultural eignificaace) through the ‘most civerse cultural contexts, it is making an Bisorial interpreta ion from a specific point of view, and offering a partial picture, a ralininary contsibuton to a tore complete historical knowledge of ‘ular Social economic problems do not exist everywhere that an eco- omic event plays a role as eaute or effect —sinee problems aie only where the siaicance of those factor is problematical and can be precisely determined only though the application of the methods of secial-economics, But despite this, the range of social-economic: 5 almost overwhelming. After due consideration ou journal has generally excluded hither fo the treatment of a whole sexes of highly important special elds in our discipline, such ar deseriptive economic, economic history in the nartwer sense, and statistics. Te hat Hkewise let to other jour nal the dicusson of technical fal questions ad the technical economic problems af prices and market in the modem exchange ‘conomy. is sphere of operation has been the present significance and the historical development of certain cont and constellations of interests which have arisen through the dominant role of invest rent-seeking capital in modem societie, Tt har not thereby retited itelf to those practical and hstercal problems which are designated by the term “the social question” in it narower sem, i, the place of the modem working clas in the present racial onder. Of cour, the scientific elaboration of the interest in thi gpeial question which trecame widespread in Germany inthe 8%, has had fo be one main tals. ‘The more the practical weatment of labor cond Tecame a permanent object of Iristion and public discsion in Germany, the mote the accent of scientific work had to be shifted “OBEGTIVITY” IN SOCIAL ScIENCE or to the analss of the more universal dimensions ofthe problem Tt Fad thereby to culminate in the analy ofall the cultural problems which ave arisen from the peculiar nate ofthe economic bases of four eultue and which are, in that semi, specifically modern, ‘The journal soon begun to desl historically, staistialy and theoretically ‘with the most dvene, party “economically relevant,” and. partly “economically cndiioned” conditions ofthe other great social clases ‘of modern sates and their interelatons. We are only drawing the conclusions of this policy whea we state thatthe scent investign- on ofthe general eaturalopnincance of the socaceonomte ree ture ofthe Kaman community and its historical forms of ongaization 5s the central aim of our journal. ‘This is what we mean when we call our journal the Archie fur Sosotusenschaft. ‘The te is ie tended to indieate the historical and theoretical treatment of the same problems the practical solution of which contr “social policy” inthe widest ense ofthis word. We thereby utile the sight to apply the word “tocil” in the meaning which concrete present day problems give toi. If one wishes to cll thoe deciles which treat the evens of human le with respect to thei cultural eignl- cance “cultural sence” then socal scence in our sense belongs in that category. We shall soon see what are the logical implications of this Undoubtedly the selection of the sciheconomic aspect of cul tural lf sgnites a very dete delinitation of our theme. Te wil bbe sid that the economic, or at it as been inaccurately elle, the “materiale” point of view, from which culture is here being on sidered, is “onesided:” ‘This ib tue and the onesidednest is inten- tional, The belief that iti the task of scientie work to cute the “onesidednes” of the economic approach by breadening it into a general soil science suffers primarily from the weakness that the “social esterion (Le, the relationships among persons) sequirs the specificity necesary for the delimitation of scentfc problems nly when it i accompanied by some substantive predicate. Other- wise, asthe subjet mater of a rience, it would naturally compre Ihe philology, for example, aswell ax chute Bstory and particularly ‘howe disciplines which concern themselves with the wate which is the most important form of the normative regulation of eultralo “OBJECTIVITY” IN SOCIAL SCIENCE Iie, The fact tha scia-economice concer itl with “tcl” ela tion tno more justification fr regarding it as the necessary precursor of a “general rcil science” than its concer with vital phenomena makes ita part of biology, or its preseewpstion with events on one ‘ofthe planeta make ts part of an extended and improved astonomy fof the fature. Tt i not the “actual” interconnections of “ings” but the conceptual lnteronacetions of problems which define the scope of the varios selences. A new "arence” emerges where eve problems ate punued by new methods and truths are thereby dre ‘overed wiih open wp tgnifant new pots af view Tis now no accident thatthe term: “hocial” which seems to have quite general meaning, turns out to have, af soon a8 one carefully ‘eumines 1 appliration, «particular specifically colored though often Indefinite meaning. Ite “generality” rests on nothing but Se ambi auity. Te provides, when taken in ite “general” meaning, no specie point of view, from which the nificance of given elements of cal tue can be analaed, Liberated ar we are from the antiquated notion that all cultural ‘Phenomena can be deduced as product or function ofthe contella- tion of “materia” interest, we belive neverheem that the analysis of tcial and cultural phenomena with special reference to thee coo nomic conditioning and ramications vas a aieniic prndple of creative frutflaes and with careful application and freedom from ‘grate sere, wil remain rach for avery Jong time to sme ‘The t-called "materiale conception of history” asa Weltnichan- sung of asa formula forthe canal explanation of historical reality fs to be rejected most emphatically. "The advancement ofthe economic on of history is one of the moet important aims of our journal. This requires further explanation ‘The socalled “materaltie conception of hitory” withthe crude cements of genius of the erly form which appested, for instance, in the Communist Manifesto sll prevails only in the minds of lay ren and diettantes Ta thee circles one al finde the peculiar con ition that this need fora cal explanation ofan histrial event is never ated until somewhere of somehow economic cause are shown (or sem) to be operative. Where this however is the case, they content themselves with the mot threadbare hypotheses and “onJECTIVITY IN SOIAL SCIENCE. o the most general phrats since they have then satisfied ther dogmatic feed to believe that the economic “factor” isthe “real” one, the nly tue" one, and the one which "in the last instance is every= Gvhere decisive” This phenomenon ie by no means unique. Almost 1! the scenes, from philology to bilogy have oceasionlly claimed fo be the sources not only of specialized scientific knowledge but of “Weltenschevangen” an well. Under the impreson ofthe profound cultural significance of modern economic transformations and expe ‘aly ofthe farceaching ramifications of the “bor question.” the Inevitable mone tendency of every ype of thaight shiek ix not scleral naturally follows this path. “The same tendeney is now appeaing in anthropology where the politcal and commercial struggle of mations for world dominance fre being fought with inczeasing acutenes.. There i a widespread Telit that "Sn the last analy” all historical events are results of the imterplay of innate “racial qualities” In place of uncritical desrip- tion of “national character” there emerges the even more uncritical ‘concoction of "Yocaltheor” based on the “natural scencex” We ‘hall earfully follow the development of anthropological research in ‘our joural ior a it i sgnifcan from our pint of view. Tt i to be hoped that the sitsation in which the cata explanation of cultural events by the invocation of “racial characteristic” tes to our ignorance — jut ar the reference to the “milieu” of, etl, to the Seondina af the ogo" will by gradually overcome by scans which i the fruit of yntematic training. If there & anything that has hindered tis type of research, i isthe fact that eager dlet- tants have thought that they could contribute something different land better to our kaowledge of culture than the broadening of the possiblity of the sre imputation of individual concrete cultural vents cutting in historical realty wo concrete, historically given fauses through the study of proce empirical data which have been Selected from specie points of view, Only to the extent that they fre able to do this, are their eels of interest tus and only then Goes “racial Biology” become something more than a product of the ‘modem passion for founding new sciences. "The problem of the signfiance of the ecmomic interpretation of history isthe tame. Tl, fllowing a period of boundles over-” “OBJECTIVITY IN SOGIAL SCIENCE estimation, the danger now exits that its scenic value will be underestimated, thir isthe realt of the unexampled naiveté with ‘which the economic interpretation of zealty was applied as & “uni= eral” eaton which explained all cultural phenomena —ie all {hove which ae meaingtul to us— as, in the Ist analysis, economic~ tly conditioned. is present logical form is not entirely unambiguous Wherever the eiely economic explanation encounters dificultis, sarious devices are available for maintining it general validity atthe Gecikve canal factor, Sometimes every Histories event which isnot explicable by the invocation of economic motives i garded for that fet veaon asa sient insignificant “aovident™”At others, the efnition of “economic” is tretched beyond recogition so that all Tnuman interests which ane related in any way whatsoever tothe we ‘of material means are included in the defnéon. If ti historically Undeniable that efferent responses occur in tv statins which are ‘conomiclly idenial — due to politcal, religious, climatic and oundles other non-economsie determinants —then in order to main~ tain the primacy of the economic all thee factors are reduced to historically accidental “conditions” upon which the economic factor operates as eauie” Tt is obviour however that all thowe factors Iohich are “accidental” according to the economic interpretation of History follow their own laws in the time sense as the economic factor, From a point of wew which traces the specie meaning of thse non-economic factors, the existing economic “conditions” are “historically accidental” in quite the sme sense. A favorite attempt to preerve the supreme significance of the economic factor despite this consists in the interpetation of the constant fnteraction of the individual elements of cultural ile as 2 casual or functional depend- ‘ence of ene on the eter, or rather ofall the others on ene, namely, the eeonomic clement. When a certain non-economic institution has functioned for the benefit of certain econnmic claw interes, a, for cumple, where certain wlisous institutions allowed themselves to be and actually were uted at black police” the whole insiation is conceived either ge having been crested for thie fonction or —quite Inctaphyically at being impelled by a "developmental tendency” ‘emanating from the economic Tactor Tt fe unnecesary nowadays to go into detail to prove to the spe- “opJeCrIviTy” IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, n ial that this interpretation ofthe purpose ofthe economic analysis ‘of culture is in past the expression of certain historical conse ion which tamed its sentie interest towards certain economically Conditioned cultural problems, and in part the rabid chausinism of 2 specialized departnent of reence. Tis clear that today it ant> fquated at bes The explanation of everthing by economic causes lone is ever exhaustive in any seme whatsoever in eny sphere of ultra phenomena, not even in the “economic” sphere itself. Tn Driniple «banking history ofa mation which adéuces only economic Iotives for explanatory porporss ie natraly jt xe vnaronptable {San explanation of the Stine Madonna at @ consequence of the sociakeconomic hasis of the culture of the epoch in which Ht was ‘created. Te tno way more complete than, fr instance, the explana tion of capitals by seferene to certain sifs inthe content of the Feligiou ideas which played a role in the genes of the capitalistic ttade; nor ir more exhaustive tan the explanation of a pliteat ftructre from ite geographical background. In all of these case, the degree of signieance which we are to atubute to economic fac- tors ib decided by the eas of caures to which we are to impute ‘hove specific element ofthe phenomenon in question to which we attach significance in given cies and in which we are interested ‘The justification of the onesided anabs of cultural realty from specific "points of view" —in our cae with respect to its economic Ciioning’—emenges prey tvhnieal expedient from. the act that training in the obervaton of the effects of qualitatively similar categories of causes and the repented wtlizaton of the same scheme of concepts and typotbeses (begrifichmethodichen Appa Fates) offers all the advantages of the division of labor. T i fee from the change of artitrariness tothe extent that iti successful in ‘producing inights into interconnections which have been shown to bbe valuable for the casal explanation of concrete historical events Hlowever—the “onewidednes?” and the weal of the purely eco- homie interpretation of history it in general oaly a special cate of a principle which is generally valid for the scientific knowlege of cul furl reality. ‘The main task of the discusion to follow isto make explicit the logical foundations and the general methodological im- pleations ofthis principe2 *ORJECTIVITY” IN SOCIAL SCIENCE ‘There is no absalutely “objective” scientific analyse of culture — ‘or put perhaps more narrowly but certainly not exenilly diferentiy for our purposes of “soil phenomena” independent of special and “onesided" viewpoints according to which —exprely or tacitly, on seiouly or unconsciously — they are elected, analysed and organized for expositery purposes The rearons for this lie in the characte of the cognitive geal of all earch in scil science which seeks 0 transcend the purely formal treatment of the legal or conventional sonas regulating sais life. "The ype of eocial cance in which we ae intersted ia an empirical science of concrete reality [Willichbeitaizenschaft). Ours i the understanding af the characteritie uniqueness ofthe selty in which wwe move. We wish to understand oa the one hind the relationships and the cultural signcance of individual events in their contem> porary manifetatons and on the other the cause of thelr being Historically s0 and not otheraize. Now, a8 toon at we attempt *0 reflect about the way in which life confronts usin immediate con ‘rete situations, It presents an infinite multiplicity of sccesively and ‘eoesstenty emerging and disappearing events, both within” and “outside” ourselves, ‘The absolute infaitude of his multiplicity is seen to remain undiminished even when our attention i foeused on single "object" fr instance,» concrete act of exchange, 310m a8 ‘ve srioualy attempt an exhaustive description of all the individual ‘cenpenenty of this “individual phenemens to tay nothing of ex- plaining it casually. All the analyse of infinite reality which the Finite human mind can conduct ree on the tacit assumption that nly a finite portion of this reality conttutes the object of scent Investigation, and that only it “important” ia the sense of being “worthy of being Known” But what are the criteria by vehich his segment is selected? Tt har offen boon thought that the decive citron in the cultural sciences, too, was in the lst analysis, the “regular” fecurrence of certain casual rations, The “wa” which we are able to fold stream of fausal rctaionsip to be a "lan" ie, if we have shown it to be uni ‘enslly valid by means of comprehensive historical induction or have “ORJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE n smade it immediately and tangbly plausible according to our subjec- tive experience, a great mumber of snilar caes order theeclves ‘under the formula thu atsned. Thote element in earh individual ‘event which are left unaccounted for bythe selection of thei elements tubeamable under the "law" are considered a sientifcally uninte- trated residues which il be taken cate of in the further perfection ofthe system of "aw." Alteratvly they willbe viewed as “aci- ental” and therefore ecienteally urlmportant beceuse they donot Fit nto the structure ofthe “aw in other words, they are not epic ‘of the event and hence ean only be the objects of “idle curiosity.” ‘Accordingly, even among the followers of the Historical School we ‘continually Gnd the attitude which declares that dhe ideal which all the sciences, including the cultural scenes, serve and towards which they should strive even in the remote futute is rstem of props ‘ons frm which salty can be “deduced.” Asis well known, a lead ing natural scent believed that he could designate the (Cactually ‘unatsinable) ideal goal of such a treatment of cultural realty a2 sort of “atronomica?” knowledge Let us not, for ur par, spare ourselves the trouble of examining ‘these matters moe clotly— however often they have already been dlseused. The fist thing that imprewes one ir thatthe “stronez eal” knowledge which wat referred toi nota system of laws a all ‘On the contrary, the la which it presupposes have been taken from ‘other dseipline ike mechanics. Buti foo concerns ult wilh the question of the indiodual consequence which the working of these Tawe in an unique configuration produces, since itis these individual configurations which are iifcant for ws. Every individual constl- lation which it “explains” or predicts causally explicable only as ‘the contequence of another equally individual eortllaton which hat receded i. As far back a we may go into dhe grey mist of the far- ‘fT past, the reality to which the lave apply always remains equally individual, equally undeducble from laws. A cosmic “primeval state” which had no individual character or les individual character than the comic reality ofthe present would naturally be a mesning- less notion. But s there not some trace of similar ideas in our field in thote proposions sometimes derived from natural law and some~ times verified by the sbuevation of “primitives” conceming. an” “OBJECTIVITY” 1N SOCIAL SCIENCE conomicscial “primeval state” free from historical “accidents,” and Characterized by phenomena auch as “primitive agraian commun fm” sexual “promiscuity,” ete, from which individual historical de velopment emerges bya tort of fll from grace into concreteness? ‘The sciacientifc interest has ite point of departure, of course, in the rea, ic, concrete, individually structured configuration of out cultural life im its univer relatonshipe which are themselves no ee indviduallystructared, and in ite development out of other social ultra conditions, which themecver ae cheioly Merwin individ ally strctued. It ie clear here that the station which we illus trated by reference to astronomy as limiting case (which i regulaely drawn on by logicians for the same purpise) appears ina more fsceentuated form. Whereas in astronomy, the heavenly bodies are of interest to ws only in their quantitative and exact specs, the (tsltatie sapect of phenomena concerns ws in the soil sciences, ‘To this should be added that inthe socal weno we are concerned ‘with pychological and intellectual (gstig) phenomena the empathic ndentanding of whichis naturally © problem of a specifically at- ferent type from thore which the schemes ofthe exact natural sciences in general can of sock to solve. Despite that, thir ditnetion in itelf is not a ditnction in principle, ar it seme at fit glance. ‘Aide from pure mechanics, even the exact natural sciences do not Teoerad witht qualitative extrgorins Furthermore, in our Wn Feld we encounter the idea (which is obviously dnote) that at lear the phenomena charactertc of a money-economy —which are ‘bade to our culture —are quantifiable and on shat account subject to formation as “laws” Finally it depends on the breadth or nae- rownes of one's definition of “Law” s8 to whether one will lio Include regularities which because they are not quantifiable are not subject to numerical analy. Espocaly insofar as the insluence of Doycholgiel and intellectual (getige) factor ie concerned, it docs ‘ot in any cae exclide the etaishment of rules governing rational ‘conduct, Above all the point of view tl penis which aims that the task of paycholagy it to play 8 role comparable to mathematics forthe Geisensienicheften inthe sense that it snalyars the com plicated phenomena of socal Wfe into thee psychic conditions and ‘Hfect, seduces them to their mort clementazy posible pyehic factors “ORECTIVITY” IN SOGIAL SCIENCE 8 and then analyes their functional interdependence, Thereby, sort of “chemistry” if not “mechani” of the pychic foundations of social life would be crested. Whether such investigations can produce lable and what is something cle—weful rete for the cals tural scence, e cannot decide Bere. But ths would be ineevant to the queston as to whether the aim of socal-eomomie knowledge in our sense, ity knowledge of reality with respect to its cultural significance and its casa relationships can be attained through the aquest for recurrent sequences. Let ws assume that we have succeeded by means of peychology of otherwise in analying all the observed tnd imaginable relationships of socal phenomena ito sme ulimate ‘dementary “factory” that we have made an exhavstive analysand Cdasification of them and then formulated rgorouly exact la cov (ring their behavior—What would be the sgnlcance of thee re- tule for our knowledge ofthe htorially given culture oe any indi- idual phase thereof, such as capitalism, in it development and Cultural aignifcance? As an, analyea tool, it would be as wsefal fat a textbook of organic chemical cambinatons would be for our Inowledge ofthe biogeneic aspect of the animal and plant word. In each cave, certainly an important and weal preliminary sep ‘would have been taken. Tn nether cate can concrete reality be de duced from “Ia and “lator,” "This is aot becuse some higher rnyterioan power rede in living phenomena (suchas “dominant” "Chtelechicy” or whatever dey sgt le valle), Thisy however, 1 problem in its own sight. The real reason i that the analysis ‘of realty ix concerned with the configuration into which thse (hypo- thetic!) “factor” ate arranged to form a cla phenomenon which i historically signifcant to us. Furthermore, if we wish to “explain” thie individual configuration “causally” we most ine voke other equally individual configurations on the bass of which ive will explain i€ with the aid of those (hypothetical!) “laws” ‘The determination of the (hypothetical) “laws” and “factor” would irany case only be the fit of the many operations whi ‘would lead ut tothe desited type of knowledge. ‘The analysis of the Fistral given individual configuration of those factor” and their “patfeant concrete interaction, conditioned by thee hisrical con- “lent and pecially the rendering tntligible of the basis and type of6 “ORJECTIVITY™ IN SOCIAL SCIENCE. this significance would be the next tak to be achieved, ‘Thi tak rust be achieved, i i tre, by the ublizaion of the preliminary nals bt tiv nonethelew an entirely new and distinct task The tracing af far nto the pastas posible of the individual features of ase hisricalyevlvad configurations which are contemporaneousiy Significant, and thelr htrial explanation by antecedent and equally individual configurations would be the thie task. Finally the pre- con of Fob fur constellations would be a concrvable fourth For sll these purpose, clear concept and the nowledge of those (hypothetical) “awe are obviouly of great values heuristic rmeans—but only as such. Tndeed they are quite indispensable fr this purpose, But even inthis fonction their Hmitatons become evi dent at a decive point. In stating thi, we arrive atthe decive feature of the metiod ofthe culrual sciences We have datgnated 2s “cultural sciences” those disciplines which analyze the phenomena of life in terms of thee cultural sigaicance. ‘The significance of Cenfiguration of cultural phenomena andthe bai of thi siguiicance cannot however be derived and rendered intelligible by a system of analytical laws (Gesetzesbegrifen), however perfect it may be, since the signifcance of cultural events preupposes a value-orientaton towards these event. The concept of culture i a valuerconcept imprialrelity hrcomes “lta to rm Reconee ad infor a we relate it to vale ideas. It includes thowe segments and only those fegnents of really which have become sgnicant to us because of {his valuerelevance Only a small portion of existing eonerete realty it colored by our vahieconditoned interet and it alone is significant to us, Tt is significant because it revels relationships Which are important to us due to thee connection with our value. ‘Only because and to the extent that thi isthe ease is it worthwhile for sto know it init individual festares, We canact dsover, however, what is meaningful tous by means of a “presuppositions” investigation of empirical data. Rather perception of ite measiog- faloes to us isthe presupporition of its becoming an objet of inves Sigation. Meaningflnest naturally doesnot eninclde with lave as such, and the more general the law the ls the coincidence. For the specie meaning which a phenomenon bas for us is naturally not to 0 —EEEEOEO—EEOeeeoreeeeee “oRJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, ” bbe found in those relationships which He shares with many other Phenomena, ‘The focus of attention on sealiy under the guidance of values which lend it sigifcance and the selection and ordering of the phe- ‘omens which are thu affected in the light of ther cultralsignf- fance i entrly different from the analsa of realty in terms of laws and general concepts, Neither of these evo types ofthe analysis of realty has any neceaary logical relationship with the otber. They {Gur ulmi ir fava etanca but ft would be most dato 1 ther ceasonal coincidence caused us to think that they were not inct in principle, The cultural cgnifcance of phenomenon, the significance of exchange in a money economy, can be the fact that exit on & mass seale ab a fundamental component of ‘modem culture. But the historical fact that it plays this role mus te causilly explained in order to render ts cultural significance tndentandable ‘The analy of the general agpets of exchange and the technique of the market is a—higly important and indigpens- aBIE= feliminery task, For not only does this type of analysis Fave Cnanswered the question as to how exchange historically acquired its Tundamental significance in the iader world; but above all els, ‘the fact with which we are primarily concerned, namely, the cultural significance of the money-cconomy, for the sake of which we are Increned in the desrpion of exchange technique and forthe ake of which alone a seience exits which dels with that technique — hot derivable frm any “Inve” The generic features of exchange, purchase, etc, interet the jurist —but we are concerned with the Enaljs ofthe culturl signicance of the eoneete historical fact that foday exchange exists on a mass scale. When we require an expana~ tion, when we wish to understand what distinguishes the soc fconomic aspects of cur culture for istance frm that of antiquity in Sthich exchange showed precaly the same generic tats as it doct today snd when we raise the question ar to where the sigifeance fof “money economy” Ties, logical piscples of quite eterogencous ‘esivaton enter int the investigation. We wil apply thowe concepts ‘with which we are provided by the investigation of the general fe tures of economic mas phenomena —indeed, insofar as they af fetovant tothe meaning pert of ur eultre we shall se them0 “ORJECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SoIENCE. 18 means of exposition. The goa! of ur investigation isnot reached through the exposition of those law and concept, precise ast may bbe ‘The question at to what should be the object of universal con ‘xptalizton cannot be decided “presuppsitionley” but only with reference to the significance which certain segments of tha inate multiplicity which we call “commerce” have for cultare, We aeck knowledge of an historial phenomenon, meaning by histoviesl: nig. rifcant init individuality (Eigenart). And the decisive dlement in this is that only through the presuppsition that a ite part alone of the infinite variety of phenomena groan, dows the knowledge ‘of an individual phenomenon become logically meaning.” Even With the widest imaginable knowledge of "laws" we are helps in the face of the question: how isthe caus! explanation of am indie ual fact pomible—since a description of even the salle ace of realty can never be exiauitve? The mumber and type of cases Which have infvenced any given event are always ifinite aod there x sothing in the things themselves to set soune of thom apart as alone mertng atention. “A chaos of “eistentialjudemeats” about count es individual evens would be the only rele of serious atteapt to analy reality “without presuppositions” And even this result ‘only seemingly posible, since every single perception diclons on closer examination an infinite number of ‘constituent. pereptons which can never be exhaustively exprened in « judgement, Order 5 brought into this chaos only en the condition that in reery ease only a part of concrete reality i intresting and significant to Um Ber cause only tis related to the cultural values with which we approach realty. Onl certain sides of the infinitely complex conerete plenosn. non, namely these t0 which we atibute yeneral cultural ign cance —are therefore worthwhile knowing. ‘They alone are bees of causal explanation. “And even this causal explanation evinces the sme character; an exhaustive causal investigation of any conctete Phenomena in ts full reality is aot only practialy imposible it Simply nonsense. We select only those causes t0 which ate to be imputed in the invdiual cas, the “ewes!” feature of at event Where the indiduatiy of a phenomenon is concemed, the question of causality nota question af law but of concrete eal relations ‘hips; tis not» question ofthe subsumption ofthe event under sme “ORJECTIVITY” IN SOCIAL ScHENCE, » general rubric as a representative cate but of its imputation as a ‘consequence of some contllation, Iti in brief a question of ims ‘ulation. Wherever the causal explanation of a “eultural phenom fon—an “historical individual) ig under consideration, the knowledge of caual laws i nt the end of the investigation but only 4 means, Tt facilitates and render posible the causal isputtion to their concrete causes of those componente of « phenomenon the Individuatiy of which is culturally rgnifeant. So far and only 40 far as it achieves thi, i it valuable for our knowledge of concrete relationships. And the gaae "genera" Ley the more abstsct the laws, the lst they can eotbute tothe eat imputation of indoid- fal phenomena and, more indizety, to the understanding of the significance of cultural events ‘What ithe consequence of sll thi? Naturally, it does not imply that the knowledge of universal propositions, the construction of abstract concepts, the Knowledge of regularities and the attempt to formulate “law” have no ‘cente justification inthe cultural scence. Quite the conteay, ifthe eausal Anowledge of the historians consists of the imputation of concrete fflects to concrete causes, a slid imputation of any individual elect without the application of “nomolopea!” knowledge —ise, the knowl. ge of recurtenteautal sequences — would in geneal be imposible, Whether a single individual component ofa relationship iy ina con rete cay to be signe sl responblty fora eflect the eal ‘explanation of which sat ie, can in doubtful cass be determined ‘only by entimating the effects which we generally expect from it and from the other components of the sme complex which are relevant to the explanation, In other words, the “adequate” effects of the ‘causal elements involved mst be considered in arriving at any such ‘onchison, ‘The extent to which the historian (in the widet verse fof the word) ean perform this ienputation in a reatonably certain ‘manner with his imagination sharpened by personal experience, and trained in analytic methods and the extent to which he must have ‘eeoune tothe ad of special dicipline which make it pow, varies (We wil ue he term which akendy ceili ed ia the method ede SCRE ott ep» “OMECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, with the individual cae, Everywhere, however, and hence alo in the sphere of complicated economic procase, the more certain and the more comprehensive our general knowledge the greater i the cerlainty of imputation. This proposition isnot in the leat affected by the fact that even in the case of all walled "sconomic laws” without exception, we are concemed here aot with “laws” in the narrower exact natural scence seme, but with adequate causl rela tionships expresed in rules and with the application ofthe category of “objective possi.” The establishment of such reguaritis is fl deed Unt rai ne meena of houwlge Tee ely fon of expediency, to be seed separately foreach indvidual case, whether regulasly recurrent cautl elatonship of everyday exper: fence should be formilated into “law.” Laws are important and valuable in the exact natura sciences in the measure that thse science are universally said. For the knowledge of Msterieal phe nomena in their concetenes, the most general laws, because they fre most devoid of content are also the least valuable. The_more comprehensive the validity, or seope — of a tera, the more it tw away from the richnes of reality since in order to include the common elements of the largest posible number of phenomena, it rust necesaily be at alatract as posible and hence devoid of con- tent. Ta the cultural sciences, the knowledge of the universal oF ever is ne “The conclusion whlch follows trom the above ls that an “objec: tive” analyse of cultural event, which proceeds according to Te we ‘eal of science isthe reduction of empirical realty fof Tawa is meaningless. Tt i not meaningless a is often maine tained, because cultural or psychic events for instance are “objec- tively” less governed by lava Te & meanings for a number of other reasons. Fstly, eeause the Inowledge of social las i not Jnowledge of socal reality but i rather one of the varour Side uted ly our minds for atsning this end secondly, beste Fnowedge of cultural events is inconceivable except on a basis of the signifiance ‘Which the concrete constellations of reality have for ut it certain individual conerete Stuations Tn which see and in which situations this Is the eae isnot revealed tous by any la; it is decided accord ing tothe valu-ideas in the light of which we view “ultre” in each “ORECTIVITY" IN SOCIAL SCIENCE 8 individual case. “Culture” sa Site spment of the mesningles in Sinity ofthe world proces, segment on which human Beings confer ‘meaning and signifcance. This is true even for the human being ‘who views @ particular culture ata moral enemy and who teks t0 “retumn to nature.” He can attain this point of vew only after view ing the eulture in which he lve fr the standpeot of hia valuey, ane finding i “oo so." The the purely lgicafrmal fact which ie involved when we speak of the logically necrtary rootednes: ‘ofall hitorcal ene (hioriche Indioiduen) in “evaluative ideas. ‘The tansecndental presupposition of every cultural scence Hen mot fn our finding a certain culture or any “culture” in general to be valuable but rather in the Tact that we are eulural beings, en- lowed with the capacity and the will to take a deliberate ateade towards the world and to lend it significance, Whatever this signifi cance may be, it wil lead us to judge certain phenomena of human festence in its light and to rexond to them as being (positively fe negative) meaningful. Whatever maybe the content of this aude — there phenomena have cultural siguficance for us and on this sigaicance alone rests i selene interest. Thus when ‘ve apeak here of the conditioning of cultural knowledge through coaluatie ideas (Wertidern) (following the teminology of madera logic), iti done in the hope that we will not be subject to crude rmisunderstandings such the opiion that cultral sigaficance Cultural phenomenon just a6 mich at religion or money. All ebrr Aare cultural phenomena only because and only insofar as their exist- fence and the form which they hitorially stume touch directly oF indrely om our cltral interests and aroite or trivng for hnowl- cege concerning problems brought into focus by the evaluative ideas which give significance to the fragment of realty analyzed by those concept All knowledge of cultural reali, as may be sen, always know edge from particular points of view. "When we requir from the his Corian and social research worker as an elementary prempporition hat they distinguish the important from ehe tvial and that he should have the neceasry "poine of view” for thir dstneon, we mean that they must understand how to relate the events of the real